Savitribai Phule Pune University

Non Destructive testing of

PSC Girders in Indian
Railways

A Dissertation Under the guidance of

Asst. Prof. JM Patekari

By

Naman Gupta

Submitted in partial fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Technology

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my appreciation to Asst. Prof. JM Patekari, for his
valuable support, advice and guidance during this project work. My
special appreciation goes to my family - my family has been a consistent
source of love, care, support and affection, a person could ever ask for. I
would like to thank administrative and technical staff members of IRICEN.
Finally, I thank the almighty God, without blessings of whose, nothing
would be possible.

Abstract
Non-destructive testing is gaining grounds today. In this era of quick
decision making staying aloof from technological developments can
become a nemesis to decay for an organization. Indian railways hence
should adopt this new technology and put it in to day to day use. This will
require standardization of equipment and procedures. It will also require
making our structure suitable for NDT. Through this project I want to
contribute in making NDT a regular feature of routine maintenance of
structural assets of Indian railways.

Literature studied

Guidelines on Non-destructive testing of bridges

BS 103, August, 2009, RDSO

Handbook on Non-destructive Testing of Concrete

V.M. Malhotra, Nicholas Carino

"Guidelines For Inspection, Maintenance And Rehabilitation Of Concrete

Bridges", page no. 2-10, RDSO.

Contents

Particulars

Page Number

INTRODUCTION

NDT FOR STRENGTH

ASSESMENT OF CONCRETE
CORROSION ASSESSMENT

19

NDT FOR DETAILS OF

21

REINFORCEMENT STEEL
NDT FOR LOCATING CRACK AND

23

ITS GROWTH
DIGITAL ULTRASONIC DISTANCE

25

MEASURING TESTER
Outcome of Literature Review

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CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION

Bridges form the means to connect the distant areas of the nation. Indian railways have more
than one lac bridges and majority of them have already completed their codal life. The
conversion of track to different gauges and increase in speeds and axle loading of trains has
also increased the need of studying existing bridges. Various types of projects in this context
has also been undertaken some of them are acoustic emission, under water inspection, non
distractive testing, instrumentation of bridges etc. The present method of bridge inspection is
mostly visual and is not capable to assess hidden defects in structure. But this method is
highly subjective and leads to unreasonable imbalance in gauging of the health of the bridges.
Hence their exist a need to quantify the inspection and reduce the subjectivity.
5

The ever decreasing cost of test and increasing cost of a delayed decision had made NDT an
indispensable preposition. Today it involves lesser expense, preparation or damage as
compared to traditional methods. The choice of particular NDT method depends upon the
property of concrete to be observed such as strength, corrosion, crack monitoring etc. Though
there are some limitations of these test methods. Even then subsequent testing of structure will
largely depend upon the results of preliminary. Thereby justifying the expenses involved in
further testing.
NDT techniques not only provide fair idea about the relative strength and overall quality of
concrete in structure but also help in deciding whether more rigorous tests like load testing,
core drilling etc. at selected location are required or not. The objective of a non- destructive
test is to obtain an estimate of the required property of material by measuring certain
parameters which are empirically related to its strength.

Purpose of Non-destructive Tests:

The non-destructive evaluation techniques are being increasingly adopted in concrete
structures for the following purposes:
(i) Estimating the in-situ compressive strength
(ii) Estimating the uniformity and homogeneity
(iii) Estimating the quality in relation to standard requirement
(iv) Identifying areas of lower integrity in comparison to other parts
(v) Detection of presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections
(vi) Monitoring changes in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time
(vii) Identification of reinforcement profile and measurement of cover, bar diameter, etc.
(viii) Condition of pre-stressing/reinforcement steel with respect to corrosion
(ix) Chloride, sulphate, alkali contents or degree of carbonation
(x) Measurement of Elastic Modulus
(xi) Condition of grouting in pre-stressing cable ducts
(xii) Monitoring changes in the structure of the concrete, degree of corrosion in steel
reinforcement, change in geometry of structure etc.

