SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY

The diode current equation

kVd

I d = I s (e Tk 1)

Atomic Structure
Diameter of neutron = 10-13 cm
Maximum number of electrons per shell or orbit
N e = 2n 2
n = 1, 2,3, 4
Letter designation
K shell 1
L shell 2
M shell 3
N shell 4

O shell 5
P shell 6
Q shell 7

Mass and Charge of different Particles

Particle
Mass (kg)
Charge (C)

31
Electron 9.1096 10
1.6022 1019
Proton 1.6726 1027 + 1.6022 10 19
No charge
Neutron 1.6726 1027
A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Z = number of protons or electrons
Where: A = Atomic mass or weight (A)
Z = Atomic number (Z)
Note: Mass of proton or neutron is 1836 times that
of electron.
Energy Gap Comparison
Energy
Element
No. of Valence
Electrons (Ve)
8
> 5eV
Insulator
4
Si = 1.1eV
Semiconductor
Ge = .67eV
1
0eV
Conductor
At room temperature: there are approximately
1.51010 of free electrons in a cubic centimeter
(cm3) for intrinsic silicon and 2.51013 for
germanium.

Diode Theory
VthT 1 = VthT 0 + k (T1 T0 )

where: VthT1 = threshold voltage at T1

VthT0 = threshold voltage at T0
k = 2.5 mV/C for Ge
k = 2.0 mV/C for Si

Where: Id = diode current

Is = reverse saturation current or leakage
current
Vd = forward voltage across the diode
Tk = room temperature at K
= C + 273
11600
k=
n
for low levels of diode current
n = 1 for Ge and n = 2 for Si
for higher levels of diode current
n = 1 for both Si and Ge
Temperature effects on Is
I sT1 = I sT0 e k (T1T0 )
Where: IsT1 = saturation current at temperature T1
IsT0 = saturation current at room temperature
k = 0.07/C
T1 = new temperature
T0 = room temperature (25C)
Reverse Recovery Time (Trr)
Trr = t s + tt
Where: Trr = time elapsed from forward to reverse
bias (ranges from a few ns to few hundreds
of ps)
Tt = transition time
Ts = storage time

DC CIRCUITS 1
1 Coulomb = 6.241018 electrons
By definition: A wire of 1 mil diameter has a crosssectional area of 1 Circular Mil (CM)
1 mil = 10-3 in
1 in = 1000 mils
Asquare = 1 mil2

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D 2
Acircle =
mil 2
4
4
1mil 2 = CM

Quark
Up
Down
Charm
Strange
Top
Bottom

Temperature effects on resistance

R2 T + t 2
1
1 =
=
R1 T + t1
T + t1

Type/Flavors of Quarks
Symbol Charge Baryon no.
U
+2/3
1/3
D
1/3
1/3
C
+2/3
1/3
S
1/3
1/3
T
+2/3
1/3
B
1/3
1/3

Proton 2 Up and 1 Down

Neutron 1 Up and 2 Down

Type
D
C
AA
AAA
I=

Q
t

V =

Types of Battery
Height (in) Diameter (in)
2 14
1 14
1 34
1
9
178
16
3
3
1 4
8
Ampere( A);

W
Q

RA
L

Volt (V );

Coulomb(C )
sec ond ( s )

Joule( J )
Coulomb(C )

m; cm;

CM
ft

Resistivities of common metals and alloys

Material
(10-8-m)
Aluminum (Al)
2.6
Brass
6
Carbon
350
Constantan (60% Cu and 40% Ni)
50
Copper (Cu)
1.7
Manganin (84% Cu, 12%Mn &
44
4%Ni)
Nichrome
100
Silver (Ag)
1.5
Tungsten (W)
5.6
Absolute zero = 0 K = 273C
Cu = 10.37 CM/ft

R2 = R1[1 + 1 (t 2 t1 )]
where: |T| = inferred absolute temperature, C
R2 = final resistance at final temp. t2
R1 = initial resistance at initial temp. t1
1 = temp coefficient of resistance at t1
American Wire Gauge (AWG)
AWG #10: A = 5.261 mm2
AWG #12: A = 3.309 mm2
AWG #14: A = 2.081 mm2
Inferred Absolute Temp. for Several Metals
Material
Inferred absolute zero, C
Aluminum
-236
Copper, annealed
-234.5
Copper, hard-drawn
-242
Iron
-180
Nickel
-147
Silver
-243
Steel, soft
-218
Tin
-218
Tungsten
-202
Zinc
-250
Temperature-Resistance Coefficients at 20 C
Material
20
Nickel
0.006
Iron, commercial
0.0055
Tungsten
0.0045
Copper, annealed
0.00393
Aluminum
0.0039
Lead
0.0039
Copper, hard-drawn
0.00382
Silver
0.0038
Zinc
0.0037
Gold, pure
0.0034
Platinum
0.003
Bras
0.002
Nichrome
0.00044
German Silver
0.0004
Nichrome II
0.00016
Manganin
0.00003
Advance
0.000018
Constantan
0.000008

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1
A
A
=
=
R L
L
where: = specific conductance or conductivity of
the material in siemens/m or mho/m.
G=

Gold
Silver
None

W Q
E2
= E = IE =
= I 2R
t
t
R
where: W = work in Joules (J)
t = time in seconds (s)
Q = charge in Coulomb (C)

Battery life =

Current Division Theorem

R2
R1
IT
IT
I1 =
I2 =
R1 + R2
R1 + R2
Transformations or Conversations:
Delta () to Wye (Y)
Pr oduct _ of _ adjacent _ R _ in _
RY =
of _ all _ R _ in _
Wye (Y) to Delta ()
of _ cross _ products _ in _ Y
R =
Opposite _ R _ in _ Y

