Wachemo University

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1. TENSION, COMPRESSION and SHEAR

1.1 Introduction
The effect of externally applied forces can be measured in terms of the internal reacting forces in a
solid body of the members of a frame work, as described in Engineering Mechanics I.
However, at that stage no mention was made of the cross-sectional size and shape of the members. This
aspect had no effect on the forces in the members, but conversely one should be able to describe
quantitatively the way in which two members of different cross-sectional size would react to a
particular value of force. This is done through the concept of stress and strain.
1.2 Stress and Strain
Normal Stress and Strain
Normal Stress
Consider a prismatic bar that is loaded by axial forces P at the ends, as shown in Fig 2.1(a) below. Note
that a prismatic bar is a straight structural member having constant cross-section throughout its length.
P

P
(a)
L

m
P

d
m
P

(b)
m
m

(c)

n
Fig. 1.1 Prismatic bar in tension
Consider two side views of the bar in Fig. 1.1b, one showing the bar before the loads are applied and
the other showing the elongated bar after the loads are applied. The internal stresses produced in the
bar by the axial forces are exposed if we make an imaginary cut at section m-n in Fig 1.1b. Because
this section is taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar, it is called a cross-section.
The part of the bar to the left of the cut can be isolated and treated as free body diagram, Fig 1.1 C. The
tensile load P acts at the left hand end of this free body; at the other end are forces representing the
action of the removed part of the bar upon the part that remains. These forces are continuously
distributed over the cross-section. The intensity of force (that is, the force per unit area) is called the
stress and is commonly denoted by the Greek letter (Sigma).

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Assuming that the stress has a uniform distribution over the cross-section as shown in Fig 1.1 C, it can
be seen that its resultant is equal to the intensity times the cross-sectional area A of the bar. Further
more, from the equilibrium of the body shown in Fig. 1.1c; it is also evident that the resultant must be
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied load P. From these observations the
following relation can be obtained.
P

A
When the bar is stretched by the forces P, the resulting stresses are tensile stresses; if the forces are
reversed in direction, causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive stresses. In as much as
the stress acts in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is referred to as a normal stress.
Note that it is customary to define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative.
In SI units stress has units of newtons per square meter (N/m2), or Pascals (Pa).
If the equation = P/A is to be valid, the stress must be uniformly distributed over the cross section
of the bar. This condition is realized if the axial force P acts through the centroid of the cross-sectional
area. When the load P does not act at the centroid, bending of the bar will result, and a more
complicated analysis is necessary.
Normal Strain
As shown in Fig 1.1, an axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length, becoming larger when in
tension and shorter when in compression. The change in length is denoted by the Greek letter (delta).
This elongation is the cumulative result of the stretching of all elements of the material throughout the
length L of the bar. The deformation of different bodies subjected to a particular load is a function of
size, and therefore comparisons are made by expressing deformation as a non-dimensional quantity
given by the change in dimension per unit of original dimension. The non dimensional expression of
deformation is termed strain. Compressive strains are negative, Tensile strains are positive.
For the prismatic bar in Fig 1.1 the strain is given by

L
1.3. Stress-Strain relations (Diagram)
The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on small
specimens of the material. To understand the relation between stress and strain a structural steel
specimen is installed between the two large grips of a tensile- test machine and then loaded in tension.
The normal stress in the test specimen is calculated by dividing the load by area of the cross-section.
When the initial area of the specimen is used in this calculation, the resulting stress is called the
nominal stress (other names are conventional stress and engineering stress).
A more exact value of the axial stress, known as the true stress, can be calculated by using the actual
area of the bar, which can become significantly less than the initial area.
The average axial strain in the bar is found from the measured elongation between the gage marks
by dividing by the gage length L. If the initial gage length is used, then the nominal strain is obtained.
Of course, the distance b/n the gage marks increases as the tensile load is applied. If the actual distance
is used in calculating the strain, we obtain the true strain, or natural strain.

