Prof.

Boris Pradel 2016

INTRODUCTION
What is grammar?
The word grammar has various meanings. In this course we will use the
word grammar to include MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX. Morphology studies
the internal structure of words and Syntax studies the way in which words
and phrases are put together in a language.
The acquisition of our native language grammar occurs simply by being
exposed to it from birth. The formal study of grammar gives you the tools to
analyze and explain most of the operational rules that in some way control
your language.
MORPHOLOGY
MORPHEMES
A word is made up of one or more morphemes. A morpheme may be
defined as the minimal linguistic sign, a grammatical unit in which there
is an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning and which cannot be further
analized (Fromkin and Rodman 1978). Every word is composed of one or
more morphemes. For example: (Boudeguer 2001)
One morpheme
Two morphemes
Three morphemes
Four morphemes
Five morphemes

friend
friend+ ly
un+ friend +ly
un + friend +li + ness
un+gentle+man+li+ness

Many morphemes can constitute words by themselves, for example dog,

walk, long, etc. They are called FREE MORPHEMES. There are, however,
other morphemes which can only be used as parts of words, for example
ment, -s, -ly, -hood, -ed, un- , anti-, etc. These are referred to as BOUND
MORPHEMES. They are also known as AFFIXES, among which there are
PREFIXES (those that are placed before a free morpheme), and SUFFIXES
(those that go after the morpheme). Sometimes there are bound
morphemes which have the same sound and structure of free morphemes,
such as under and hood, so that hood in childhood (the state of being
a child) is not the same as hood in child hood (a hood worn by a child).

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

BOUND MORPHEMES have two main functions:
a) To act as grammatical marker, i.e., they give information about
number, gender, aspect, etc. These are called INFLECTIONAL
MORPHEMES and they carry grammatical meaning and change the
form of a word, but not its basic grammatical class or part of speech.
Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (1983) claim that there are eight
inflectional morphemes in English:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Progressive aspect (watching)

Third person singular present tense (walks)
Past tense (jumped)
Past participle (eaten)
Plural (books)
Possessive case (Johns)
comparative (clearer)
superlative (clearest)

They all come at the end of a word and hence are called SUFFIXES. The
only inflectional affixes which are not suffixes are the irregular plural,
past tense, and past participle forms (e.g., men, took, swum) which have
internal inflectional vowel changes or no changes at all (e.g., deer, put).
b) to form new words. In this case, they are called DERIVATIONAL
MORPHEMES. These morphemes produce a change in the category
or grammatical class of words. For example:
regret (verb) + able = regrettable (adjective)
passion (noun) + ate= passionate (adjective)
But there are other derivational morphemes which can cause a change in
meaning, but not in grammatical class. Examples are: im+perfection,
left+ist, a+typical, neighbor+hood, measure+ment. As you can see, they
can be both prefixes or suffixes, and you can even have both in a word. A
change in grammatical class is more likely to be the result of the addition
of a suffix than of a prefix.

WORD FORMATION: PREFIXES

An English word can be divided into three parts; a prefix, a stem, and a
suffix. Pre-means before. A prefix, therefore, is what comes before the stem.
Consider, as an example, the prefix de (meaning reduce or reverse) in a word
like demagnetize (meaning to deprive of magnetism). A suffix is what is
attached to the end of the stem. Consider, as an example, the suffix -er (meaning
someone who) in programmer (a person who programs).

