508585

research-article2013

JRM61410.1177/0022429413508585Journal of Research in Music EducationMishra

Article

Factors Related to SightReading Accuracy: A MetaAnalysis

Journal of Research in Music Education

2014, Vol 61(4) 452465
National Association for
Music Education 2013
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0022429413508585
jrme.sagepub.com

Jennifer Mishra1

Abstract
The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the extent of the overall
relationship between previously tested variables and sight-reading. An exhaustive
survey of the available research literature was conducted resulting in 92 research
studies that reported correlations between sight-reading and another variable.
Variables (n = 597) were grouped by construct (e.g., music aptitude, technical
ability) and separate meta-analyses were conducted for each construct. Construct
had a variable effect on sight-reading, with improvisational skills, ear-training ability,
technical ability, and music knowledge correlating most closely with sight-reading,
while attitude and personality were unrelated to sight-reading. Additionally, the
study examined differences in effect size by type of publication (published study,
unpublished thesis), the experience level of the sight-reader (elementary, secondary,
college nonmusician, college musician), sight-reading mode (instrumental sightreading, sight-singing), and type of sight-reading test. The few differences suggest
future investigation of a developmental component to sight-reading is warranted. In
general, music constructs that improve with practice correlated more strongly with
sight-reading than did stable characteristics. These results support sight-reading being
considered a music skill that improves with the musicality of the performer rather
than a simple visuo-motor decoding process.
Keywords
sight-reading, sight-singing, meta-analysis, aural skills, ear training

1University

of MissouriSt. Louis, MO, USA

Corresponding Author:
Jennifer Mishra, University of MissouriSt. Louis, 106 Music Building, St. Louis, MO 63121, USA.
Email: mishraj@umsl.edu

Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

453

Mishra

Musicians differ in their ability to sight-read, and hundreds of researchers have explored
reasons why this might be the case, some ascribing the ability to innate talent, others
investigating sight-reading as a skill to be trained. Within the research, there appears to
be a dichotomy. On one hand, sight-reading has been investigated as a teachable skill,
evidenced by nearly 200 quasiexperimental studies investigating various interventions
hypothesized to improve sight-reading ability (see Mishra, 2013, for a review). Other
researchers have investigated factors that may correlate with sight-reading ability, especially those that have predictive power (e.g., Daniels, 1986; Demorest & May, 1995;
Elliott, 1982; Gromko, 2004). Many of the studied factors represent stable traits, such
as academic ability, personality, and music aptitude. This suggests that some view
sight-reading, at least to an extent, as a trait or an innate disposition (Thompson &
Lehmann, 2004)an ability unaffected, or only moderately affected, by training.
The large number of researchers interested in sight-reading who have reported correlations between sight-reading and another variable speaks to the need for this study.
Perhaps because correlations are simple to conceptualize and compute, the research
appears to have grown without organization. At times, variables seem chosen because
the data are convenient, rather than to test a hypothesis. Replication studies are exceedingly rare in the field, and the sheer number of variables makes it impossible to test (or
retest) all possible variables within one study. This has led to widely disparate results
with little to connect them. In 1992, Hodges noted,
In music there is no theory devoted specifically to an explanation of music reading; thus, the
bulk of the research appears to be devoid of a theoretical underpinning. . . . Explicit theories
of music reading, theories that would organize knowledge and research about music reading
into a system of assumptions, principles, and procedures, do not exist. Such theories would
be useful in predicting and explaining the phenomenon of music reading. (p. 6)

A body of research on sight-reading is available, and relevant theories could synthesize the research into an understanding of the skill itself and implementation of pedagogical techniques to address the development of the skill.
Because of the multitude of variables included in correlational and predictive studies, it is difficult to compare findings and build an understanding of what variables
systematically relate to sight-reading. When one variable is tested across multiple
studies, the standard of measurement can be different and the results are often contradictory. For instance, Elliott (1982) explored the predictive potential of seven variables related to performing ability (technical proficiency, sight-singing ability, rhythm
reading ability, overall GPA, theory grades, performance jury grades, and grades in
applied study) on the sight-reading abilities of university wind players. Technical proficiency in Elliotts study was defined as the ability to perform, from memory, scales
and arpeggio patterns. While all variables correlated with sight-reading to at least a
moderate extent, only two variables, rhythm reading and jury grades, were predictive
of sight-reading, accounting for 88% of the variance. Daniels (1986), on the other
hand, was interested in the effects of environmental factors on sight-singing. She compared 84 variables describing various aspects of the school environment, the music

Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

454

Journal of Research in Music Education 61(4)

curriculum, the attitudes and experiences of the teachers, and the music background
and attitude of the students with the ability of the students to sight-sing. Eleven variables, including the percentage of students with instrumental experience and the percentage enrolled in band, accounted for 86% of the variance. However, the ethnic
makeup of the school alone accounted for 46% of the variance. Despite the large
number of variables tested by Daniels, not one variable overlapped with those in the
Elliott study, and one conclusion from Daniels study is that sight-reading is most
affected by a nonmusic variable (ethnic makeup of the school). Demorest and May
(1995) replicated aspects of the Daniels study, questioning high school choral students about their previous music experiences and choir directors about their methods
of sight-singing instruction. The responses were correlated with the students ability to
sight-sing. Demorest and May found that years of choral experience was the single
best predictor of sight-singing ability, contradicting Daniels results. Even with the
addition of other background variables, including years of instrumental lessons,
Demorest and May were able to account for only 27% of the variance. Taking another
approach to the issue, Gromko (2004) investigated the predictive power of tonal and
rhythmic audiation, visual field articulation, spatial orientation and visualization, math
achievement, and reading comprehension on instrumental sight-reading. The measures of cognitive ability and music aptitude accounted for 48% of the variance. While
Gromko was most interested in near-transfer theory, she did attempt to connect the
rhythmic portion of her study with that of Elliotts. Both tested instrumental sightreading using the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale (WFPS), but Gromko measured
rhythmic audiation through a perceptual listening test (Advanced Measures of Music
Audiation), while Elliott had measured rhythmic performance ability. Gromko reported
a moderate correlation (r = 0.47) between the WFPS and rhythmic audiation, while
Elliott reported a high correlation (r = 0.90) between the WFPS and rhythmic sightreading. These findings are not necessarily contradictory, but because of the different
measures, they cannot be compared directly.
The variability of results from previous research indicates that there is much more
to be understood about sight-reading. Prediction of sight-reading ability seems to be
the general goal in the field, but discrepancies in research design and variables included
without an underlying theory have resulted in dozens of studies that cannot be connected or organized into a solid theory of what variables reliably predict sight-reading
success. After an exhaustive review of the literature, this researcher found that more
than 150 separate variables have been correlated with sight-reading (or sight-singing).
Correlating sight-reading with music aptitude has been particularly popular. Forty-five
subtests from 11 published music aptitude tests have been used, resulting in 157 correlations ranging from a 0.03 correlation between sight-reading and Seashores Test
of Musical Talent, Rhythm subtest (Read, 1968), to a 0.78 correlation between sightreading and total scores on Seashores Test of Musical Talent (Dean, 1936). While it
can be argued that the range of correlations reflects the disparity of aptitude measures,
holding the construct constant also results in contradictory findings. For instance, 11
researchers have reported correlations between sight-reading and the age of the performer, with the operational definition of age apparently the same across studies. The

Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

455

Mishra

range of correlations was extremely wide even when the sight-reading measure was
held constant (WFPS), ranging from 0.14 (Mann, 1991) to 0.77 (Mewes, 1969).
Because of this disparity, it is impossible to form a conclusion as to the association
between age and sight-reading ability.
A narrative synthesis of the various studies correlating sight-reading with other
variables must conclude that results are contradictory, and the synthesist would be
required to choose a handful of studies to represent the research as a whole. A metaanalysis, on the other hand, is a statistical procedure capable of synthesizing a large
body of research (Borenstein & Hedges, 2009) and allows for the inclusion of all relevant studies in the analysis. This procedure allows the synthesist to look systematically at the body of research as a whole rather than at research findings in isolation to
identify patterns that might not be apparent when examining only a handful of studies.
A meta-analysis also weights the results based on population size, weighting the
results of studies using larger populations more heavily than those with smaller populations. A meta-analysis also allows design elements of the primary studies (e.g., population characteristics) to be used as variables to investigate whether there are differences
between studies with varying designs. An increasing number of meta-analyses have
been conducted in the field of music, especially in music therapy (e.g., Standley, 1996,
2008), music psychology (Kmpfe, Sedlmeier, & Renkewitz, 2010) and have been
used to investigate the effects of music instruction, especially as concerns the Mozart
effect (e.g., Pietschnig, Voracek, & Formann, 2010).
The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the extent of the overall relationship between previously tested variables and sight-reading. Because the primary studies included in this analysis used a large number of variables, variables were grouped
by construct prior to analysis. A separate meta-analysis was used to determine effect
sizes reflecting the overall relationship between sight-reading and each construct.