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Lecture Note, Chapter 2

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Civil Engineering Department

Compression tests of metals are customarily made on small specimens in the shape of cubes or circular
cylinders. Both the load applied by the machine and the shortening of the specimen may be measured.
The shortening should be measured over a gage length that is less than the total length of the
specimen in order to eliminate end effects.
After performing a tension or compression test and determining the stress and strain at various
magnitudes of the load, we can plot a diagram of stress versus strain. Such a stress-strain diagram is
characteristic of the material and conveys important information about the mechanical properties and
type of behavior.
Consider a structural steel, also known as mild steel or low - carbon steel. A stress - strain diagram for
a typical structural steel in tension is shown below.
E

Ultimate
Stress

Yield
Stress

Fracture

Proportional
limit

O
Linear Perfect plasticity
region or yielding

Strain
hardening

Necking

Fig 1.2 Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel

Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stress on the vertical axis. The diagram begins with a
straight line from the origin 0 to point A, which means that the stress and strain are proportional.
Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence the stress at A is
called the proportional limit. The slope of the straight line from 0 to A is called the modulus of
elasticity or Young's modulus E. Because strain is non dimensional, this slope has the same units as
E . This relation is known as Hooks law.
stress. i.e.
With an increase in the load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more rapidly
for each increment in stress. The stress-strain curve then has a smaller and smaller slope, until, at point
B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs, with no
noticeable increase in the tensile force (from B to C in Fig 1.2).This phenomenon is known as yielding
of the material, and point B is called the yield point.
The corresponding stress is known as the yield stress of the steel. In the region from B to C, the
material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it can deform without an increase in the applied
load.
The elongation of a mild - steel specimen in the perfectly plastic region is typically 10 to 15 times the
elongation that occurs between the onset of loading and the proportional limit.

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Strength of Materials

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After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the region BC, the steel begins to strain
harden. During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its atomic and crystalline structure,
resulting in increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Additional elongation now
requires an increase in the tensile load, and the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D.
The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the corresponding stress (at point D) is called the
ultimate stress. Further stretching of the bar is actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and
fracture finally occurs at a point such as E in Fig. 1-2.Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when
it is stretched, resulting in a decrease in the cross-sectional area. The reduction in area is too small to
have a noticeable effect on the calculated value of stress up to about point C, but beyond that point the
reduction begins to alter the shape of the diagram.
As explained before, the true stress is larger than the nominal stress because it is calculated with
smaller area.
In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the reduction in area of the bar becomes clearly visible and a
pronounced necking of the bar occurs.
If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part of the neck is used to calculate the stress, the true
stress-strain curve will follow the dashed line CE' in Fig 1.2. The total load the bar can carry does
indeed diminish after the ultimate stress is reached (Curve DE), but this reduction is due to the decrease
in the area of the bar and not to a loss in strength of the material itself. In reality, the material
withstands an increase in stress up to failure (Point E'). For most practical purposes, however, the
conventional stress-strain curve OABCDE, which is based up on the original cross-sectional area of the
specimen and is easy to calculate, provides satisfactory information for use in design.
Poissons Ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction
(normal to the direction of the applied load), the final shape being dotted in Fig. 2.3 below.

P
Fig 1.3 Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension

It is found that for an elastic material the lateral strain is proportional to the longitudinal strain, and is
of the opposite type.
However, in order for the lateral strains to be the same through out the bar, additional conditions must
be met. First the material must be homogeneous, which means it has the same composition throughout
the body and hence the same elastic properties at every point. We have already assumed that the
material was homogenous in order that the stress and strain would be uniform throughout the bar. A
second condition is that the elastic properties must be the same in all directional perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis. (E is the same in both directions). When these two conditions are met, as is normally
the case with structural materials, the lateral strains in a bar subjected to uniform tension will be the
same in all directions.