Opportunities:
1. Lower Money cost
2. Lower Time cost
Challenges:
1. Correlation with strength and durability.
2. Systematic testing

Monitoring of structures using systematic testing is my topic of focus in this project

Types of Non Destructive Tests:

According to their use, non-destructive equipment can be grouped as under:
i) Strength estimation of concrete
ii) Corrosion assessment and monitoring
iii) Detecting defects in concrete structure
iv) Laboratory tests

The tests I will like to make use of in my project falls under following heads

NDT FOR CORROSION ASSESSMENT

Corrosion Analyzer
Resistivity Meter
NDT FOR LOCATING CRACK AND ITS GROWTH

Crack Detection Microscope

Eddy Current Meter
Infrared Thermal Imager
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CHAPTER 2:
NDT FOR STRENGTH ASSESMENT OF CONCRETE
1. Rebound Hammer
It is used to assess the compressive strength of concrete in existing structures. When plunger
of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring controlled mass
rebounds & extent of such rebound depends on the surface hardness which is co- related to
compressive strength of Concrete. The compressive strength can be read directly from the
graph provided on the body of the hammer.
This method is based on the principle that the rebound of an elastic mass depends on the
hardness of the surface against which the mass impinges. Rebound Hammer consists of a
spring-controlled mass that slides on a plunger within a tubular housing. When the plunger is
pressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring controlled mass rebounds and the
extent of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness and, therefore, the rebound is
related to the compressive strength of the concrete. The rebound value is read along a
graduated scale and is designated as the " rebound number". The compressive strength cab
be read directly from the graph provided on the body of the hammer. Depending upon the
impact energy, these are classified into four types i.e. N, L, M and P. Type N test hammer
having impact energy of 2.2 N-m and are suitable for grades of concrete from M15 to M45.
Type P is suitable for grades of concrete below M15. Type L test hammer is suitable for
lightweight concrete or small and impact sensitive part of the structure. Type M test hammer
is generally recommended for heavy structure and mass concrete.

Rebound Hammer

The rebound hammer method provides a convenient and rapid indication of the compressive
strength of concrete by means of establishing a suitable correlation between the rebound
number and the strength of concrete. Rebound hammer directly gives the average
compressive strength of the tested location. The compressive strength is in N/mm 2. Unit is
inter changeable to R, Q, psi and Kg/cm2.

Internals of rebound hammer

The rebound number increases as a strength increases but it is also influenced by a number of
other factors like type of cement and concrete; surface condition and moisture content ,age of
concrete and extent of carbonation on concrete surface . as such the estimation of strength of
concrete by rebound hammer method cannot be considered to be very accurate and probable
accuracy of prediction of concrete strength in a structure is 25 %. If the relationship
between rebounding number and compressive strength can be checked by test on core
samples obtained from the structure of standard specimens made with the same concrete
materials and mix proportion then the accuracy of the result and confidence there on are
greatly increased . it can then be used with greater confidence for differentiating between the
questionable and acceptable parts of a structure or for relative comparison between two
different structures.

2. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Meter :

It is used for assessment of quality of concrete in existing structure based on its density.
Quality of concrete is considered as good in terms of its density, homogeneity and uniformity.
This is based on the principle that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any material
depends upon the density, modules of elasticity and Poissons ratio. Comparatively higher
velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in terms of density, uniformity,
homogeneity,

Ultrasonic pulse Velocity Meter

10

Pulse Velocity measurements can be used to assess the homogeneity of concrete,

presence of cracks, voids etc., quality of concrete relative to standards requirements.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements are influenced by surface condition, moisture
content, temperature of concrete, path

length, shape and size of member and

presence of reinforcing bars. The method is complex and requires skill to obtain
usable results, which can often provide excellent information regarding condition of
concrete.
using the special equipment the ultrasonic pulse is produced by a transducer held in
contact with one surface of concrete members Under test .after traversing a known
path length (L) in the concrete, the pulse of vibration is converted into an electrical
signal by the second transducer held in contact with the other surface of the concrete
members at the predetermined place and

an electric timing circuit enables the

transmit time(T) of the pulse to be measured. the pulse velocity is given by

V=

L
T

in km/sec.

There are three possible ways of measuring pulse velocity.

i)

Direct transmission

ii)

Semi direct transmission

iii)

Indirect transmission (surface probing)

out of the three methods , the direct transmission method is considered to be the best.
Once the ultrasonic pulse impinges on the surface of the material, the maximum energy is
propagated at right angles to the face of the transmitting transducer, and best results are
therefore obtained when the receiving transducer is placed on the opposite face of the
concrete member. This is called Direct Transmission or Cross Probing. In many
situations, the two opposite faces of the structural member may not be accessible for
measurements. In such cases, the transmitting and receiving transducers are placed on the
same face of the concrete member. This is called Surface Transmission. Surface
11

transmission is not so efficient as Direct Transmission, because the signal produced at the
receiving transducer has an amplitude of only 2 to 3 % of that produced by Cross Probing,
and the test results may vary from 5 to 20% depending upon the quality of concrete under
test.
In view of inherent variability in the test results, sufficient number of readings are taken by
dividing the structural member under test in suitable grid markings of 30x30cm and in some
cases even smaller. Each junction point of the grid becomes a point of observation.