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Suffixes change the word from one part of speech to another. For example,
-ly added to the adjective quick gives the adverb quickly. Prefixes, on the other
hand, usually change the meaning of the word. For example, un- changes a word
to the negative. Unmagnetizable means not capable of being magnetized.
Study these tables. Try to find additional examples, using your dictionary if
necessary.
Negative Prefixes
Prefix

Meaning

uninimilirnonmismaldisantideunder-

not
not
not
not
not
not connected with
not connected with
bad, wrong
opposite feeling
opposite action
against
reduce, reverse
too little

Examples
unmagnetized
incomplete
impossible
illegal
irregular, irrelevant
non-programable
Misdirect, mistake
malfunction
disagree
disconnect
antiglare
demagnetize, decode
underestimate

Positive Prefixes
Prefix
reover-

Meaning
do it again
too much

reorganize
overload

Examples

Meaning
half, partly
equal
small
very small
large, great
large, great

Examples
semiconductor
equidistant
minicomputer
microcomputer
macroeconomics
megabyte

Meaning
between, among
over
across

Examples
interface, interactive
supersonic
transmit, transfer

Prefixes of Size
Prefix
semiequiminimicromacromegaPrefixes of Location
Prefix
intersupertrans-

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

exextrasubinfraperi-

out
beyond
under
below
around

Prefixes of Time and Order

Prefix
antepreprimepostretro-

Meaning
before
before
first
after
backward

Prefix of Numbers
Prefix
Meaning
Semimonobitriquadpentahexsept (em) octdecmulti-

exclude, extrinsic
extraordinary
subschema
infra-red
peripheral

Examples
antecedent
prefix
primary, primitive
postdated
retroactive

Examples
half
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
ten
many

semicircle
monochromatic
binary
triangle
quadruple
pentagon
hexadecimal
September
octal
decimal
multiplexor

Other Prefixes
Prefix
proproautococon-

Meaning
before, in advance
forward
self
together, with
together, with

Examples
program
progress
automatic
co-ordinate
connect

EXERCISES
I. - Read the following sentences and circle the prefixes. For each word that has a prefix, try to decide
what the prefix means. Refer to the table if you need help.
1. Floppy disks are inexpensive and reusable.
2. If a printer malfunctions, you should check the interface cable.
3. The computer was not working because someone had disconnected it by mistake.

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

4. Improper installation of the antiglare shield will make it impossible to read what is on the screen.
5. After you transfer text using the cut and paste feature, you may have to reformat the text you have
inserted.
6. You can maximize your chances of finding a job if you are bilingual or even trilingual.
7. Peripheral devices can be either input devices (such as keyboards) or output devices (such as
printers).
8. Your pay rise is retroactive to the beginning of June and you will receive a biannual bonus.
9. The octal and hexadecimal systems are number systems used as a form of shorthand in reading
groups of four binary digits.
10. As the results are irregular, the program will have to be rewritten.
II. - Fill in the gap with the correct prefix from the following list:
auto

de

dec

inter

maxi

mega

micro

mini

mono

multi

semi

sub

1. Most people prefer a color screen to a __________chrome screen.

2. _________script is a character or symbol written below and to the right of a number or letter.
3. A _________byte equals approximately one million bytes.
4. Once you finish your program, you will have to test it and _________bug it to remove all the
mistakes.
5. The introduction of _________conductor technology revolutionized the computer industry.
6. If a computer system has two or more central processors which are under common control, it is called
a _________processor system.
7. The _________imal system is a number system with a base of 10.

8. When the user and the computer are in active communication on a graphics system, we refer to this as
_________active graphics.
WORD FORMATION: SUFFIXES
Study these tables. Try to find additional examples, using your dictionary if
necessary.
Noun-forming Suffixes
Suffix
-ance
-ence
-er, -or
-ist, -ysta
-ian
-tion, -ation
-ness
-ion
-ing

Meaning
state
quality of
a person who
a thing which
a person who
pertaining to
the act of
condition of
action, state
activity

Examples
performance
independence
programmer
calculator
analyst, typist
electrician
compilation
readiness, happiness
conversion
swimming, engineering

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

-ment
-ity
-ism
-dom
-ship

state, action
state, quality
condition, state
domain, condition
condition, state

measurement
electricity
magnetism
freedom, kingdom
relationship, partnership

Meaning
to make
to make
to make
to make

Examples
Computerize, realize
activate, create
simplify
harden, widen, whiten,

Meaning
in the manner of

Examples
slowly, electronically,
helpfully, etc.