Black
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
Gray
White

1st
significant
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

2nd
significant
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Multiplier
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109

Tolerrance
(%)
20
1
2
3
GMV
5
-

5
10
20

+100
Bypass
-

Ampere hour _ rating ( Ah)

Amperes _ drawn ( A)

Cell Types and Open-Circuit Voltage

Cell Name
Type
Nominal OpenCircuit Voltage
Carbon-zinc
Primary
1.5
Zinc-chloride
Primary
1.5
Manganese
Primary or
1.5
dioxide (alkaline)
Secondary
Mercuric oxide
Primary
1.35
Silver oxide
Primary
1.5
Lead-acid
Secondary
2.1
Nickel-cadmium
Secondary
1.25
Nickel-iron
Secondary
1.2
(Edison cell)
Silver-zinc
Secondary
1.2
Silver-cadmium
Secondary
1.1
Nickel metal
Secondary
1.2
hydride (NiMH)

DIODES

Color Coding Table

Color

0.1
0.01
-

Fifth band reliability color code

Color
Failures during 1000
hours of operation
Brown
1.0%
Red
0.1%
Orange
0.01%
Yellow
0.001%
Batteries

Voltage Division Theorem

2 resistors in series with one
R1
R2
E
E
V1 =
V2 =
R1 + R2
R1 + R2

GMV = Guaranteed Minimum Value: -0%, +100%

Note: The best is silver with 1.681024 free

electrons per in3. Next is copper with 1.641024 free
electrons per in3 and then aluminum with 1.61024
free electrons per in3.
P=

Temp
Coef
ppm/C
0
-33
-75
-150
-220
-330
-470
-750
+30
+500

Diode Applications
Halfwave Rectification
V
VDC = m = 0.318Vm

PIV rating Vm
Fullwave Rectification

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Vrms

1
=
V (t ) 2 dt

T 0

VDC = 0.36Vm
PIV rating Vm
for bridge-type

PIV rating 2Vm

for center-tapped

Other Semiconductor Devices

Zener Diode
VZ
TCC =
VZ (T1 T0 )
where: TCC = temperature coefficient
T1T0 = change in temperature
VZ = Zener Voltage at T0

where: C(0) = capacitance at zero-bias condition

Also,

III. Fixed Vi, variable RL

RVZ
RL min =
Vi VZ

Vi max = I R max RS + VZ

RL max =

C
C O (T1 T0 )
where: TCC = temperature coefficient
T1 T0 = change in temperature
C0 = capacitance at T0
TC C =

Basic Zener Regulator

I. Vi and RL fixed
(a) Determine the state of the Zener diode by
removing it from the network and calculating the
voltage across the resulting open circuit.
(b) Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and
solve for the desired unknown.
II. Fixed RL, variable Vi
( R + RS )VZ
Vi min = L
RL

In terms of the applied reverse bias voltage:

C (0)
CT =
n
VR

1 +
VT

VZ
I L min

Varactor diode or Varicap diode

A
CT =
Wd
where: CT = transition capacitance which is due to
the established covered charges on either side
of the junction
A = pn junction area
Wd = depletion width
In terms of the applied reverse bias voltage:
k
CT =
(VT + VR ) n
where: CT = transition capacitance which is due to
the established covered charges on either side
of the junction
k = constant determined by the
semiconductor material and construction
technique
VT = knee voltage
VR = reverse voltage
n = for alloy junctions and for diffused
junctions

Photodiode
c
; Joules

where: W = energy associated with incident light

waves
h = Plancks constant (6.62410-34 J-sec)
f = frequency
W = hf = h

1eV = 1.610-9 J
1 Angstrom () = 10-10 m
Solar Cell
=

PO
=
Pi

Pmax
1W
( Area ) 2
cm

where: = efficiency
P0 = electrical power output
Pi = power provided by the light source
Pmax = maximum power rating of the device
Area = in cubic centimeters
Note: The power density received from the sun at
sea level is about 1000 mW/cm2

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

Ratio =

widthtotal 0.150
=
= 150
width base 0.001

Basic Operation
Relationship between IE, IB and IC:
I E = IB + IC

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h21 = forward transfer current ratio, hf

h22 = output conductance, ho

IC is composed of two components:

I C = I majority + I min ority
DC Transistor Parameters
I
= C
I E Vcb =cons tan t

I
= C
I B
I
= C
IB

Vce = cons tan t

IC
IE
where: IE = emitter current
IB = base current
IC = collector current
= CB short-circuit amplification factor
= CE forward-current amplification factor
=

Relationship between and :

=
=
+1
1
Stability Factor (S):
I C
I CO
I C
S ( I CO ) =
VBE
I
S ( I CO ) = C

S ( I CO ) =

Unitless

hi
hr
hf
ho

Comparison between 3 transistor configurations

CB
CE
CC
Zi
low
moderate
high
Zo
high
moderate
low
Ai
low
high
moderate
Av
high
high
low
Ap
moderate
high
low
shift
none
180
none
B. Re Model
Note:
Common Base : hib = re ; hfb = 1
Common Emitter: = hfe ; re = hie

Siemens
Ampere

H-Parameters typical values

CE
CB
CC
1k
20
1k
2.510-4 310-4
1
50
-0.98
-50
25S
0.5S
25S

FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

JFET
V
I D = I DSS 1 GS
VP

Small Signal Analysis

A. Hybrid Model
Vi = h11 I in + h12V0

gm =

I o = h21 I in + h22V0
If Vo = 0
h11 =

Vi
I in

ohms

If Iin = 0
h12 =

Vi
V0

unitless

h21 =

I0
I in

unitless

If Vo = 0

2 I DSS
VP

VGS
1
VP

g mo =
I d
=
V gs

2 I DSS
VP

Vds = 0

where:
Id = drain current
Idss = drain-source saturation current
Vgs = gate source voltage
Vp = Vgs (off), pinch-off voltage
gm = gfs, device transconductance
gmo = the maximum ac gain parameter of the JFET

I0
siemens
V0
where: h11 = input-impedance, hi
h12 = reverse transfer voltage ratio, hr

0 VGS 5

MOSFET
I DS = k (VGS VTH ) 2
k = 0.3mA / V 2

If Iin = 0
h11 =

FET biasing

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DC bias of a FET requires setting the gate-source

voltage, which results in a desired drain current. Vgg
is used to reverse bias the gate so that Ig = 0.