Method
Study Inclusion
I conducted an exhaustive search of the available research literature for studies exploring correlations between sight-reading accuracy and selected variables. The search
included published research as well as unpublished theses and dissertations. Search
terms included sight-reading and sight-singing, along with word variants (e.g., sight
reading, sight-sing, sight playing). Additional search terms included Watkins Farnum
and WFPS. The following indices were searched: Dissertations and Theses Full Text,
Google Scholar, International Index of Music Periodicals, JSTOR, Education Full
Text, ERIC, and PsycINFO. Reference lists from the identified studies were used to
discover additional relevant research. In situations where a dissertation was published
later in article form, only one study was included in the analysis. Every effort was
made to include studies presented at conferences; however, it should be noted that
unpublished studies likely exist that were not available.
Articles included in this meta-analysis were restricted to those reporting a correlation between sight-reading and another continuously scored measure. One
Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

456

Journal of Research in Music Education 61(4)

requirement for inclusion was that sight-reading be a performance measurement;

excluded were studies that assessed reading using a written measurement (e.g., copying notation, recognition task). Studies that required the production of only pitch or
rhythm also were not included in this meta-analysis because the restricted production
of isolated intervals or rhythmic patterns was arguably a simpler task. Experimental
research was excluded unless sight-reading pretest scores were correlated with a variable unrelated to the treatment.
Ninety-two studies published between 1925 and 2010 were included in the analysis
(see Appendix A in the online supplemental materials available at http://jrme.sagepub
.com/supplemental). The majority were unpublished dissertations (n = 56; 61%) or
masters theses (n = 5; 5%). The number of participants in the included studies ranged
from 6 to 800 (M = 96.26; SD = 104.56).

Coding
From each study, the following information was encoded: the type of publication
(unpublished thesis, published paper), the participants level of experience (elementary, secondary, college nonmusicians, college musicians), the type of sight-reading
test (researcher constructed, WFPS, sight-reading grades, ratings, repertoire), and the
mode of sight-reading (instrumental sight-reading, vocal sight-singing). These categories were used as moderator variables, which function in a meta-analysis conceptually
like independent variables in primary research to illuminate study-level characteristics
that may influence research findings.
Individual correlations within each primary research study were used as the unit of
analysis. Excluded were variables that were not individual specific (e.g., ethnic
makeup of the school attended). In cases where the reported sight-reading scores
reflected error rates (i.e., lower scores reflected more accurate sight-reading) and raw
data were available, the scores were recomputed by subtracting the error score from
the maximum score. In addition, post hoc correlations were computed when relevant
raw data were provided. All studies were dual coded to reduce the possibility of coding
errors. This resulted in 597 separate correlations representing 154 separate variables
that had been correlated with sight-reading.
Seventeen constructs emerged naturally from the data and encompassed all but one
variable, socioeconomic status, which was correlated with sight-reading in only one
study (Read, 1968). In the descriptions of the constructs that follow, the number of
correlations reported and the percentage of the total this represents are provided in
parentheses. Studies that reported a correlation between sight-reading and a published
music aptitude test were categorized under the construct music aptitude (n =158;
26%). The music study construct (n = 111; 19%) included any correlations between
sight-reading and years of music experience, whether overall years of music experience or specifically instrumental, choir, vocal, or piano experience. The music knowledge construct (n = 64; 11%) included both direct measures of music achievement
(e.g., scores on the Music Achievement Test) and theory class grades. Studies grouped
under the academic achievement construct (n = 49; 8%) generally correlated sightreading with scores on academic achievement tests (e.g., SAT) or with high school or
Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

457

Mishra

college GPA. The ear-training ability construct (n = 45; 8%) included both direct
measures of ear training (e.g., dictation test scores) and ear-training class grades; also
included were measures of the ability to play or sing by ear. Studies classified under
the IQ construct (n = 28; 5%) correlated sight-reading with a published IQ measure or
in some way measured working memory capacity. The perception construct (n = 21;
4%) included studies that correlated sight-reading with scores on the Group Embedded
Figures test or a measurement of perceptual speed, while psychomotor studies (n = 20;
3%) generally measured motor reaction time in some fashion. The construct of sightreading ability (n = 18; 3%) included any correlation between sight-reading performance and an estimate of either sight-reading ability, years of sight-reading instruction,
or amount of sight-reading practice. The personality construct (n = 17; 3%) studies
generally employed some sort of published personality measure (e.g., Myers-Briggs)
but also included studies that measured leadership abilities and anxiety levels. Most
studies reporting a correlation between practice and sight-reading (n = 17; 3%) either
measured the amount of practice time directly or asked participants to estimate practice time; others collected this information indirectly by asking for repertoire size or
number of performances. Technical ability (n = 12; 2%) sometimes was measured by
a performance of prepared material but also could be based on an applied teachers
estimate of technical ability. Other research correlated sight-reading with age (n =11;
2%) or attitude (n = 8; 1%), which included measures of music interest, preference, or
commitment. Studies investigating the amount of overall listening and parental
involvement were categorized under the construct early exposure (n = 8; 1%). Finally,
studies correlating sight-reading with a measure of memorization (n = 7; 1%) or improvisation (n = 4; 1%) comprised constructs used for analysis.