Table 1 Guidelines for assessing condition of concrete based on pulse velocity

Since actual values of the pulse velocity obtained depend on a number of parameters, any
criterion for assessing the quality of concrete on the basis of pulse velocity as given in the
above table can be considered as satisfactory only to a general extent. However, when the
comparison is made amongst different parts of the structure, which have been built at the
same time with similar materials, construction practices and supervision, the assessment of
quality becomes more meaningful and reliable.
The assessment of compressive strength of concrete from ultrasonic pulse velocity values is
not adequate because the statistical confidence of the correlation between the ultrasonic pulse
velocity and the compressive strength of the concrete is not very high. Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity test can also be used for measuring depth of crack.

Figure 1 Mechanism for pulse velocity

3. Windsor Probe:
12

Windsor Probe is used to find out the compressive strength of existing concrete structure.
This equipment gives compressive strength of concrete by driving a steel probe into the
surface of concrete. The lower the depth of probe penetration, higher the compressive
strength of concrete. ASTM, C 803-82 has standardized this equipment/test procedure. The
underlying principle of this penetration resistance technique is that for standard test
conditions, the penetration of probe into the concrete is inversely proportional to the
compressive strength of the concrete. In other words, larger the expose length of the probe,
greater the compressive strength of concrete.

Windsor Probe

13

Windsor probe schematics

This equipment consists of a power-activated gun or driver unit, hardened alloy probe, loaded
art-ridge and a measuring instrument such as depth gauge etc. The probes are 6.35mm in
diameter and 79.5mm in length. Larger diameter probes (7.94mm) are also available for
testing lightweight concrete. Probe is threaded in to the probe-driving head and fired into the
concrete using a template. The driver utilizes a standard power cartridge. The power level can
be reduced when testing low strength concrete by locating the probe at a fixed position within
the driver barrel. Two types of templates are provided with the equipment e.g. single probe
template and a three probe triangular template. Exposed length of probe is correlated to the
compressive strength of concrete.
The Windsor Probe is basically a hardness tester and provides an excellent means of
determining the relative strength of concrete in the same structure or relative strengths in
different structures. The test is not expected to determine the absolute values of strength of
concrete in the structure. The method may be used to assess the uniformity of in-situ
concrete, to delineate zones or regions of poor quality or deteriorated concrete in the structure
and to indicate changes with time in characteristics of concrete, when forms and shoring may
be removed.
The precision of Windsor probe measurement has been found to vary with the maximum size
of aggregates in concrete. The penetration of the probe in to the concrete is affected by the
14

hardness of the aggregates. Therefore, it is desirable to prepare separate calibration curve for
the type of aggregate used in the concrete under investigation. There are requirements of
minimum edge distance, probe spacing and member thickness. If the minimum recommended
dimensions are not complied with, there can be danger of splitting of members. The
penetration technique is considered almost non-destructive as the damage to concrete made
by 6 mm probes is only local, which has to be made good. The test has the advantage over
rebound hammer test as the measurement is made not on the surface of the concrete but in
depth .

4. Core Cutter :
It is used for estimation of physical characteristics of masonry / concrete by extracting core
samples from the structure. The maximum depth of the core which can be cut is 430 mm. The
diameter of cutters is 52mm and 78mm.

Figure 2 Core Cutter

15

A core is usually cut by means of rotary cutting tool with diamond bit . Water supply is also
very necessary to lubricate the cutter. The core which is extracted from existing structure is
used for various testing's like compressive strength, crack depth, water absorption etc.
The core will be tested for compressive strength and at least three cores shall be tested for
acceptable accuracy. Tests should be conducted as per IS : 516-1959, IS : 1199 1959 & IS :
456 2000.