Vdc = average value of the filters output

voltage
Vr (rms ) = 0.385Vm
Vr (rms ) = 0.308Vm

POWER SUPPLY

Transformer
I p Vs
N
a=
=
= s =
Is Vp N p

Zs
Zp

where: a = turns ratio

Vs = secondary induce voltage
Vp = primary voltage
Ns = no. of turns on the secondary windings
Np = no. of turns on the primary windings
Ip = current in the primary windings
Is = current in the secondary windings
Zs = impedance of the load connected to the
secondary winding
Zp = impedance looking into the primary
from source
Rectifier
Halfwave signal
Vm
2
Vdc = 0.636Vrms
PIV = 2Vrms
Ripple frequency = AC input frequency
Vdc = 0.318Vm

Vrms =

Fullwave rectified signal (bridge type)

V
Vrms = m
Vdc = 0.636Vm
2
Vdc = 0.9Vrms
PIV = 2Vrms
Ripple frequency = 2AC input frequency
Fullwave with center-tapped transformer
Vdc = 0.9Vrms of the half the secondary
= 0.45Vrms of the full secondary
= 0.637Vpk of half of the secondary
= 0.637Vpk of the full secondary
PIV = 1.414Vrms of full secondary
AC Vr (rms )
r=
=
DC
Vdc
Vr (rms ) = Vrms Vdc
where: r = ripple factor
Vr(rms) = rms value of the ripple voltage
2

halfwave rectified signal

fullwave rectified signal

Filter
Vr (rms ) =

Vr ( p )
3

Vr ( p p )

2 3
2.4 I dc 2.4Vdc
Vr (rms ) =
=
=
C
RL C
4 3 fC
I
4.17 I dc
V ( p p)
Vdc = Vm r
= Vm dc = Vm
2
4 fC
C
2.4 I dc
V (rms )
2.4
r= r
100% =
100% =
100%
Vdc
CVdc
RL C
where: Idc = the load current in mA
C = filter capacitor in F
RL = load resistance at the filter stage in k
Vm = the peak rectified voltage
Idc = the load current in mA
C = filter capacitor in F
f = frequency at 60 Hz
I dc

Regulator
Voltage Regulation
Vnoload V fload
V .R. =
100%
V fload
Stability factor (S)
Vout
S=
(constant output current)
Vin
Improved series regulation
R + R2
Vo = 1
(VZ + VBE 2 )
R2

INSTRUMENTATION
DC Ammeter
Relationship between current without the
ammeter and current with the ammeter
I wm
Ro
=
I wom Ro + Rm
where: Iwm = current with meter
Iwom = current without meter
Ro = equivalent resistance

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Rm = internal resistance of ammeter

Accuracy Equation of an ammeter
I
accuracy = wm
I wom
Percent of loading error
%error = (1 accuracy ) 100%

Ro
I
=
I fs Ro + Ru
where: Ifs = full scale current
Voc = open circuit voltage
Ro = internal resistance of ohmmeter
D = meter deflection
Ru = unknown resistance
D=

Ammeter Shunt
I fs Rm
Rsh =
I t I fs

Rinsh =

Rm Rsh
Rm + Rsh

Vin I fs Rm
=
I in
It
where: Rsh = shunt resistance
Ifs = full scale current
Rm = meter resistance
It = total current
Rinsh = input resistance of the shunted meter
Vin = voltage input
Iin = current input

AC Detection
0.45
S ac =
Sensitivity for a half-wave rectifier
I fs
S ac =

Rin sh =

Rin =

V fs
I fs

Voltmeter Loading Error

V
Rin
accuracy = wm =
Vwom Rin + Ro
R V
Vwm = in wom
Rin + Ro

Ohmmeter
V
I fs = oc
Ro

DC Bridges
Wheatstone bridge ohmmeter
Bridge is balance if
R1 R3
=
R2 R4

Attenuators

Ro = Rins Rino
where: Ro = characteristic resistance
Rins = input resistance with output terminals
shorted
Rino = input resistance with output terminals
open

Voltmeter
For full scale current
Vfs = (Rs + Rm)Ifs
V fs
Rs =
Rm
I fs
Rin = Rs + Rm
where: Vfs = full scale voltage
Rs = series resistor
Rin = input resistance
Sensitivity of Voltmeter
1
S=
I fs

0.9
Sensitivity for a full-wave rectifier
I fs

Voc
I=
Ro + Ru

L type or the voltage divider

V
R2
1
attenuation = in =
gain =
Vout gain
R1 + R2
X
R1
RC
= C1
C1 = 2 2
R2 X C 2
R1
Symmetrical Attenuator
R
m = 2 ; R2 = mR1
R1
Symmetrical T Analysis
R0 = R1 1 + 2m

a=

Vin 1 + m + 1 + 2m
=
Vout
m

Symmetrical Pi Analysis
R2
V
1 + m + 1 + 2m
R0 =
a = in =
Vout
m
1 + 2m

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Design Formulas for T Attenuator

a2 1
a +1
R1 =
Ro
Ro
R2 =
2a
a 1

6
7
8
9

Design Formulas for T Attenuator

a 1
2a
R1 =
Ro
R2 = 2
Ro
a +1
a 1
Variable Attenuator
Analysis
a=

R1 = R0

R1
+1
R2

Design
R1 = R0

R2 =

R0
a 1

R3 =

a 1
R0

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
r's complement

(rn)10 N

(r 1)s complement
(rn r-m)10 N
Types of Binary Coding
Binary Coded Decimal Code (BCD)
DECIMAL DIGIT
BCD Equivalent
0
0000
1
0001
2
0010
3
0011
4
0100
5
0101
6
0110
7
0111
8
1000
9
1001
Excess-3-code
DECIMAL DIGIT
Excess-3
0
0011
1
0100
2
0101
3
0110
4
0111
5
1000