Results
Most articles reported multiple correlations; however, in a meta-analysis, there is the
assumption of study independence. In order to attain study independence, two procedures were employed. In cases where one study included multiple measures of a construct, an average correlation was computed. If different populations were used in the
studies, the averages were computed within each population. This resulted in a total of
307 averaged correlations for use in the meta-analysis.1 Additionally, separate metaanalyses were computed for each construct. This allowed multiple correlations from
one study to be retained if the correlations reflected diverse constructs. Unfortunately,
this procedure did not allow for direct comparisons of correlations between constructs
in order to establish significant differences but did show the relative strength of the
overall effect size for each construct.
All statistics were computed using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Biostat,
2010) software package, which computes standardized effect sizes. In the case of correlations, the software uses the correlations as standardized effect sizes. A randomeffects model was used because the primary research was conducted in naturalistic
settings and the populations used were assumed to vary in ways not reported in the
primary research. Effect sizes represented weighted correlations and an overall
weighted mean correlation was computed for each construct. The results from each
Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

458

Journal of Research in Music Education 61(4)

construct were tested for homogeneity, which determines whether the dispersion in
effect sizes can be accounted for by sampling error. When the results indicated heterogeneity, extreme effect sizes were removed one by one until homogeneity was
achieved. Some constructs were homogeneous without the removal of any primary
studies (e.g., early exposure, practice), while a number of constructs required the
removal of a high percentage of outliers, studies in which the results varied considerably from the results of other studies, to achieve homogeneity (e.g., ear training; see
Table 1). For most constructs, the resulting correlation with a homogeneous sample
was similar to that achieved when all studies were included, but a few changed substantially when outliers were removed (e.g., age and memorization). Overall, improvisation and ear-training ability correlated most highly with sight-reading, followed by
technical ability and music knowledge. Attitude and personality were unrelated to
sight-reading, and while significant, early exposure, memorization, and perception
correlated weakly with sight-reading.
Within each construct, differences were computed between the levels of each moderator variable (publication, level of experience, mode of sight-reading, and type of
sight-reading test) using Q tests (see Tables 2 and 3). The Q statistic tests whether
Table 1. Effect Sizes (ES) by Construct Using Random Effects Model Before and After the
Removal of Outliers to Obtain Homogeneity.
Random-effects model
Construct
Improvisation
Ear training
Technical ability
Music knowledge
Age
Music aptitude
Sight-reading ability
Psychomotor
Music study
Academic
acheivement
Practice
IQ
Perception
Memorization
Personality
Early exposure
Attitude

Lower
limit

Homogeneous sample

Upper
limit

Outliersa

Lower
limit

Upper
limit

.59*
.53*
.56*
.47*
.53*
.40*
.38*
.36*
.33*
.31*

.37
.45
.40
.41
.24
.35
.17
.07
.23
.25

.75
.61
.68
.52
.73
.45
.56
.59
.42
.37

4
33
11
40
11
40
9
11
48
26

1
13
4
9
2
12
3
5
10
0

.65*
.54*
.48*
.48*
.41*
.40*
.32*
.32*
.32*
.31*

.42
.49
.38
.44
.29
.35
.15
.13
.28
.25

.80
.59
.57
.52
.51
.44
.47
.49
.36
.37

.30*
.29*
.23*
.43*
.15
.11*
.05

.17
.18
.07
.12
.11
.05
.31

.41
.38
.38
.66
.38
.18
.40

10
21
17
6
8
5
6

0
3
3
2
2
0
2

.30*
.28*
.19*
.18*
.12
.11*
.11

.17
.20
.08
.04
.01
.05
.10

.41
.35
.28
.31
.24
.18
.22

Note: Constructs are listed by the strength of the correlation of the homogeneous sample.
*Indicates significant (p .05) effect size.
aNumber of outliers removed to achieve significant (p .01) homogeneity.
Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

459

Mishra

Table 2. Comparison of Effect Sizes by Construct for the Moderator Variables Publication
and Level of Experience.
Publication
Construct