5. Permeability Tester:

Permeability tester

This instrument is used for determination of the air permeability of cover concrete. This
operates under vacuum & used on concrete structure. It permits a rapid & non destructive
measurement of quality of the cover concrete with respect to its durability.
Significance of permeability in addition to compressive strength in accessing quality of
concrete has become more important due to increase instances of corrosion in reinforce
cement concrete. The rate at which the air from concrete cover me extracted is a measure of

16

permeability of concrete .this method can be used to access the resistance of concrete to
carbonation, penetration of aggressive ions and quality of grout in post tension ducts.
It operates under vacuum and can be used at the building site and also in the laboratory. the
essential features of the method of measurement are a two Chamber vacuum cell and pressure
regulator which ensures an air flow at right angles to the surface and into the inner chamber.
Dry Surface without cracks should be selected for test .it should we ensured that inner
chambers should not be located above the reinforcement bar. pressure loss is calibrated from
time to time and after a large change in temperature and pressure. 3 to 6 measurements of
electrical resistance of the concrete and its mean value is taken for the measurement of
coefficient of permeability . this test permits the calculation of the permeability Coefficient
kT on the basis of theoretical model.
In case of dry concrete, the results in good agreement with the laboratory methods, such as
Oxygen permeability , capillary suction, chloride penetration and others .
Quality of cover concrete
Very Bad
Bad
Normal
Good
Very Good

Index
5
4
3
2
1

kT (10-16 m2 )
> 10
1.0 - 10
0.1 1.0
0.01 0.1
< 0.01

Table 2 The quality class of the cover concrete is determined from kT

The humidity, a main influence on the permeability, is compensated by additional measuring

the electrical resistance of the concrete .with kT and the quality class is obtained from a
nomogram.

6. Video Bore scope :

17

Those who are familiar with maintenance procedures know that there are three types of
maintenance in any facility: preventive maintenance, corrective maintenance and predictive
maintenance. We normally follow established procedures in each of these types, since each
one targets a different aspect of maintenance. Borescope inspections are an integral part of
procedures for preventive maintenance, along with such routine tasks.

CHAPTER 3
CORROSION ASSESSMENT
1.

CORROSION ANALYZER :

18

Corrosion analyzer is based on electro chemical process to detect corrosion in the

reinforcement bar of the structure. The instrument measures the potential and the
electrical resistance between the reinforcement and the surface to evaluate the
corrosion activity as well as the actual condition for the cover layer during testing.
The electrical activity of the steel reinforcement and concrete leads them to be
considered as one half of weak battery cell with the steel acting as one electrode
and concrete as electrolyte. The name half cell surveying derives from the fact that
the one half of the battery cell is considered to be the steel reinforcing bar and the
surrounding concrete. The electric potential of a point on the surface of steel
reinforcing bar can be measured comparing its potential with that of copper copper sulphate reference electrode on the surface. In field it is achieved by
connecting a wire from one terminal of a voltmeter to the reinforcement and another
wire to the copper sulphate reference electrode.

Corrosion Analyser

This risk of corrosion is evaluated by means of the potential gradient obtained. The
higher the gradient, the higher risk of corrosion. ASTM C 876 prescribes a half
potential method for detection of reinforcement corrosion.

19

2.

RESISTIVITY METER:

This instrument is used to measure the electrical resistance of concrete cover for
corrosion status of reinforced bars. Lower the electrical resistance, the more is the
probability of corrosion of metal.

It is based on the principle that the corrosion of steel in concrete is an electrochemical process, which generates a flow of current and can dissolve metals. The
lower the electrical resistance, the more readily the corrosion current flows through
the concrete and the greater is the probability of corrosion.

The limits of possible corrosion are related with resistivity as under: With 12 kcm corrosion is improbable
20

With = 8 to 12 kcm corrosion is possible

With 8 kcm corrosion is fairly certain
where, (rho) = resistivity
Resistivity Meter is used to measure the electrical resistance of the cover concrete.
With the graphical display of the major values, it is possible to determine the spots in
the concrete structure where corrosion may occur. The combination of resistance
measurement by Resistivity Meter and potential measurement by Resistivity Meter
Corrosion Analyzing Instrument (described below) furthermore improves the
information about the corrosion condition of the rebar.

CHAPTER 4
NDT FOR DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT STEEL
1. PROFOMETER
Profometer is a portable battery operated equipment used for measuring the depth of cover
concrete , location and size of the steel reinforcement embedded in concrete. The equipment
is useful for investigating the structures where drawings are not available .the equipment
consist of data logger , diameter probe and calibration blocks. The equipment has sufficient
memory store the scanned data. The meter needle is zeroed and the probe moved over the
concrete surface and rotated to obtain a maximum reading and this position correspond to the
location of reinforcement bar. It is used for (a) measuring concrete cover (b) detecting
reinforcing bar (c) determine bar size and direction .
In heavily reinforced section, however, the effect of secondary reinforcement cannot be
eliminated completely . Nevertheless, this equipment give fair idea about average thickness
of cover with maximum duration of 5 mm .