Meaning
having the quality of
having the quality of
having the quality of
having the quality of
capable of being
capable of being
like, full of
characterized by
without
like
having the quality of
having the quality of

Examples
computational, logical
circular
magnetic, automatic
electrical
comparable, dependable
divisible, responsible
dangerous, tremendous
helpful, painful
careless
yellowish, selfish
computed, developed
interactive, creative

Verb-forming Suffixes
Suffix
-ize / -ise
-ate
-ify
-en
Adverb-forming Suffixes
Suffix
-ly

logically,

Adjective-forming Suffixes
Suffix
-al
-ar
-ic
-ical
-able
-ible
-ous
-ful
-less
-ish
-ed
-ive

Note: Words ending in -ing are formed from verbs. The ing form may be used as a
noun, part of a noun phrase, or part of a verb.
Examples:
1) Programming is an interesting job. (noun)
2) Programming in C is interesting. (part of a noun phrase)
3) He is programming a game in C. (part of a verb, present continuous)

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Exercises
Read the following sentences and circle the suffixes. Underline the stem or base of the word if it
can be used on its own. The first two has been done for you.
For each word that has a suffix, indicate what part of speech the word is (e.g. noun, verb, etc.).
1) A programmer designs, writes, and tests programs for performing various tasks on a
computer.
2) A system analyst studies organizational systems and decides what action needs to be taken to
maximize efficiency.
3) Laser printers are preferable to other types of printing devices because of their speed and
quietness.
4) The microcomputer we have purchased does not have a FORTRAN compiler. It is
programmable in BASIC only.
5) We have found that operators who have the freedom to take short breaks during the day
greatly improve their performance.
6) The number of shipments will increase over the coming months.
7) We decided to computerize the entire plant to give each division more independence.
8) Spooling is a way of storing data temporarily on disk until it can be processed by another part
of the system.
9) Turning your office into a paperless environment may be expensive at the beginning but can
produce big savings in the long run.
10) Software developers are producing increasingly sophisticated applications for a growing
global market.

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Match the words in column A with their morpheme structure in column B.
A
a) hurts

B
______ free + derivational

b) greener

______ derivational + free + inflectional

c) prefixes

______ free + inflectional

d) widen

______ inflectional + free + derivational

e) reloaded

______ free + derivational

______ free + inflectional
______ derivational + free + inflectional
______ free + free + derivational

Identify the morphemes in the following words. Say whether they are free,
derivational or inflectional.

a) income

b) waiters

c) washing machine

d) news

e) decodes

PARTS OF SPEECH
English is composed of different classes of words. Their classification
depends on the way they are used in a sentence. It may be helpful to list the
general Word Classes or Parts of the Speech. (Quirk et. al. 1985)
Closed Classes
The sets of items here are closed in the sense that they are only
exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members. They are also
known as function words or structure words. They are considered
structural markers because the presence of a determiner, for instance,
signals the beginning of a noun phrase, a preposition the beginning of a
prepositional phrase and so on.
I will use
a. preposition of, at, in , without,
b. pronoun he, they, anybody, one,
c. determiner the, a , that, some, every,
d. conjunction and, that, when, although,
8

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

e. modal verb can, will, must, could,
f. primary auxiliary verb be, have , do
Open classes
The sets of items here are open in the sense that new items are constantly
being created. Consider, for instance, the recent introduction of the word
google, the name of the Internet search engine, as an English verb. (Read
the article below).
a. noun John, room, answer, play,
b. adjective happy, steady, new, large,
c. full or lexical verb search, grow, play,
d. adverb steadily, completely, really,
To these may be added two lesser categories
numerals one, two, three; first, second, third,
interjections oh, ah, ugh, phew