Level of experience

Pub

Diss

Thesis

Elem

Sec

CNM

CM

Academic achievement .33

Age
.52
Attitude
.59
Early exposure
.11
Ear training
.59
Improvistation
.63
IQ
.31
Memorization
.45
Music aptitude
.38
Music knowledge
.44
Music study
.37
Perception
.09
Personality
.28
Practice
.32
Psychomotor
.54
Sight-reading ability
.38
Technical ability
.60

.33
.52
.22
.11
.49
.59
.25
.42
.41
.49
.29
.27
.17
.26
.34
.31
.52

.68
.12

.68

.34
.42
.51

.98
.59
<.01*
.99
.31
.85
.50
.94
.82
.54
.39
.28
.11
.75
.35
.77
.58

.05

.36

.16

.45
.48
.24

.07

.40
.67
.38
.13
.48
.64
.48
.51
.44
.50
.33
.25
.39
.31
.22
.19
.77

.71

.28

.47
.55
.50

.31
.39
.13
.13
.63
.63
.22
.38
.30
.43
.23
.28
.09
.28
.37
.48
.54

.16
.01*
.14
.99
<.01*
.94
<.01*
.65
<.01*
.50
.03*
.85
.04*
.82
.24
.09
<.01*

Note: Pub = published; Diss = dissertation; Elem = elementary; Sec = secondary; CNM = college nonmusicians; CM = college musicians.
*Indicates significant (p .05) difference between effect sizes within levels-of-moderator variable.

differences in effect sizes can be explained by sampling error (Cooper, 2010). Effect
sizes were stable across published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations,
with significant differences found only for the construct of attitude, which likely
reflects a difference in sight-reading test rather than publication type. Sight-reading
mode (sight-reading versus sight-singing) also was not a factor in most constructs. In
only two cases (practice and technical ability) did sight-reading mode affect the
outcome.
The participants level of experience influenced the effect size for a number of
constructs; however, it should be noted that the elementary and college nonmusician
populations particularly were underrepresented in the primary research. There is no
discernible pattern to the results, but for the constructs where level was a significant
factor, most correlations were higher for secondary students, with lower correlations
between the given construct and sight-reading for the college musicians. The only
exception was the ear-training construct, where the ear-training skills of both adult
groups correlated with sight-reading to a greater extent than for the children.
A number of constructs also were different by test. Most primary research studies
used either a researcher-constructed measure of sight-reading or the WFPS, although
a few used sight-reading/sight-singing grades, a rating, or repertoire. In constructs

Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

460

Journal of Research in Music Education 61(4)

Table 3. Comparison of Effect Sizes by Construct for the Moderator Variables Mode and
Type of Sight-Reading Test.
Mode

Sight-Reading Test

Construct

SR

SS

Comp

Academic
Age
Attitude
Early exposure
Ear training
Improvistation
IQ
Memorization
Music aptitude
Music
knowledge
Music study
Perception
Personality
Practice
Psychomotor
Sight-reading
ability
Technical ability

.39
.57

.11
.50
.65
.33
.43
.39
.49

.29
.50
.05
.13
.57

.23

.40
.45

.09
.76

.77
.45

.27

.77
.49

.31
.51
.20
.13
.59
.63
.25
.24
.42
.47

.42
.23
.17
.26
.36
.45

.27
.16

.49

.29

.13
.57

.03*

.32

.76

.38

<.01*

WFPS

Grades

Ratings

Rep

.40
.54

.11
.42
.64
.31
.57
.40
.50

.22

.59

.56

.30

.34
.41

.38

.24

.16

.42
.68

.67

.28

.35
.37

.06
.65
<.01*
.77
.28
.94
.97
.21
.01*
.40

.32
.27
.31
.39
.25
.33

.38
.03
.05
.18
.44
.46

.35

.27
.27
.03

.67
.03

<.01*
.42
.42
.07
.43
.39

.35

.76

.44

<.01*

Note: SR = instrumental sight-reading; SS = vocal sight-singing; Comp = researcher-constructed composition; WFPS = Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale; Rep = published repertoire.
*Indicates significant (p .05) difference between effect sizes within levels-of-moderator variables.

where the type of sight-reading test significantly influenced effect sizes, the use of the
WFPS generally resulted in the construct correlating more highly with sight-reading,
while grades and ratings tended to result in lower correlations.