21

Using Profometer

CHAPTER 5
NDT FOR LOCATING CRACK AND ITS GROWTH
1. Crack Detection Microscope

22

Figure 3 Crack Detection Microscope

This is the pocket size equipment used crack width measurement of concrete member,
masonry and other type of structures. for measurement of crack width a simple small handheld microscope having graduated scale marked on the lens known as "crack comparer" may
be used. where greater accuracy of measurement of crack is required. transducer or
extensometer or strain gauges can be used.
Depth of crack can be measured either by Pulse Velocity Technique (ASTM C-597) OR by
taking cores from concrete. Continuous monitoring and recording of crack movements for 24
hours maybe required for separating cracks caused due to temperature effects from that due to
o load effects.

2. Eddy Current Meter:

Eddy current metre to predominantly used in detecting the cracks in the metal structures.
availability of cracks disrupt the flow of eddy current. Availability of cracks disrupt the flow
of eddy current this disruption is measured to know the Flaws/Cracks/Voids etc. Eddy current
meter can be used in the field for detection of Flaws/Cracks/Voids in the metal structures i.e.
Steel girder bridges, FOB's etc. in the field.

23

Figure 4 Eddy Current Meter

3. Infrared Imagery

Figure 5 Infrared thermal imager . source: www.w-nexco-usa.com

Infrared is an energy similar to visible light but with a longer wavelength. Infrared energy is
invisible to the human eye, however, while visible light energy is emitted by objects only at a
very high temperature, infrared energy is emitted by all objects at average temperatures.
Since, thermal imagers sense infrared energy which varies with temperature of objects image
generator provider a thermal signature of these objects. this image cannot be displayed on
standard video monitor. infrared energy from object a focus by optics onto an infrared detector.
The infrared information is then passed to sensor electronics for image processing. The signal
processing circuitry translates infrared detector data into an image that can be viewed on a
standard video monitor.
The Thermographer measures the temperature of a target. you have to put the proper data into
the camera in order to get accurate temperature measurements. this means that setting up your
camera before an inspection is important.

24

The thermal imager uses IR Fusion technology, which simultaneously captures both a digital
photo as well as infrared image and fuses them together making it easier to identify features
and taking the mystery out of IR image analysis. simply scroll through the different viewing
modes to better identify trouble areas in full IR thermal, picture - in - picture or automatic
blend visual and thermal imagers.
Switch on the camera. Insert the 2gb memory card, allows users to save more than 3000 screen
images or 1200 IR fusion images. focus the lens at target by manually rotating lens until the
image is in focus . Press the Level and Span button to automatically set the cameras
temperatures level and span. Press the same button again to properly scale the image .press and
hold the same button until the IR fusion blend level control box appears on the display screen.
Tap the Trigger button to retain settings. Tap the Trigger button once to pause the live image.
Press and hold the trigger button for 2 seconds to save the image.

CHAPTER 6
DIGITAL ULTRASONIC DISTANCE MEASURING TESTER

Figure 6 DIGITAL ULTRASONIC DISTANCE MEASURING TESTER

There is a large population of Concrete/ Steel bridges on Indian Railways. Sometimes it is

very difficult to measure unreachable second point of the girder length of the bridges with
the help of measuring tape. Digital Ultrasonic Measuring Tool is a measuring device that can
carry several measuring operations such as the length, surface area and volume of
unreachable surfaces with the use of ultrasonic waves. Its measuring angle is 0.6 metres to
25

20 metres. On switching the unit it is automatically in the operation mode "Length

Measurement" and measurements can be recorded.
During the measuring procedure ,a Laser indicated (7- point laser) is also activated, which
indicates if the unit is pointed at the desired target Surface. The laser points are arranged
circular and outline the measured surface. If the ambient light conditions are too bright , the
visibility can be increased by using the laser spectacles.
The running Period of the conical expanding Ultrasonic waves used for measurement of
distance. The respective measuring surface is Marked by the laser indicator. The
measurements can only be carried out on targets with even and smooth surface .
It can be used to measure the distance of unreachable points. It directly give the surface area
and volume of a rectangular structures by measuring the required dimensions.

Outcome of Literature Review

Present literature on NDT in India covers most of the aspects
of NDT and is being satisfactorily used to gauge structural
strength in case of newly constructed or distressed
structures. The major field of action of Indian railways is
routine maintenance of existing structures. The present
literature is silent on this aspect. More over the structural
design in India does not take into account the needs of NDT
during the lifespan of the structure. If these needs are met
then NDT can act as a good means to quantify the condition

26