"Google" declared a verb

The verb to Google means "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the
Internet."
"Google" was added to the Oxford English Dictionary on June 15th, 2006. In their definition,
it has a capital "G" and never a lower-case "g." It always refers to searching for information
using the Google search engine, which was named in 1998 [3].
"Googling" someone, or to say that some brand or concept, "does (or doesn't) Google,"
indicates whether or not information can be found on the subject using the Google engine.
For instance, a person named David Jones, or a computer program named "Click", doesn't
Google, since using either as a query would return hundreds of links unrelated to the
individual or program in question. Similarly, very obscure things don't Google because they
return no hits. Both search engines and companies try to ensure that the most relevant results
are returned first; thus, virtually every well-known company Googles.

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Google has attempted to discourage use of the word as a verb, fearing the dilution
and potential loss of its trademark, like Yo-Yo, Xerox and escalator (see genericized
trademark). The company sent a cease and desist letter to Paul McFedries, creator of
Word Spy, a website that tracks neologisms.[4] In an article in the Washington Post,
Frank Ahrens discussed the letter he received from a Google lawyer that
demonstrated "appropriate" and "inappropriate" ways to use the verb "google".[5] It
was reported that, in response to this concern, lexicographers for the Merriam
Webster Collegiate Dictionary lowercased the actual entry for the word, google,
while maintaining the capitalization of the search engine in their definition, "to use
the Google search engine to seek online information," (a concern which did not deter
the Oxford editors from preserving the history of both "cases").[6]
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_(verb)

CLOSED CLASS WORDS

Parts of the following text has been extracted and slightly modified from:

http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html
Written by Heather MacFadyen
Copyright 1994, 1995 and 1996 by the University of Ottawa

a. Prepositions
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a
sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the
object of the preposition.
A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of
its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:
The book is on the table.
The book is beneath the table.
The book is leaning against the table.
The book is beside the table.
She held the book over the table.
She read the book during class.
In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in
space or in time.

10

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after,"
"against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind,"
"below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "beyond," "but," "by,"
"despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside,"
"into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside,"
"over,"

"past,"

"since,"

"through,"

"throughout,"

"till,"

"to,"

"toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with,"

"within," and "without."
Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition:
The children climbed the mountain without fear.
There was rejoicing throughout the land when the government was
defeated.
The spider crawled slowly along the banister.
The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished
for chewing up a new pair of shoes.
The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was
somewhere in his office.

b. Pronouns
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. You use pronouns like
"he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome
and less repetitive.
Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal
pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the
indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the
intensive pronoun.
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its
form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.

11

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Subject Pronouns
A subject pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of
the sentence. Subject personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it,"
"we," "you," "they."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subject
pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:
I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.
You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.
When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.
After many years, they returned to their homeland.
We will meet at the library at 3:30 p.m.
It is on the counter.
Object Pronouns
An object pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a
verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The object pronouns are: "me,"
"you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."
In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an object
pronoun:
Seamus forced her to live with him.
The object pronoun "her" is the direct object of the verb "forced" and the
objective personal pronoun "him" is the object of the preposition "with."
After reading the pamphlet, Judy threw it into the garbage can.
The pronoun "it" is the direct object of the verb "threw".
The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and
said, "Our leader will address you in five minutes."
In this sentence, the pronoun "you" is the direct object of the verb
"address."
Give the list to me.
Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition
"to".

12

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of
possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The
possessive pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours,"
and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to
possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive
pronoun:
The smallest gift is mine.
Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subject complement.
His is on the kitchen counter.
In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the
sentence.
Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.
In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the
sentence.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun.
"This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in
time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in
space or time.
The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those."
"This" and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and
"these" and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note
that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives,
though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that
"that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.
In the following sentences,
demonstrative pronoun:

each

of

the

highlighted

words

is

This must not continue.

Here "this" is used as the subject of the verb "must not continue."

13

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Three customers wanted these.
Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted".

Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative
pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds
formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever,"
and "whatever"). Note that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be
used as a relative pronoun.
You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to
people, and "which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals.
"Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a
verb or preposition.
The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative
pronoun:
Which wants to see the dentist first?
"Which" is the subject of the sentence.
Who wrote the novel Rockbound?
Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence.
Whom do you think we should invite?
In this sentence, "whom" is the object of the verb "invite."
To whom do you wish to speak?
Here the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to."
Who will meet the delegates at the train station?
In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the
compound verb "will meet".
What did she say?
Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."
14

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase
or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and
"which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also
relative pronouns.
You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the
subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer
The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always
elected.
In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and
introduces the subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote". This
subordinate clause acts as an adjective clause modifying "candidate."
In a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she believes
to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual.
In this sentence "whom" is the direct object of the verb "believes" and
introduces the subordinate clause "whom she believes to be the most
efficient". This subordinate clause modifies the noun "workers."
Whoever broke the window will have to replace it.
Here "whoever" functions as the subject of the verb "broke".
The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the
storage closet.
In this example "which" acts as the subject of the verb "was left" and
introduces the subordinate clause "which was left in the corridor." The
subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying the noun "crate."
I will read whichever manuscript arrives first.
Here "whichever" modifies the noun "manuscript" and introduces the
subordinate clause "whichever manuscript arrives first." The subordinate
clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb "will read."

15

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not
specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any,
none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any,"
"anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone,"
"everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several,"
"some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite
pronouns can also be used as determiners.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns:
Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.
Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were invited".
The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the
floor.
In this example, everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was
thrown."
Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine,
they found none.
Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the
direct object of "found."
Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.
In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the
direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."
Give a registration package to each.
Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."
Reflexive Pronouns
You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause
or sentence.
The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself,"
"itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of
these can also act as an intensive pronoun.
16

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive
pronoun:
Diabetics give themselves insulin shots several times a day.
The Dean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries
can do more important work.
After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to
everyone in my office building.
Richard usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.
Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up
doing it ourselves.
Intensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent.
Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:

I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.
The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.
They themselves promised to come to the party even though they
had a final exam at the same time.

c. Determiners
A determiner is a word that comes before a noun group to show how the
noun is being used.
Specific determiners
The definite article: the
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their

17

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

General determiners
a (n)
all
another
any

both
each
either
enough
every

few
fewer
less
little
many

more
most
much
neither
no

other
several
some

d. Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word which joins words, phrases or sentences.
(Boudeguer 2001) Examples of conjunctions are:
Ask the secretary or the teacher.
He left after the party was over.
The children and the parents were waiting.
Coordinating conjunctions:
And

but

or

nor

for

Correlative conjunctions:
Either
or
Neither nor
Bothand

not only but (also)

whether or

Subordinating conjunctions:
after
although
as
as much as
because
before
how
if

inasmuch
in order that
provided
since
so that
than
that
though

till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
wherever
while

18

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

e. Modal verbs
Modals are always the first word in a verb group. All modals except for
ought are followed by the base form of a verb. Modals have only one form.
Can

could

may

might

must

Shall

should

will

would

ought to

f. Primary auxiliary verbs

There are three primary auxiliary verbs:
Do, which is known as the dummy operator; the ASPECT auxiliary
Have and the ASPECT and VOICE auxiliary Be.

OPEN CLASS WORDS

a. Nouns
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and an
abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:
Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.
Portia White was an opera singer.
The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes.
Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect
object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, a premodifier.