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Strength of Materials

Lecture Note, Chapter 2

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The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the strain in the axial direction is known as Poisson's
ratio and is denoted by the Greek letter (nu); thus

Lateral strain
Axial strain

The value of fluctuates for different materials over a relatively narrow range. Generally, it is on the
order of 0.25 to 0.35. In extreme cases, values as low as 0.1 (some concretes) and as high as 0.5
(rubber) occur. The latter value is the largest possible.
Volumetric Strain
Because the dimensions of a bar in tension or compression are changed when the load is applied, the
volume of the bar changes too. The change in volume can be calculated from the axial and lateral
strains. Consider a small rectangular parallelepiped element of isotropic material cut from a bar in
tension. The element has side lengths a, b, and c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. The dashed
line in the fig below shows the shape of the element after the load is applied.

y
a

c
b

Z
Fig. 1.4 Change of shape of an element taken from a bar in tension.
The elongation of the element in the direction of loading is a, where is the axial strain. Because the
lateral strains are - the lateral dimensions decrease by b and c in the y and z directions
respectively. Thus, the final dimensions of the element are a (1 + ), b (1 - ), and c (1 - ), and the
final volume is
Vf = abc (1 + ) (1 - ) (1 - )
Expanding this expression will give:Vf = abc [1 +- 2 - 2 2 + v22 + 23]
As is very small compared to unity, its square and cube are negligible in comparison to itself.
Therefore, the final volume of the element is.
Vf = abc (1+ - 2 )
The change in volume is, V = Vf - Vo
= abc (1 +- 2 ) - abc
= abc (1 - 2),
Where the original volume, Vo = abc

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Lecture Note, Chapter 2

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Civil Engineering Department

Change in volume
Orginal volume

The unit volume change, i.e. volumetric strain,

abc (1 2 )
( 1 2 )
abc

But

( 1 2 )

The above equation can be used to calculate the increase in volume of a bar in tension provided the
axial strain (or stress ) and poission's ratio are known. This equation may also be used for
compression, in which case is a negative strain and the volume of the bar decreases.
From the above equation we can also see that the maximum possible value of for ordinary materials
is 0.5, because any larger value means that the volume decreases when the material is stretched, which
seems physically unlikely.
1.4 Shear Stress and Strain
Shear Stress
Consider the pinned connection shown in Fig 2.6. This joint consists of a clevis A, a bracket B, and a
pin C. As the force P is applied, the bracket and the clevis press against the rivet in bearing, and a nonuniform pressure develop against the pin (Fig. 2.6b). The average value of this pressure is determined
by the projected area of the pin into the bracket (or clevis).
This is called the bearing stress. The bearing stress in the bracket then equals b=P/(t1d). Here t1 is the
thickness of the bracket and d is the diameter of the pin. Similarity, the bearing stress in the clevis is
given by b=P/ (2td).
P
t

B
b

b c

C d

P/2td

t1

b
P/t1d

V
c

V
b

P/t1d

A
b
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

P
Fig. 1.5 (a) A clevis-pin connection; (b) pin in bearing; (c) pin in double shear. (d) Shear stress
The force transferred as bearing on the pin is resisted by the stress developing on sections b-b and c-c
of the pin. This stress developed on a surface created due to a force tangential or parallel to the surface
(eg. V in Fig.1.5c) is called shear stress. Shear stress acts parallel to the surface. In this example since
we have two planes resisting shear the pin is said to be in double shear.

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Since the pin as a whole is in equilibrium, any part of it is also in equilibrium. At each cut section, a
shear force V equivalent to P/2, as shown in Fig. 1.5c, must be developed. Thus the shear occurs over
an area parallel to the applied load. This condition is termed direct shear.
Unlike normal stress, the distribution of shearing stresses across a section cannot be taken as uniform.
By dividing the total shear force V by the cross sectional area A over which it acts, we can determine
the average shear stress in the section:

avg

V
A

The figure below shows a rivet connection in which the rivet is under single shear.
P

P
d

V=P

P
P

Fig.1.6 Rivet in single shear

The loading arrangements shown in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6 above is an example of direct shear, or simple
shear, in which the forces are created by a direct action of the forces in trying to cut through the
material. Shear stresses also arise in an indirect manner when member are subjected to tension, torsion,
and bending.
Consider a small element of a material in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped having sides a, b, and
c in the x, y, and z directions, respectively (Fig. 1.7).
a

/2

1
x
z
s

r
/2-
(a)

s
/2

/2+

(b)

Fig. 1.7 Shear stress and strain

As is shown on the above figure the front and rear faces are assumed to be free of any stresses. Suppose
a shear stress is is distributed uniformly over the top face of the element. For the element to be in
equilibrium in the x direction, equal but oppositely directed shear stresses must act on the bottom face.