1001
1010
1011
1100

Gray Code (Reflected Code)

DECIMAL DIGIT
Gray Code
0
0000
1
0001
2
0011
3
0010
4
0110
5
0111
6
0101
7
0100
8
1100
9
1101
10
1111
11
1110
12
1010
13
1011
14
1001
15
1000
DECIMAL

84-2-1

2421

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

0000
0111
0110
0101
0100
1011
1010
1001
1000
1111

0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
1011
1100
1101
1110
1111

Biquinary
5043210
0100001
0100010
0100100
0101000
0110000
1000001
1000010
1000100
1001000
1010000

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
VD = V+ Vwhere: VD = differential voltage
V+ = voltage at the non-inverting terminal
V- = voltage at the inverting terminal
Ad
Ac
where: Ad = differential gain of the amplifier
Ac = common-gain of the amplifier

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CMRR =

Slew rate

Vo
SR =
= 2f max V pk
t
where: fmax = highest undistorted frequency
Vpk = peak value of output sine wave
Differentiator
Vo = RC

dVin
dt

Integrator
Vo =

1
Vin dt
RC

Basic non-inverting amplifier

R
gain = 1 + 2
R1
Basic inverting amplifier
gain =

R2
R1

LOGIC GATES
Boolean Algebra
Postulated and Theorems of Boolean algebra
X +0 = X
X 1 = X
X + X '= 1
X X '= 0
X+X =X
XX =X
X +1 = 1
X 0 = 0
(Commutative Law)
X +Y = Y + X
(Associative Law)
X + (Y + Z ) = ( X + Y ) + Z

X Y = Y X

X (YZ ) = ( XY ) Z

(Distributive Law)
X (Y + Z ) = XY + YZ
X + (YZ ) = ( X + Y )(Y + Z )
(Law of Absorption)
( X + Z ) X + XY = X
(De Morgans Theorem)
( X + Y )' = X ' Y '

Logic Family Criterion

Propagation delay is the average transition delay
time for a signal to propagate from input to output.
t
+t
t p = PHL PLH
2
where: tp = propagation delay
tPHL = propagation delay high to low
transition
tPLH = propagation delay low to high
transition
Power dissipation is the amount of power that an IC
drains from its power supply.
I
+ I CCL
I CC ( AVG ) = CCH
2
PD ( AVG ) = I CC ( AVG ) VCC
where: ICCH = current drawn from the power supply
at high level
ICCL = current drawn from the power supply
at low level
Noise Margin is the maximum noise voltage added
to the input signal of a digital circuit that does not
cause an undesirable change in the circuit output.
Low State Noise Margin
NM L = VIL VOL
where: NM = Noise Margin
VIL = low state input voltage
VOL = low state output voltage
High State Margin
NM H = VOH VIH
where: NM = Noise Margin
VIH = high state input voltage
VOH = high state output voltage
Logic Swing

Vls = VOH VOL

where: Vls = voltage logic swing
VOH = high state output voltage
VOL = low state output voltage
Transition Width

X + (X + Y ) = X
( XY )' = X '+Y '

Vtw = VIH VIL

where: Vtw = voltage transition width
VIH = high state input voltage
VIL = low state input voltage

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F = force (Newton)
Q = charge (Coulomb)
V = voltage across the plates (volt)
d = distance between plates (m)

TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IC LOGIC

FAMILIES
IC
Logic
Family
Standard
TTL
Schottky

Fan
out

10

22

0.4

Low
power
Schottky
TTL
ECL
CMOS

20

10

0.4

10

25
50

Power
Propagation
Dissipation Delay (ns)
(mW)
10
10

25
0.1

2
25

Noise
Margin
(V)
0.4

0.2
3

LEVEL OF INTEGRATION
Level of Integration
No. of gates per chip
Small Scale Integration
Less than 12
(SSI)
Medium Scale
12 99
Integration (MSI)
Large Scale Integration
100 9999
(LSI)
Very Large Scale
10000 99999
Integration (VLSI)
Ultra Large Scale
100000 or more
Integration (LSI)

CAPACITOR/INDUCTOR TRANSIENT
CIRCUITS
Capacitors
The Gauss Theorem
The total electric flux extending from a closed
surface is equal to the algebraic sum of the charges
inside the closed surface.
Q
Electric Flux Density

A
where: D = flux density, Tesla (T) or Wb/m2
= electric flux, Weber (Wb)
A = plate area, m2
D=

Electric field strength or intensity ()

F V
= =
Q d
where: = field strength (N/C, V/m)

Coulombs Laws of Electrostatics

First Law:
Unlike charges attract each other while like charges
repel.
Second Law:
The force of attraction or repulsion between
charges is directly proportional to the product of the
two charges but inversely proportional to the square
of distance between them.
kQ Q
F = 12 2
r
1
k=
= r 0
4
Permittivity
A measure of how easily the dielectric will permit
the establishment of flux line within the dielectric.
D
=