Discussion
Construct
The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the extent of the relationship
between previously tested variables, grouped by construct, and sight-reading. Although
it was not possible to compare the relationships between constructs directly, there was
a difference in the relative weights of the relationships, with some constructs correlating relatively closely with sight-reading and others showing no, or very low, correlations with sight-reading. In general, music constructs that can be improved with practice
(i.e., ability to improvise, ear-training ability, technical ability, and music knowledge)
correlated more strongly with sight-reading than did stable characteristics, such as
music aptitude, IQ, and personality. If the purpose of investigating correlations is to be
Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

461

Mishra

able to identify skills or characteristics that will facilitate the teaching of sight-reading,
then the four constructs showing the highest correlations with sight-reading should
result in improved sight-reading in an experimental setting. There is some evidence that
this is the case. In a meta-analysis of experimental sight-reading research, Mishra
(2013) found that the greatest improvements in sight-reading were associated with
treatments focused on aural skill training or creative activities, such as improvisation.
The results of the current study, as well as the results of the meta-analysis of experimental research (Mishra, 2013), lead to the recommendation that future research should
focus on testing the theory that sight-reading is a teachable activity rather than a stable
characteristic and that sight-reading is a skill that improves with the musicality of the
performer. This is not a new idea. Sloboda (1984) has argued for many years that sightreading is a form of music perception and understanding, engaging cognitive processes.
Music activities that help the performer to form expectations quickly and predict compositional construction seem central to the process of sight-reading. The tendency for those
with higher ear-training ability to sight-read better, for instance, could be an indicator
that sight-reading is more than a simple visuo-motor decoding process. Cues in the notation and aural cues from the performance may interact with music knowledge during
sight-reading, resulting in sophisticated guessing. Aural skills may make the performer
more self- and musically aware, allowing the performer to quickly form expectations
and predictions during sight-reading while also adjusting performance quality quickly.
While ear-training tests measure skills that increase with music knowledge and practice
(through error detection and dictation tests), music aptitude tests measure innate perceptual abilities generally using proto-musical material stripped of musical meaning. The
ability to hear musical details appears helpful to sight-reading (music aptitude is somewhat correlated with sight-reading), but the ability to understand and predict how the
music is constructed appears central to the sight-reading process.
One goal of this research was to coordinate previous research to suggest paths for
future investigation. Some constructs showed no, or very low, correlations with sightreading (attitude, perception, early exposure to music, and personality). Further investigation into these constructs seems unproductive. Additionally, a number of constructs
have been studied extensively, and the resultant correlations with sight-reading appear
stable. For instance, music aptitude has been correlated with sight-reading by a large
number of researchers. It is unlikely that additional research into the association
between music aptitude and sight-reading will add to the knowledge base. Other constructs, however, may require more research to stabilize the results. For instance, the
low correlation between memorization and sight-reading indicates that these skills are
distinct, with little association, but other researchers have found a closer association
(e.g., McPherson, Bailey, & Sinclair, 1997). This is not necessarily problematic
because there was often a wide range of correlations represented within each construct. However, in the case of memorization, the removal of two outliers resulted in a
substantial change in the effect size, while most other constructs changed very little
with the removal of outliers. This indicates that there may be additional factors in
this association not yet explored. Additional research also is suggested into the association between sight-reading performance and sight-reading ability, as measured in
the primary research as self-assessment of sight-reading ability, the use of a
Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

462

Journal of Research in Music Education 61(4)

sight-reading method, and instruction in sight-reading. The construct sight-reading

ability did not correlate highly with sight-reading performance, which seems counterintuitive. However, it is possible that this result reflects the self-awareness, or lack
thereof, of sight-reading abilities or that self-reports of sight-reading practice or methods are inaccurate or too blunt of a measure and do not measure the content and quality
of the sight-reading practice.
Although it is convenient for researchers to collect the number of years of applied
study or years in an ensemble from participants, as an indicator of past music experience and possibly as an indicator of technical ability, this information may not be
subtle enough to give a clear picture of the association between previous music experience and sight-reading. This especially should not be used as a measure of technical
ability because technical ability, when directly measured, does appear to correlate
much more strongly than years of music study. Years of music study as a variable
speaks only to quantity, not quality, of previous practice. It is likely that many of the
musicians participating in the primary studies had quality, expertise-developing experiences, but it is also likely that many had experiences of lesser quality or participated
in music training in a superficial way.