19

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Noun Gender
Many common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or
women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their
gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was
called an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare
today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational
categories, as in the following sentences.
David Garrick was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.
Sarah Siddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the
1780s.
The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide
whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"
Noun Plurals
Plurals are formed by adding -s, except in the following cases:

When a word ends in -ch, -s, -sh, -ss or -x the plural is formed by
adding -es
o eg.: benches, gases, dishes, crosses, taxes
When a word ends in -y preceded by a consonant the plural form is ies
o eg.: parties, bodies, policies
When a word ends in -y preceded by a vowel the plural is formed by
adding -s
o eg.: trays, joys, keys
When a word ends in -o the more common plural ending is -oes
o eg.: tomatoes, potatoes, zeroes, heroes
In less familiar words or when the final -o preceded by a vowel the
plural ending is -os
o eg.: avocados, armadillos, studios.
When a word ends in -f the plural is formed either by adding -s
o eg.: beliefs, cuffs, roofs
o or by changing the -f to -v and adding -es, eg.: wives, thieves,
loves.

*When a word ends in -ex or -ix the more formal plural ending is -ices. In
more general contexts -es is used
eg.: appendices, appendixes, indices, indexes
When a word form Latin ends in -is the plural form is -es
o eg.: crises, analyses
When a word form Latin ends in -us the plural form is -i
o

20

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

eg.:
nuclei,
syllabi,
radii
exception: viruses
With compound words (like court-martial) it is usually the most
important part which is pluralized
o eg.: courts-martial, lord-justices, mothers-in-law
In certain cases the plural form of a word is the same as the singular
o eg.: deer, sheep, grouse and in some words both forms end in -s
There are two main types of plural which take either singular of plural
verbs:
o words like media and data. These are in common use as singular
nouns although, strictly, this is incorrect
o words ending in -ics. Generally, these are treated as plural when
the word relates to an individual person or thing
eg.: his mathematics are poor, the hall's acoustics are
good and as singular when it is regarded more strictly as a
science
eg.: mathematics is an important subject.
o

Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it
owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become
possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s"
by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill
sergeant's screams.
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by
adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the
following examples:
The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

21

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s"
by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples:
The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.
Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not
always final.
The men's hockey team will be play as soon as the women's team is
finished.
The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the
afternoon.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by
adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks'
quacking, and the babies' squalling.
The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night
debates.
Using Possessive Nouns
When you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the
possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another
noun:
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and
together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the
sentence's subject.
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks'
quacking, and the babies' squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive
noun "dogs"' modifies "barking", "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"'
modifies "squalling."
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.

22

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs"
and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb
"crushed."
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun
"nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive
phrase "to locate."
Types Of Nouns
There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalize some
nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalize others, such as
"badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In
fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including
the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun,
the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun
(also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a
noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common,
abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.
Proper Nouns
You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun
represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days
of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations,
religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper
noun is the opposite of a common noun
In each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:
The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the
fortifications in Halifax.
Many people dread Monday mornings.
Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as
roommates.
Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a
general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it
begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.

23

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

In each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted:
According to the sign, the nearest town is 60
All the gardens in the neighbourhood were
summer.
I don't understand why some people insist
kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
The road crew was startled by the sight
crossing the road.
Many child-care workers are underpaid.

miles away.
invaded by beetles this
on having six different
of three large moose

Sometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the
following examples:
The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and
sudden increase in their rent.
The meals in the Bouncing Bean Restaurant are less expensive than
meals in ordinary restaurants.
Many witches refer to the Renaissance as the Burning Times.
The Diary of Anne Frank is often a child's first introduction to the
history of the Holocaust.

Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can
perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell.
A concrete noun is the opposite of an abstract noun.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:
The judge handed the files to the clerk.
Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing
waves.
The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house
because it had new shingles.
As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune
overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.
The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy,
cloth-covered board.

