Handout 1

Imperial College of Science, Technology & Medicine

Department of Aeronautics

Third Year
Energy Methods
1.1 Principle of stationary total potential energy
1.1.1 Introduction to the principle of stationary total potential energy
Let us consider an arbitrary mechanical system with some strain energy
and the work
done by the applied loads (also called the potential of the applied loads) U at an equilibrium state. The dynamical systems, which also have some kinetic energy (the energy
of motion) T , will be considered later. As an example, we may think of a massless linear
elastic spring with stiness k and a point force R at its end as shown in the following
gure.
Infinitesimal
perturbation

Equilibrium
configuration

k
= -U

= (r + r ) - (r )
=

r
R

U = R r

The basic observation is that any in
nitesimal perturbation r put into the work of the
applied load has to be taken by the resulting change in the strain energy:
{1{

U = 
:

(1:1)

Assuming that there exists the total potential energy

=
; U

(1:2)

we thus arrive at the following principle of stationary total potential energy:

The total potential energy of a system is stationary at equilibrium:  = 0.
In some cases the total potential energy may not exist even when U and 
exist, usually
because the potential of the applied loads U cannot be de ned. Such systems are called
polygenic (meaning that the equilibrium cannot be obtained from the total potential
energy as a single source). These systems will be re-visited in the last part of the course,
where they will be analysed in dynamic situations in order to show that they are inherently
non-conservative. From now on we will only consider the systems for which the total
potential energy exists. For such systems, the equilibrium equations of the problem are
derivable from a single source { the total potential energy { and they are accordingly
called monogenic.
For some abstract problem with one degree of freedom (r), the graph of total potential
energy may thus look like the one shown in the following gure. The second variation of the
total potential energy gives more information on the character of the actual equilibrium.
For this example, obviously (note that r is in nitesimally small)
(v + r) > (v )

and

and using the Taylor series expansion,

{2{

(w + r) < (w)

(1:3)

z =0
}| { 2 


d

(v + r) = (v ) +  r + 1 d 2  r2 + O(r3 )
dr v 2 dr v

2 
d

d
1

(w + r) = (w) + dr  r + 2 dr2  r2 + O(r3 ):
w
| {zw }

(1:4)

=0

(r)
equilibria
w= 0

v = 0
r

v
w

Substituting these results into (1.3) shows that the total potential energy for an equilibrium


state at r? will be minimal for ddr2 2 
(in nitesimal) r


r2 > 0 and maximal for ddr2 2  r2 < 0 for arbitrary
r?
r?
(note that for in nitesimal r we are justi ed in setting O(r3 ) = 0).

For linear problems there can only exist one solution and it is important to make sure that
for that solution the total potential energy is at the minimum rather than the maximum.
This can be shown to be the condition for a stable equilibrium, so the earlier statement
of the principle may be rephrased to read
The total potential energy of a system is minimal at a stable equilibrium:

 = 0 and ddr22 > 0.

Taking the earlier linear spring example as a model with
= 12 kr2 , U = Rr and =
1 kr2 ; Rr gives the following stationarity condition (the rst-order condition)
2

  (kr ; R)r = 0 8 r () kr ; R = 0
{3{

(1:5)

where the condition that the stationary point be at the minimum of the total potential
energy (the second-order condition) is satis ed due to ddr2 2 = k > 0.
1.1.2 Stationary total potential energy for systems with many degrees of freedom
As an example of such problems we may think of a planar truss structure with N joints,
where for each joint there would exist two unknowns, thus ending up in a problem with
2N degrees of freedom. Taking for simplicity the total potential energy as a function of

r 

a two-dimensional unknown vector r = r1 , the expansion in Taylor series around an

2
equilibrium r? up to and including second-order terms gives

@ 
( ? +  )  ( ? )+ @r
1

r r

"

 @ 

@
@ 2
1
@r
@r
1 @r2
?
@r
1
1
= (r ) + hr1 r2 i @ 
+ 2 hr1 r2 i @ 2 
2
@
@r2 r ?
@r1 @r2
@r22


= (r? ) +  rt r r ? + 12  rt grad (r ) r ?  r 

where r =

 @ 
@r1
@
@r2

@  r + 1 @ 2  r2 + @ 2  r r + 1 @ 2  r2
r1 + @r
2 2 @r2  1 @r @r  1 2 2 @r2  2
2 r ?
1 2 r?
1 r?
2 r?
r?

and grad (r ) = r rt =

 @ 
@r1
@
@r2

h @r@1

#  
r1

r2

@
@r2 i. The principle of

2
minimum total potential energy ( = 0 and ddu2 > 0) in this case becomes:

  @r@ 
First-order condition:  r
r () r r? = @ ? = 0 
r
" @ @r r @  #  

r1 > 0 8 r.
Second-order condition:  r t grad (r )  ? r = hr1 r2 i @@r @r@ @r

r2
r


t r  = 0 8 
?