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Therefore the shear force: On the top face,

Similarly, on the bottom face,

Civil Engineering Department

Vtop = ac
Vbottom = - ac

These two forces form a couple having a moment about the z axis of magnitude abc, clockwise in the
figure. Equilibrium of the element requires that this moment be balanced by an equal and opposite
moment resulting from shear stresses acting on the side faces of the element.
Denoting thee stresses on the side faces as 1:
The vertical shear forces are,
V = 1bc
The counterclockwise couple becomes, V*a = 1abc
From moment equilibrium
Clock wise couple = Counter clock wise couple
ac =1ac
= 1
Hence the magnitudes of the shear stresses on the four faces of the element are equal.
Conclusions: 1. Shear stresses on opposite faces of an element are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
2. Shear stresses on perpendicular faces of an element are equal in magnitude and direction such
that both stresses point toward or both away from, the line of intersection of the faces.
In Fig. 2.8, since only shear stresses are acting on the faces of the element, it is said to be in pure
shear.
The above conclusions concerning the shear stresses are valid even when normal stresses also act on
the faces of the element.
Shear Strain
Due to the shear stresses the lengths of the sides of the element do not change. Instead, the shear
stresses produce a change in the shape of the element, as shown in Fig. 2.8(b). The angles between the
faces at points q and s, which were /2 before deformation, are reduced by a small angle to /2-
(Fig. 2.8b). At the same time, the angles at p and r are increased to /2+. The angle is a measure of
the distortion, or change in shape, of the element and is called the shear strain. The unit of shear strain
is radian. For the given coordinate system the shearing strain is positive if the right angle between the
reference lines decreases as shown in the figure 2.8b; otherwise, the shearing strain is negative.
The properties of material in shear can be determined experimentally from direct-shear tests or torsion
tests. From the results of these tests, stress strain diagrams in shear may be plotted. These diagrams of
versus are similar in shape to the tension test diagrams ( versus ). From the shear diagrams, we can
obtain shear properties such as the proportional limit, the yield stress, and the ultimate stress. These
properties in shear are usually about half as large as those in tension.
For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress strain diagram is a straight line, just as in tension.
For this linearly elastic region the shear stress and strain are directly proportional, and we have the
following equation for Hookes law shear. G
The constant G is termed the modulus of rigidity, or shear modulus of elasticity, of the material and is
expressed in the same SI units as E- that is Pascals (Pa) (N/m2).

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The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear (E and G) are related by the following equation:

E
in which is Poissons ratio.
21

Therefore, for an isotropic material E, G, and are not independent elastic properties of the material.
Provided that the constants E and are obtained from a tensile test for a given material, G can be
calculated from the above basic relationship. Note that G is always less than E, since is a positive
constant.
A homogeneous solid displays identical properties throughout. If the properties are identical in all
directions at a point, the material is Isotropic. A nonisotropic, or anisotropic, material displays
direction-dependent properties. Simplest among theses are those in which the material properties differ
in two mutually perpendicular directions. A material so described (for example, wood) is orthotropic.
1.5 Factor of Safety
In reality the exact type of load acting on a structure, the dimensions of the member, the character of
the material making up the member, etc ... can not be exactly determined. Due to the above reasons we
can't exactly determine the load resisting capacity of the member and the exact load acting on it. To
account for these uncertainties the maximum permissible stress, or working stress which the body can
with stand, and the working load are determined from a consideration of the above factors, and the
factor of safety is normally defined as;
Ultimatest ress

u
Factor of safety with respect to ultimate stress, n = Workingstress allow

Factor of safety with respect to yield stress,

y
Yieldstres s

n = Workingstress allow

Factor of safety with respect to ultimate load,

Ultimatelo ad
n = Workingload

The factor of safety is normally much greater with respect to the ultimate stress than with respect to the
yield stress.

2. 9
Strength of Materials

Lecture Note, Chapter 2