Moderator Variables
Study-level moderator variables were used to determine whether any study-level variables (publication type, level, mode, or sight-reading test) influenced the effect sizes
within each construct. Very few moderator variables emerged as significant, indicating
that sight-reading results were not influenced greatly by primary-study design.
However, in some cases, there was an insufficient number of studies to cover all levels
of the moderator variable, so these results should be considered preliminary. When
significant results did occur, most could be explained by the presence of an outlier.
This does not mean necessarily there were errors with the primary study, because the
presence of outliers statistically is expected. Most significant differences seen in
Tables 2 and 3 disappear with the removal of just one study.2 However, outliers could
not account for all significant differences, and some of these differences suggest that
sight-reading varies systematically. For instance, the significant difference between
levels of age and experience in the ear-training construct cannot be accounted for by
one or even two outliers. There appears to be a closer relationship between ear-training
ability and sight-reading for the two adult groups. In the technical ability construct, the
pattern is different, with sight-reading more closely related for the middle school and
high school performers. Again, missing data make this a highly speculative conclusion, but these results could point to a developmental increase in sight-reading abilities
during the middle and high school years that stabilizes into adulthood.
The idea of sight-reading being differentially affected by age and level of experience is intriguing enough for further research to be conducted. Rather than one stable
trait or skill that affects sight-reading at all age and experience levels, the factors
affecting sight-reading may change as the musician develops. There also may be
evidence for a saturation point for certain constructs, after which the construct no
longer continues to increase at the same rate as sight-reading ability (or vice versa).
Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

463

Mishra

For instance, music aptitude appears to be less associated with sight-reading for college musicians while playing a greater role with younger and/or less experienced
(i.e., nonmusic majors) performers. These findings may indicate that once a musician
attains a certain level, any differences in music aptitude become moot. A similar pattern occurs within the technical ability construct, although there is less information
available. The findings could indicate that with musicians, technical ability may continue to increase while sight-reading ability does notor improves at a slower pace.
For the most part, correlations were unaffected by study-level variables, and based
on these findings, it is recommended that primary studies should not use blunt measurements, like grades or ratings, because the findings may be at odds with other, more
sophisticated measures of sight-reading. Additionally, there is at least some evidence
from this research that sight-reading may be developmental and that correlations with
various constructs may change as age and experience increases.

Conclusion
The meta-analysis revealed patterns in the correlations that otherwise may be obscured
by the conflicting results reported in primary research studies. These patterns suggest
avenues for future research that may explain observed differences in sight-reading
ability and lead to pedagogical approaches to enhance the skill. However, the variability in correlations found in previous research is in itself important. Attempts to investigate the causes of this variability may begin to explain the correlations, which seems
to be a more productive approach than continuing to report correlations.
In this study, 17 constructs were identified, but factor analysis may determine whether
these constructs can be grouped further. Given that it is logistically impossible to replicate within one primary study all of the previously tested variables thought to correlate
with sight-reading, the results of this study can provide a structure for choosing variables
either within or between constructs. It is likely that one factor is insufficient to explain
the complex skill of sight-reading, but investigations driven by the theory that sightreading is a musical skill that increases with the musical understanding of the performer
seem most promising. Correlational research is by definition limited and cannot speak to
cause and effect. Theory-driven investigations, however, could lead to predictive studies
with systematically chosen variables that build toward a theory of music sight-reading.
Experimental research can support such a theory with treatments that can impact the
classroom directly. This study is a step toward the goal of narrowing the search for variables that best predict sight-reading ability. If and when a small group of variables can
be found consistently to predict sight-reading, teachers may be able to use this knowledge to teach the complex skill of sight-reading more effectively.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

464

Journal of Research in Music Education 61(4)

Funding
The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.

Notes
1.

2.

Meta-analyses also were computed retaining all correlations to determine whether the averaging procedure affected the results. Effect sizes for most constructs remained the same,
and the few that changed were altered only slightly. Nonsignificant effect sizes remained
nonsignificant. In only three constructs did the correlation alter by as much as 0.05 (memorization, practice, and academic achievement).
The difference in publication type for the attitude construct disappears with the removal of
Harrison, Asmus, and Serpe (1994; published). Differences between levels for age disappear with the removal of Hammer (1963; elementary), for personality with the removal
of Luce (1965; secondary), and for music study with the removal of Shake (1957; college nonmusic majors). Differences between sight-reading and sight-singing found for the
practice construct disappear with the removal of Dennee (1996; sight-singing). Differences
between tests for attitude disappear with the removal of Harrison et al. (1994; grades) and
for aptitude and music study with the removal of Cooley (1961; ratings).