24

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not
perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete
noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract
nouns:
Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.
Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a
plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can
make a countable noun can be made plural and attach it to a plural verb in a
sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and
collective nouns.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable
nouns:
We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend
indexing his books.
Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just
over eight hundred babies.
Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a
plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not
usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a
sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the
opposite of countable nouns.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns:
Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.
Oxygen is essential to human life.
25

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather
than the plural verb "are."
We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we
moved.
You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.
The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is
heaped."
The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.
Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Since "gravel" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb form "is."
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons.
You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think
of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to
recognize collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A
collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the
opposite of a countable noun.
In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collective
noun:
The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
The collective noun "geese" takes the singular verb "spends."
The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
In this example the collective noun "jury" is the subject of the singular verb
"is dining."
The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
Here the collective noun "committee" takes a singular verb, "meets."
The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.
26

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

In this sentence the word "class" is a collective noun and takes the singular
compound verb "was startled".

b. Adjectives
An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or
quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun
which it modifies.
In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:
The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.
The coal mines are dark.
Many stores have already begun to play irritating Christmas music.
The back room was filed with large, yellow rain boots.
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause
functioning as an adverb. In the sentence
My husband knits intricately patterned mittens.
for example, the adverb ``intricately'' modifies the adjective ``patterned.''
Many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence
Eleanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her
pillow.
for example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.

Interrogative Adjectives
An interrogative adjective (``which'' or ``what'') is like an interrogative
pronoun, except that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing
on its own.
Which plants should be watered twice a week?
Like other adjectives, ``which'' can be used to modify a noun or a noun
phrase. In this example, ``which'' modifies ``plants'' and the noun phrase
``which paints'' is the subject of the compound verb ``should be watered'':

27

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

What book are you reading?
In this sentence, ``what'' modifies ``book'' and the noun phrase ``what
book'' is the direct object of the compound verb ``are reading.''

c. Lexical or full verbs

The full verb is perhaps the most important part of the sentence. A verb or
verb phrase asserts something about the subject of the sentence and
expresses actions, events, or states of being.
In each of the following sentences, the verb or verb phrase is highlighted:
Dracula bites his victims on the neck.
In early October, Giselle will plant twenty tulip bulbs.
Karl Creelman bicycled around the world in 1899, but his diaries and
his bicycle were destroyed.

d. Adverbs
An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a
clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and
answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much".
While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most
of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships
within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an adverb can
be found in various places within the sentence.
In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb:
The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.
In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and
indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.
The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.
Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited"
and describes the manner in which the midwives waited.
The boldly-spoken words would return to haunt the rebel.
In this sentence the adverb "boldly" modifies the adjective "spoken."
28

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

We urged him to dial the number very quickly.
Here the adverb "very" modifies the adverb "quickly."
Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.
In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.
EXERCISES
Indicate which part of the speech is each underlined word in the
passage.
"The World Bank is one of the major channels through which development
aid is passed from the industrial West to the poor and developing nations of
the world. Its scale of operations is vast, which is why its lending program
exceeds $12 billion a year, and its workforce numbers about 4.500.
In the last decade, important changes have taken place in the size of
the Banks operations and in the emphasis of its lending policies. What
immediately strikes anyone looking at the lending figures over the last ten
years is the tremendous expansion in the Banks loan program. "

Write sentences using the following words. Say which part of speech
the word is in your sentence.
a) rolling

( ____________________ )

__________________________________________________________________
b) lighter

( ____________________ )

__________________________________________________________________

c) since

( ____________________ )

__________________________________________________________________
d) developed

( ____________________ )

29

Prof. Boris Pradel 2016

__________________________________________________________________
e) who

( ____________________ )

__________________________________________________________________
f) score

( ____________________ )

__________________________________________________________________
g) building ( ____________________ )
__________________________________________________________________

REFERENCES
Boudeguer, M. E. An Introduction to English Grammar. Universidad de
Concepcin, 2001.
Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-Freeman, D. The Grammar Book. An ESL/EFL
Teachers Course. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers, 1983.

Fromkin, Victoria & Rodman, R. An Introduction to Language. New York:

Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Second Edition, 1978.
Greenbaum, Sidney.
Longman, 1991.

An Introduction to English Grammar.

Essex.

The University of Ottawa

http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/preposit.html
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. A Comprehensive
Grammar of the English Language.
London:
Longman, Tenth
impression1992.

30