9
10
F
For vacuum, 0 =
= 8.854 10 12
36
m
Capacitance
Q
A
C = (n 1)
V
d
where: Q = charge
V = voltage
n = number of plates
A = plate area
d = distance between plates
C=

Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant) of

various dielectrics
Dielectric Material
r(Average value)
Vacuum
1.0
Air
1.0006
Teflon
2.0
Paper, paraffined
2.5
Rubber
3.0
Transformer oil
4.0
Mica
5.0
Porcelain
6.0
Bakelite
7.0

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Glass
Distilled water
Barium-strontium titanite
(ceramic)

7.5
80.0
7500.0

Dielectric strength of some dielectric materials

Dielectric
Dielectric Strength
Material
(Average Value) in V/mil
Air
75
Barium-strontium
75
titanite (ceramic)
Porcelain
200
Transformer oil
400
Bakelite
400
Rubber
700
Paper, paraffined
1300
Teflon
1500
Glass
3000
Mica
5000
Energy stored
E=

1
Q2
CV 2 =
2
2C

Capacitors in Series
1
CT =
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ ... +
C1 C 2 C 3
Cn
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = ... = Qn
Capacitors in Parallel
CT = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + ... + C n
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ... + Qn
Other capacitor configurations
Composite medium parallel-plate capacitor
0A
C=
d1 d 2 d 3

+
+
r1 r 2 r 3
where: d1, d2 and d3 = thickness of dielectrics with
relative permittivities of r1, r2 and r3 respectively
Medium partly air parallel-plate capacitor
0 A
C=

d t t

Cylindrical capacitor
rl
10 9
b

41.4 log
a

where: a = diameter of single core cable conductor

and surrounded by an insulation of inner
diameter b
r = relative permittivity of the insulation of
the cable
l = length of the cylindrical capacitor
C=

Capacitance of an isolated sphere

C = 4r
where: r = radius of the isolated sphere in a medium
of relative permittivity r
Capacitance of concentric spheres
a.) When outer sphere earthed
ab
C = 4
(b a )
Where: a and b are radii of two concentric spheres
= permittivity of the dielectric between two
spheres
b.) When inner sphere is earthed
b2
C = 4
(b a )
Inductors
Inductance (L) is a measure of the ability of a coil
to oppose any change in current through the coil and
to store energy in the form of a magnetic field in the
region surrounding the coil.
In terms of physical dimensions,
N2A
L=
Henry
l
where: = permeability of the core (H/m)
N = number of turns
A = area of the core (m2)
l = mean length of the core (m)
In terms of electrical definition,
d
L=N
di

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Faradays Law
The voltage induced across a coil of wire equals the
number of turns in the coil times the rate of change
of the magnetic flux.
d
ein = N
dt
where: N = number of turns of the coil
d
= change in the magnetic flux
dt
Lenzs Law
An induced effect is always such as to oppose the
cause that produced it.
d
ein = N
dt
Induced voltage by Faradays Law
di
eL = L
dt
Energy stored
WL =

1 2
LI
2

Mutual inductance
It is a measure of the amount of inductive coupling
that exists between the two coils.
M = k L1 L2
LTa LTo
4
where: k = coupling coefficient
L1 and L2 = self-inductances of coils 1 and 2
LTa and LTo = total inductances with mutual
inductance
M =

Coupling coefficient (k)

k=
k=

M
L1 L2

flux _ linkage _ between _ L1 _ and _ L2

flux _ produced _ by _ L1

Formulas for other coil geometries

(a) LONG COIL
N2A
L=
l
(b) SHORT COIL

Inductance without mutual inductance in series

LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + Ln
With mutual inductance (M)
a.) when fields are aiding
LTa = L1 + L2 + 2 M
b.) when fields are opposing
LTo = L1 + L2 2M
Total inductance without mutual inductance (M)
1
LT =
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ ... +
L1 L2 L3
Ln
With mutual inductance (M)
a.) when fields are aiding
L1 L2 M 2
LT ( a ) =
L1 + L2 2 M
b.) when fields are opposing
L1 L2 M 2
LT ( o) =
L1 + L2 + 2 M

N2A
l + 0.45d
where: L = inductance (H)
= permeability (410-7 for air)
N = number of turns
A = cross-sectional area of the coil (m2)
l = length of the core (m)
d = diameter of core (m)
L=

(c) TOROIDAL COIL with rectangular crosssection

N 2h d2
L=
ln
2
d1
where: h = thickness
d1 and d2 = inner and outer diameters
(d) CIRCULAR AIR-CORE COIL
0.07( RN ) 2
L=
6 R + 9l + 10b
d b
R= +
2 2
where: L = inductance (H)
N = number of turns
d = core diameter, in

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b = coil build-up, in
l = length, in

(e) RECTANGULAR AIR-CORE COIL

0.07(CN ) 2
L=
1.908C + 9l + 10b
where: L = inductance (H)
C = d + y + 2b
d = core height, in
y = core width, in
b = coil build-up, in
l = length, in

DC Transient Circuits
Circuit
Voltage
Element
across
R
v = iR
L
C

di
v=L
dt
q 1
v = = idt
C C

Current
flowing
v
i=
R
1
i = vdt
L
dv
i=C
dt

E t E
i= e L = e
R
R
=

L
RT

RT = R1 + R

RC Transient Circuit
Charging Cycle:
q = EC + (q 0 EC )e
t

q = EC 1 e RC

t
E
i = e RC
R
t

RC

vC = E 1 e

t
RC

with q0 = 0
v R = Ee

t
RC

= RC

Discharging Phase:
vC = Ee

t
RC

= RC

RLC Transient Circuits

Conditions for series RLC transient circuit:
(1) @ t = 0, i = 0
(2) @ t = 0, Ldi/dt = E
Current equations
Case 1 Overdamped case
2