References
References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis. For a complete reference list of studies included in the meta-analysis, see the online supplemental
materials available at http://jrme.sagepub.com/supplemental.
Borenstein, M., & Hedges, L. V. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. New York, NY: Wiley.
Biostat. (2010). Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (Version 2.2.057) Computer software.
Englewood, NJ: Author. Retrieved from http://www.meta-analysis.com/
*Cooley, J. C. (1961). A study of the relation between certain mental and personality traits and
ratings of musical abilities. Journal of Research in Music Education, 9, 108117.
Cooper, H. M. (2010) Research synthesis and meta-analysis: A step-by-step approach.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
*Daniels, R. D. (1986). Relationships among selected factors and the sight-reading ability
of high school mixed choirs. Journal of Research in Music Education, 34, 279289.
doi: 10.2307/3345261
*Dean, C. D. (1936). The Seashore Tests of Musical Talent in teacher-education (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation). Colorado State College of Education, Greeley.
*Demorest, S. M., & May, W. V. (1995). Sight-singing instruction in the choral ensemble:
Factors related to individual performance. Journal of Research in Music Education, 43,
156167. doi: 10.2307/3345676
*Dennee, P. (1996). Teacher effects on performance achievement of ninth-grade choral
music students (Doctoral dissertation). Arizona State University, Tempe. Retrieved from
Dissertations and Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 9640047)
*Elliott, C. A. (1982). The relationship among instrumental sight-reading ability and seven selected
predictor variables. Journal of Research in Music Education, 30, 514. doi: 10.2307/3344862
*Gromko, J. E. (2004). Predictors of music sight-reading ability in high school wind players.
Journal of Research in Music Education, 52, 615. doi: 10.2307/3345521

Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016

465

Mishra

*Hammer, H. (1963). An experimental study of the use of the tachistoscope in the teaching of melodic sight singing. Journal of Research in Music Education, 11, 44-54.
doi:10.2307/3344530
*Harrison, C. S., Asmus, E. P., & Serpe, R. T. (1994). Effects of musical aptitude, academic
ability, music experience, and motivation on aural skills. Journal of Research in Music
Education, 42, 131144.
Hodges, D. (1992). The acquisition of music reading skills. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Handbook of
research on music teaching and learning (pp. 466471). New York, NY: Schirmer Books.
Kmpfe, J., Sedlmeier, P., & Renkewitz, F. (2010). The impact of background music on adult listeners: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Music. 39, 424-448. doi: 10.1177/0305735610376261.
*Luce, J. R. (1965). Sight-reading and ear-playing abilities as related to instrumental music
students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 13, 101109.
*Mann, R. G. (1991). The use of Kodaly instruction to develop the sight reading skills of undergraduate flute students (Doctoral dissertation). Arizona State University, Tempe. Retrieved
from Dissertations and Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 9124822)
McPherson, G. E., Bailey, M., & Sinclair, K. E. (1997). Path analysis of a theoretical model to
describe the relationship among five types of musical performance. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 45, 103129. doi: 10.2307/3345469
*Mewes, G. E. (1969). An attempt to determine the association, if any, between crossed dominance and achievement levels in instrumental music reading (Doctoral dissertation).
University of Oklahoma, Norman. Retrieved from Dissertations and Theses: Full Text.
(Publication No. AAT 7002325)
Mishra, J. (2013). Improving sightreading accuracy: A meta-analysis. Psychology of Music.
Advance online publication. doi: 10.1177/0305735612463770
Pietschnig, J., Voracek, M., & Formann, A. K. (2010). Mozart effectschmozart effect: A metaanalysis. Intelligence, 38, 314323. doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2010.03.001
*Read, J. W. (1968). An investigation of the relationship of selected variables to sight singing ability (Doctoral dissertation). North Texas State University, Denton. Retrieved from
Dissertations & Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 6905276).
*Shake, J. C. (1957). Devising a test to measure some areas of difficulty in reading piano music
(Doctoral dissertation). Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY.
Sloboda, J. A. (1984). Experimental studies of music reading: A review. Music Perception, 2,
222236.
Standley, J. M. (1996). A meta-analysis on the effects of music as reinforcement for education/
therapy objectives. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44, 105133. doi: 10.2307/3345665
Standley, J. M. (2008). Does music instruction help children learn to read? Evidence of a
meta-analysis. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 27(1), 1732.
doi: 10.1177/8755123308322270
Thompson, S., & Lehmann, A. C. (2004), Strategies for sight-reading and improvising music.
In A. Williamon (Ed.), Musical excellence (pp. 143159). Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.

Author Biography
Jennifer Mishra is an associate professor of music education at the University of Missouri
St. Louis. Her research interests focus on music teacher training and music cognition, especially
in the area of music performance (sight-reading, practice, and memorization).
Submitted December 14, 2011; accepted February 3, 2013.

Downloaded from jrm.sagepub.com by guest on January 18, 2016