2
2

2
1

@r1 @r2

1
2

@r22

A linear example similar to the earlier spring example would have the total potential
energy given as
= 21 rt Kr ; rt R
{4{

(1:6)

where K is called the stiness matrix and R is the load vector. The stationarity condition
(the rst-order condition) is now

  rt (Kr ; R) = 0 8 r () Kr ; R = 0 

(1:7)

and the second-order condition requires  rt K  r > 0 for arbitrary  r . For a stable equilibrium, therefore, the stiness matrix must be positive de
nite.
1.2 Principle of virtual work
The principle of virtual work (in particular its subset, the principle of virtual displacements, which will be studied in this course) is a simple and very versatile technique, which
is widely used in modern numerical analysis of complex engineering structures. It is closely
related to the principle of stationary total potential energy and can be explained using
the earlier spring-force example. In this approach, we assume a kinematically admissible
perturbation r (the virtual displacement), which is not caused by the actual system of
forces acting on the system and is therefore independent of it, and require that the total
work over this perturbation (the virtual work) be zero. Eectively, we re-phrase the observation leading to (1.1) and stipulate that the virtual work of the applied loads has to
be equal to the virtual work of the internal (elastic) forces:

Ve = Vi:

(1:8)

It is useful to recognise that the in nitesimal displacement r in the earlier principle of

stationary total potential energy performs the same role as the current virtual displacement

r. In both cases they are kinematically admissible: in the rst case because r is an
{5{

in
nitesimal perturbation of the actual displacement r (i.e. all the r2 terms vanish) and
in the second case because r is de ned as such.
An important dierence between the principle of the stationary total potential energy and
the principle of virtual work is that in the latter principle there is no need to formulate
the expression for the total potential energy and vary it. As a consequence, the principle
of virtual work is applicable to polygenic problems (in which the total potential energy
does not exist) since the (imaginary) virtual work can always be de ned. In this sense, the
principle of virtual work is a more powerful technique than the principle of total potential
energy.
For the earlier spring-force example, the external and the internal virtual work are

Ve = Rr

and

Vi = S  

(1:9)

where S = kr is the elastic force in the spring and  is the virtual extension of the spring
caused by the virtual displacement r (in this example  = r and  = r). The principle
of virtual work (1.8) then states

Vi ; Ve  r(kr ; R) = 0 8 r () kr ; R = 0:

(1:10)

In the next section we will relate the principle of virtual work, as well as the principle
of stationary total potential energy, to the equilibrium equations using the direct method
(equilibrium conditions).
1.3 Links with the direct method
The governing equations for deformable mechanical systems fall into three groups:
{6{

1. Equilibrium equations, which relate the applied loads to the stresses in the structure,
2. Constitutive equations, which relate the stresses to the strains and
3. Compatibility (kinematic) equations, which relate the strains to the displacements.
These three groups of equations fully de ne the problem, which is solved for the displacements as the basic unknowns of the problem. The strains and the stresses are then
obtained from the displacements. It will be shown that the principles of stationary total
potential energy and virtual work may be used instead of the directly obtained equilibrium
equations. Before that, however, a simple example with two degrees of freedom will be
chosen and solved using the direct method.
1.3.1 Simple problem using the direct method
Let us take the simple truss with two bars of equal length l, elastic modulus E and crosssectional areas A1 and A2 , which are loaded with forces R1 and R2 as given in the following
gure. Let us nd the resulting displacements r1 and r2 , extensions 1 and 2 , and stress
resultants (bar forces) N1 and N2 .