1
R
then
when >
LC
2L
i = C1e r1t + C 2 e r2t
E
2L
r2 =

C2 =

C1 = C 2
r1 = +

Response of L and C to a voltage source

Circuit Element @ t = 0 @ t =
L
open
short
C
short
open
RL Transient Circuit
Storage Cycle:
t
R
t

E
E
L

i = 1 e = 1 e
R
R

v L = Ee

Decay Phase:

(f) MAGNETIC CORE COIL (no air gap)

0.012 N 2 A
L=
lc
(g) MAGNETIC CORE COIL (with air gap)
0.012 N 2 A
L=
l
lg + c

where: L = inductance (H)

N = number of turns
A = effective cross-sectional area, cm2
l c = magnetic path length, cm
l g = gap length, cm
= magnetic permeability

R
t

v R = E 1 e L

L
R

R 1
=
2 L LC

R
2L

Case 2 Critically damped case

2

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1
R
when =
then
LC
2L
i = e t (C1 + C 2 t )

R
t
L

C1 = 0

C2 =
=

Total impedance, Z
Z = R jX C = Z

E
L

R
2L

Case 2 Underdamped case

Series RLC Circuit

Total voltage, VT
VT = VR + jVL jVC = VT

1
R
when <
then
LC
2L
i = e t (C1 cos+ C 2 sin t )
=

R
2L

C1 = 0

R 1

2 L LC
E
C2 =
L

Peak factor =

Vm
Vm
=
= 1.4142
Vrms 0.707Vm

X L = 2fL

XC =

1
2fC

Z = R2 + (X L X C )2

VT = VR2 + VL2

= tan 1

= tan 1

= tan 1

VT
Z

Parallel AC circuits
Parallel RL Circuit
Total Current, IT
I T = I R jI L = I T

VL
VR

XL
R

Series RC Circuit
Total voltage, VT
VT = VR jVC = VT
VT = VR2 + VC2

IT =

= tan 1

IL
IR

Total admittance, Y
Y = G jBL = Y

Total impedance, Z
Z = R + jX L = Z
Z = R 2 + X L2

(X L XC )
R

Total Current, IT

I T = I R2 + I L2

Series AC circuits
Series RL Circuit
Total voltage, VT
VT = VR + jVL = VT

(VL VC )
VR

Total impedance, Z
Z = R + jX L jX C = Z

= tan 1

Introduction to AC: Formulas

0.707Vm
V
Form factor = rms =
= 1.11
Vavg 0.637Vm

= tan 1

VT = VR2 + (VL VC ) 2

AC CIRCUITS 1

XC
R

= tan 1

Z = R 2 + X C2

Y = G 2 + BL2

= tan 1

BL
G

Parallel RC Circuit
Total Current, IT
I T = I R + jI C = I T
I T = I R2 + I C2

= tan 1

IC
IR

Total Admittance, Y
Y = G + jBC = Y
VC
VR

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Y = G 2 + BC2

= tan 1

BC
G

Parallel RLC Circuit

Total Current, IT
I T = I R + jI C jI L = I T
I T = I R2 + ( I C I L ) 2

DC Pulse
Vrms = V p

a
b

Vavg = V p

Triangular or Sawtooth
Vrms = 0.577V p

(IC I L )
= tan
IR
1

Total admittance, Y
Y = G + jBC jBL = Y

Vavg = 0.5V p

Sine wave on dc level

Vrms = VDC +
2

Y = G 2 + ( BC BL ) 2
= tan 1

( BC BL )
G

Total impedance, Z
1
Z=
Y

Vp

Square wave
Vrms = V p

Total voltage, VT

Vavg = V p

White Noise

VT = I T Z

Power of AC Circuits
True/Real/Average/Active Power
2
V
2
P = I R R = R = I RVR = VT I T cos
R

1
Vrms V p
4

ENERGY CONVERSION
Types of three-phase alternators
A. Wye or Star-connected

Reactive Power
2

Q = I X X eq =
2

Vx
= I X V X = VT I T sin
X eq

Apparent Power
2

V
Q = I T Z = T = VT I T
Z
P
cos = = Power Factor (PF)
S
Q
sin = = Reactive Factor (RF)
S
S = P jQ = S
2

S = P2 + Q2
= tan 1

a
b

VLine = 3V phase
I Line = I phase
P3 = 3VL I L cos
P3 = 3VP I P cos
B. Delta or Mesh-connected

Q
P

Values of other alternating waveforms

Symmetrical Trapezoid
a + 0.577(b a)
a+b
Vrms =
Vp
Vavg =
Vp
b
2b

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VLine = V phase
I Line = 3I phase

P3 = 3VL I L cos

Mathematically,
A 1

P3 = 3VP I P cos

= n 360

Frequency of the AC Voltage Generated in an

Alternator
PN
f =
120
where: f = frequency (Hz)
P = number of poles (even number)
N = speed of prime mover (rpm)
Speed Characteristics of DC Motors
E
H = ks c

where: Ec = counter emf

ks = speed constant
= flux
Torque Characteristics of DC Motors
T = k t I a
where: Ia = armature current
kt = torque constant
= flux
Speed of an AC Motor
120 f
P
where: N = synchronous speed (rpm)
f = frequency (Hz)
P = number of poles
N=

Basic Configuration of a Resonant Circuit

Oscillator

LC Oscillators
Resonant-Frequency Feedback Oscillators
Oscillator Type X1 X2
X3
Hartley
L
L
C
Colpitts
C
C
L
Clapp
C
C Series LC (net L)
Pierce Crystal
C
C
Crystal (net L)

A. Hartley Oscillator
Amplifier gain without feedback,
R
AV =
re
for a common-emitter configuration
The feedback factor,
=

OSCILLATORS
Introduction
Oscillator Requirements
a. Amplifier
b. Tank circuit
c. Feedback
Overall gain with feedback
Af =

A
1 + A

n = 1, 2,3...

