Physical Geology

Chapter 8
Ananta MS Pradhan

 That branch of geology concerned with

understanding the composition of the earth
and the physical changes occurring in it, based
on the study of rocks, minerals, and
sediments, their structures and formations,
and their processes of origin and alteration.

Weathering and Erosion

Weathering is the breaking down of
Earth's rocks, soils and minerals through direct contact
with the planet's atmosphere. Weathering occurs in
situ, or "with no movement.
Mechanical or physical weathering involves the
breakdown of rocks and soils through direct contact
with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice
and pressure.
chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of
atmospheric chemicals or biologically produced
chemicals (also known as biological weathering) in the
breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals.

 Erosion is the process of weathering and

transport of solids (sediment, soil, rock and
other particles) in the natural environment or
their source and deposits them elsewhere. It
usually occurs due to transport by wind,
water, or ice; by down-slope creep of soil and
other material under the force of gravity;

Channel Pattern
A channel is a low elevated part of the
earth surface where surface water flows.
Channel pattern is configuration of a river
in a plan view.
A channel pattern is strongly controlled by
structure, nature and amount of sediment
load and discharge.

1. Straight channel
The line of greatest depth and fastest flow of a
stream channel is called as Thalweg

 Thalweg of straight
channel is sinuous
and shows deeper
parts (pools) and
alternating with
shallower part
(riffles).

 Straight channels are rare.

Leopard (1964) suggested that straight
reaches never exceeded 10 times the channel
width.
Channel is usually controlled by a linear zone
of weakness in the underlying rock, like fault.
The sinuosity is less than 1.5 ie the ratio
between channel length and valley length.

Sinuosity= channel length/valley length

Channel
length

Valley
length

Structural controlled straight

channel

2. Meandering channel
The channel follows a series of smooth bends.
Flowing over a relatively flat landscape with a
broad floodplain.
Sinuosity is greater than 1.5
Sediment bars of meandering channels are
called point bar.
Flowing over low gradients with easily eroded
banks.

 Sometimes the meandering streams detach

loops and change their path along the
shortest route. Such detached loops are called
Ox-bow Lake.

Ox bow
lake

3. Braided channel
Successive bifurcation and rejoining of the
flow.
Main channel is divided into several channels
which meet and re-divide.
Channel bars which divide the stream into
several channels at the low flow are often
submerged during high flow.

Channel Bars

Glacier
Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land
or as linear flows down the slopes of
mountains in broad trough-like valleys are
called glaciers.
The movement could be a few centimetres to
a few metres a day or even less or more.
Glaciers move basically because of the force of
gravity.

Landforms produce by glacier:

Moraines :
Glacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material
from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has
retreated.
These features usually appear as linear mounds of till, a
non-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a
matrix of a fine powdery material.
Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or
terminal end of a glacier. Lateral moraines are formed on
the sides of the glacier. Medial moraines are formed when
two different glaciers, flowing in the same direction

Easkar:
When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows
on the surface of the ice or seeps down along the
margins or even moves through holes in the ice.
These waters accumulate beneath the glacier
and flow like streams in a channel beneath the
ice.
Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks
along with some minor fractions of rock debris
carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice
beneath the glacier and after the ice melts can be
found as a sinuous ridge called esker.

Drumlins:
The drumlins form due to dumping of rock
debris beneath heavily loaded ice through
fissures in the glacier.
The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the
direction of ice movement

Landforms produce by groundwater

Pools, Sinkholes
A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the top and
funnel-shapped towards the bottom with sizes varying in area.
Some of these form solely through solution

Caves
In areas where there are alternating beds of rocks (shales,
sandstones, quartzites) with limestones or dolomites in
between or in areas where limestones are dense, massive and
occurring as thick beds, cave formation is prominent.
Water percolates down either through the materials or through
cracks and joints and moves horizontally along bedding planes.
It is along these bedding planes that the limestone dissolves and
long and narrow to wide gaps called caves result.

 Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars

Stalactites hang as icicles of different diameters.
Normally they are broad at their bases and taper
towards the free ends showing up in a variety of
forms.
Stalagmites rise up from the floor of the caves. In fact,
stalagmites form due to dripping water from the
surface or through the thin pipe, of the stalactite,
immediately below it

VOLCANISM

Volcanic Fatalities
92,000 Tambora,
Indonesia 1815
36,000 Krakatau,
Indonesia 1883
29,000 Mt Pelee,
Martinique 1902
15,000 Mt Unzen,
Japan 1792
Courtesy of www.swisseduc.ch

But, volcanoes cause fewer fatalities than earthquakes,

hurricanes and famine.

What is a volcano?
vent

cone

conduit

magma
chamber

A volcano is a vent or
'chimney' that connects
molten rock (magma)
from within the Earths
crust to the Earth's
surface.
The volcano includes the
surrounding cone of
erupted material.

Deep in the earth it is very

hot. It is so hot that
rocks melt. The
melted rock is called
magma. The magma is
lighter than the rocks
around it so it rises.
Sometimes it finds a
crack or hole in the
earths crust and bursts
through. This is how a
volcano begins.

Location of Volcanoes
The
distribution
of
volcanoes,
like
earthquakes, is determined by the location of
geological forces involving the tectonic or
crustal plates.
About 80% of active volcanoes are located
near subduction boundaries. Subduction
volcanoes occur where dense oceanic crustal
plates are shoved beneath less dense
continental plates, around most of the Pacific
Ocean, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire.

 Rift volcanoes occur at divergent zones where

two distinct plates are slowly being separated.
Rift volcanoes, such as those in Iceland and
East Africa, account for about 15% of active
volcanoes.

 Hot spot volcanoes are located where crustal

weaknesses allow molten material to
penetrate, not necessarily on the plate
boundaries. These isolated regions of volcanic
activity exist in about 100 places in the world.