E, l, A 1 , N 1 , 1

E, l, A 2 , N 2 , 2
R1 , r 1

R2 , r 2

1. Equilibrium equations:

R1 = N1 sin  ; N2 sin 
R2 = N1 cos  + N2 cos 

(1.11)

2. Constitutive equations:

N1 = EAl 1 1
N2 = EAl 2 2

(1.12)

{7{

3. Compatibility equations:

1 = r1 sin  + r2 cos 
2 = ;r1 sin  + r2 cos 

(1.13)

Substituting (1.13) into (1.12) and the result into (1.11) gives

r { z R}| {
K}|
z
z
{
}|


E (A1 + A2) sin2  (A1 ; A2 ) sin  cos  r1  =  R1  :
2
R2

(1:14)

A1 +2A2 ; A1 ;A2
 R 
l
1 
sin
= 4EA A ; sin
A1 +2Acos2 
A1 ;A2
R
2
1 2
sin  cos 
cos 

(1:15)

l (A1 ; A2) sin  cos 

(A1 + A2 ) cos 

r2

The solution of this system of equations is

r 
1
r2

from where the extensions 1 and 2 and the stress resultants N1 and N2 are obtained
using (1.13) and (1.12).
1.3.2 The example using the principle of stationary total potential energy
The strain energy for each of the two bars is equal to half the product between the force
and the extension of the bar, hence the total strain energy is

= 21 N11 + 12 N22

(1:16)

whereas the work of the applied loads is

U = R1r1 + R2r2

(1:17)

thus giving the total potential energy

= 21 N1 1 + 21 N22 ; R1 r1 ; R2 r2:
{8{

(1:18)

The total potential energy may be used instead of the equilibrium equations (1.11), but
in either case the constitutive and compatibility equations (1.12) and (1.13) are needed.
Substituting these results into (1.18) gives
= 21l EA121 + 21l EA2 22 ; R1 r1 ; R2 r2

= 2El A1 (r1 sin  + r2 cos )2 + A2 (;r1 sin  + r2 cos )2 ; R1 r1 ; R2r2 :

(1:19)

The principle of stationary total potential energy  = 0 then gives

  El (A1 + A2 )r1 sin2  + (A1 ; A2 )r2 sin  cos  r1 ; R1r1

+ El (A1 ; A2 )r1 sin  cos  + (A1 + A2 )r2 cos2  r2 ; R2 r2 = 0

(1:20)

or in matrix form

1
R
r
{
}|
{
z
}|
{
z

   C
(A1 + A2 ) sin2  (A1 ; A2 ) sin  cos  r1 ; R1 C
r2
R2 C
@ l (A1 ; A2) sin  cos  (A1 + A2 ) cos2 
A = 0:

z }|r { BBzE
hr1 r2i B


K}|

(1:21)
This result must be valid for any  r , hence

Kr ; R = 0 :

(1:22)

This is the same result as in (1.14), hence it gives the same displacements r1 and r2 ,
extensions 1 and 2 and stress resultants N1 and N2 as in the earlier direct method.
Here, however, the principle of stationary total potential energy has been used instead of
the equilibrium equations (1.11).
{9{

1.3.3 The example using the principle of virtual work

Applying virtual displacements r1 and r2 the external and internal virtual works become

Ve = R1r1 + R2r2

and

Vi = N1 1 + N2 2

(1:23)

where  1 and  2 are virtual extensions of the bars produced by the virtual displacements

r1 and r2. The kinematic admissibility of virtual quantities means that they are related
in the same way as the actual extensions and displacements, i.e. via linear kinematic
relationships (1.13):
1 = r1 sin  + r2 cos  ()  1 = r1 sin  + r2 cos  :
2 = ;r1 sin  + r2 cos  ()  2 = ;r1 sin  + r2 cos 

(1:24)

The principle of virtual work Vi ; Ve = 0, along with the constitutive relations (1.12) and
compatibility equations (1.13), gives

r1

 EA
l

1  sin  ; EA2  sin  ; R + r

1
1
2
l 2

 EA
l

1  cos  + EA2  cos  ; R

1
2
l 2

1
0
B E (A1 + A2 ) sin2  (A1 ; A2) sin  cos 
 r1   R1 C
C = 0:
= h|r1{zr2}i B
B@ l (A1 ; A2) sin  cos  (A1 + A2 ) cos2 
r2 ; R2 C
{z
} | {z } | {z }A
r t |

(1:25)

This result must be valid for any vector of virtual displacements r, hence Kr ; R = 0 ,
which is the same result as (1.14) and (1.22), hence the principle of virtual work gives the
same displacements r1 and r2 , extensions 1 and 2 and stress resultants N1 and N2 as
before. The principle of virtual work can thus be used instead of the equilibrium equations
(1.11).
{ 10 {