L2
L1

To maintain the oscillation,

R L
AV = = 1
re L2
The frequency of oscillation is
1
f0 =
2 Leq C
where

Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillation

a. The net gain around the feedback loop must be
no less than one; and
b. The net phase-shift around the loop must be a
positive integer multiple of 2 radians or 360.

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Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
M = L1 L2

B. Colpitts Oscillator
Amplifier gain without feedback,
R
AV =
re

Parallel

The feedback factor,

Note: Series resonant frequency, frs is slightly lower

than parallel resonant frequency, frp.

C
= 1
C2
The frequency of oscillation is
1
f0 =
2 LC eq
where
C eq =

C1C 2
C1 + C 2

To maintain the oscillation,

R C
AV = = 2
re C1
C. Clapp Oscillator
The frequency of oscillation is
1
f0 =
2 LC eq
where
C eq =

1
1
1
1
+
+
C1 C 2 C 3

Crystal Oscillators
Frequency drift
LC: 0.8%
Crystal: 0.0001% (1 ppm)
Natural frequency of vibration
1
thickness
f
The thicker the crystal, the lower its frequency of
vibration
Series and Parallel Resonant Frequencies
Series
1
f rs =
2 LC s

f rp =

1
CC
2 L s m
C s + Cm

RC Oscillators
RC Phase-Shift Oscillator
The gain of the basic inverting amplifier is,
Rf
AV =
Rs
The feedback factor is,
=

1
29

To maintain the oscillation,

Rf
= 29
AV =
Rs
The frequency of oscillation is,
1
f0 =
2RC 6
Wien Bridge Oscillator
The open-loop gain is
AV = 1 +

Rf
Rs

=3

The feedback factor is

=

1
3

To maintain the oscillation,

Rf
=2
Rs
The frequency of oscillation is,
1
f0 =
2 R1C1 R2 C 2
Neglecting loading effects of the op-amp input and
output impedances, the analysis of the bridge results
in

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Rf
Rs

R1 C 2
+
R2 C1

Equations of closed-loop gain for different types

of feedback connections
Feedback
Gain with
Type of
Type
Feedback
Amplifier
Voltage
Voltage
Av
A
=
vf
Series
Amplifier
1 + Av
Current
Transconductance
Gm
G
=
mf
Series
Amplifier
1 + G

(bridge-balance condition)

Therefore, for the bridge to be balanced,

R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
The frequency of oscillation
f0 =

1
2RC

Voltage
Shunt

FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
Types of Feedback Connections
Equations of open-loop gain, feedback factor and
closed-loop gain for different types of feedback
Feedback Source Output
A

Af
Connection Signal Signal
Voltage
Voltage Voltage v o
vf
vo
Series
vi
vs
vo
Current
Voltage Current
vf
io
io
Series
v
v
i
Voltage
Shunt

Current Voltage

Current
Shunt

Current

Current

vo
ii

if

vo
is

io
ii

vo
if
io

io
is

Note: Some references try to designate the following

terms to describe the four main types of feedback
equations.
2. Series-shunt = Voltage series
3. Series-series = Current series
4. Shunt-shunt = Voltage shunt
5. Shunt-series = Current-shunt

Current
Shunt

Transresistance
Amplifier
Currrent
Amplifier

Performance Characteristics of Negative

Feedback Networks
Equations of amplifier impedance levels when
using negative feedback connection
Feedback
Input
Output
Type
Resistance
Resistance
Voltage
Ri (1 + A)
Ro
Series
increased
1 + A
decreased
Current
Ri (1 + A)
Ro (1 + A)
Series
increased
increased
Voltage
Ri
Ro
Shunt
1 + A
1 + A
decreased
decreased
Current
Ro (1 + A)
Ri
Shunt
increased
1 + A
decreased
dA f
Af

Negative Feedback Equations

A
Af =
1 + A
where: A = gain without feedback (open-loop gain)
Af = gain with feedback (closed-loop gain)
1 + A = desensitivity or sacrifice factor
A = loop gain

Rm
Rmf =
1 + Rm
Ai
Aif =
1 + Ai

where:

dA f
Af

1
dA
1 + A A

= change in gain with feedback

dA
= change in gain without feedback
A
magnitude, |A| = 1
phase-shift, = 180
The limiting condition is for the negative feedback
amplifiers.

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AC CIRCUITS 2

Parallel Resonance
A. Theoretical Parallel Resonant Circuit

Series Resonance

fr =

2 LC
where: fr = resonant frequency
L = Inductance
C = Capacitance
Characteristics of series resonance
1. At resonance, XL = XC, VL = VC.
2. At resonance, Z is minimum. Z = R.
3. At resonance, I is maximum. I = E/R.
4. At resonance, Z is resistive. = 0 (I in phase
with E).
5. At f < fr, Z is capacitive. = + (I Leads E).
6. At f > fr, Z is inductive. = (I Lags E).

Characteristics of parallel resonance

1. At resonance, BL = BC, XL = XC, IL = IC.
2. At resonance, Z is maximum. Z = RP.
3. At resonance, IT is minimum. IT = IRP.
4. At resonance, Z is resistive. = 0 (I in phase
with E).
5. At f < fr, Z is inductive. = (I Lags E).
6. At f > fr, Z is capacitive. = + (I Leads E).
Q of a Theoretical circuit:
R
R
C
Q = P = P = RP
X L XC
L
Resonant Rise in tank current
I tan k = QI T = I L = I C
Bandwidth (BW)

Quality Factor (Q) of a resonant circuit:

Re active _ power _ of _ either _ L _ or _ C
Q=
Active _ power _ of _ R
Q=

XL XC 1 L
=
=
R
R
R C

BW = f 2 f1 =

B. Practical Parallel Resonant Circuit

Resonant Rise in Voltage

VL = VC = QE
Bandwidth (BW) is the range of frequencies over
which the operation is satisfactory and is taken
between two half-power (3dB down) points.
f
BW = f 2 f1 = r
Q

fr
Q

Equivalent Theoretical Circuit

If Q 10; then fr bisects BW

BW
BW
f1 = f r
f2 = fr +
2
2

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Alloys commonly magnetized

Alloy
Percentage Content
Permalloy
22% Fe, 78% Ni
Hipernik
40% Fe, 60% Ni
Perminvar
30% Fe, 45% Ni, 25% Co
Alnico
24% Co, 51% Fe

Impedance transformation:

Q of Equivalent Theoretical Circuit

R
Q= P
X Leq
Q of Practical Circuit
Q=

1
2 LC

1
fr =
2 LC

Second First Law

The force of attraction or repulsion between two
poles is inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

XL
RS

F =k

Resonant frequency (practical circuit)

fr =

Coulombs Laws
First Law
The force of attraction or repulsion between two
magnetic poles is directly proportional to their
strengths.

where: k =

2
S

R C
1
; if RS = 0; f r =
L
2 LC

1
Q2
; if Q 10; f r =
2
1+ Q
2 LC

Total Impedance Z
Z = RS (1 + Q 2 ) Q 2 RS

if Q 10

MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC

CIRCUITS
Magnetism
Curie temperature (Pierre Curie) the critical
temperature such that when ferromagnets are heated
above that temperature their ability to possess
permanent magnetism disappears.
Curie temperatures of ferromagnets
Ferromagnet
Temperature (C)
Iron (Fe)
770
Nickel (Ni)
358
Cobalt (Co)
1130
Gadolinium
16

m1 m 2
r2

1
4

(Newtons, N)
= r 0

Magnitude of the Force

(Newtons, N)
F = BIl sin
where: B = flux density (Wb/m2)
I = current (A)
l = length of conductor (m)
= angle between the conductor and field
Magnitude of the flux surrounding a straight
conductor
R
= 14 Il log
(Maxwells, Mx)
r
where: I = current (A)
l = length of conductor (ft)
R = radius to the desired limiting cylinder
r = radius of the conductor
The force between two parallel conductors
2I I l
F = 1 2 10 7
(Newtons, N)
d
where: l = length of each conductor (m)
d = distance between conductors (m)
I1 = current carried by conductor A
I2 = current carried by conductor B

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Magnitude of the flux between two parallel

conductors
(d r )
= 28 Il log
(Maxwells, Mx)
r
where: I = current (A)
l = length of conductor (ft)
r = radius of each conductor (m)
d = distance of the conductors from center to
center (m)

Magnetic Circuits

A
where: B = Flux density in Tesla (T)
= Flux lines in Webers (Wb)
A = Area in square meters (m2)
B=

Note: 1 Tesla = 1 Wb/m2

Permeability
0 = 4 10 7

Weber
H
or
Ampere meter m

Note: = 0; r = 1 nonmagnetic
< 0; r < 1 diamagnetic
> 0; r > 1 paramagnetic
>> 0; r >> 1 ferromagnetic (r 100)
=

L
A

where: = reluctance
L = the length of the magnetic path
A = the cross-sectional area
Note: The t in the unit A-t/Wb is the number of turns
of the applied winding.
Different units of Reluctance ( )
Ampere turn
Ampere turn
a.)
b.)
Weber
Maxwell
Gilbert
Gilbert
c.)
d.)
Maxwell
Weber
Note: 1 Weber = 1108 maxwells
1 Gilbert = 0.7958 ampere-turns
1 Gauss = 1 maxwell/cm2

Ohms Law for Magnetic Circuits

Cause
Effect =
Opposition
Then,
=

where: = reluctance
= magnetomotive force, mmf (Gb or At)
= flux (Weber or Maxwells)
Comparison bet. Magnetic and Electric Circuits
Electric Circuits
Magnetic Circuits
Resistance, R ()
Reluctance, (Gb/Mx)
Current, I (A)
Flux, (Wb or Mx)
emf, V (V)
mmf, (Gb or At)
Total reluctance in series
T = 1 + 2 + ... + n
Total reluctance in parallel
1
1
1
1
=
+
+ ... +
T 1 2
n
Total flux in series
T = 1 = 2 = ... = n
Total flux in parallel
T = 1 + 2 + ... + n
Energy stored
Wm =

1
2
2

Joules

Magnetomotive force (mmf, )

Ampere turns, At
= NI
Gilberts, Gb
= 0.4NI
mmf of an air gap
dB
mmf =
0

Ampere-turns

Tractive force or lifting force of a magnet

1 AB 2

Newtons
F =
2 0

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Magnetizing Force (H)

NI
H=
H=
l
l
Note: The unit of H is At/m
Permeability the ratio of flux density to the
magnetizing force.
B
=
H
B and H of an infinitely long straight wire
I
I
B=
H=
2r
2r
Steinmetzs Formula of Hysteresis Loss
J
Wh = fBm1.6
m3
where: = hysteresis coefficient
f = frequency
Bm = maximum flux density
Amperes Circuital Law
The algebraic sum of the rises and drops of the
mmf a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to
zero; that is, the sum of the mmf rises equals the sum
of the mmf drops around a closed loop.
= 0
(for magnetic circuits)
Source of mmf is expressed by the equation
(At)
= NI
For mmf drop,

(At)

A more practical equation of mmf drop

(At)
= Hl

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