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TRENDS AND APPLICATIONS

GIOVANNI PINO, ALESSANDRO M. PELUSO,

AND GIANLUIGI GUIDO

Determinants of Regular and Occasional Consumers

Intentions to Buy Organic Food
This study analyzes the impact of ethical motivations, food safety
and health-related concerns on purchasing intentions of habitual
and less frequent consumers of organic food. A sample of 291
subjects was surveyed through a paper-and-pencil questionnaire and
classified either as regular or occasional purchasers of organic
food according to their buying frequency. Results show different
determinants of intention for the two groups of subjects: ethical
motivations affect the purchase intentions of regular consumers,
whereas food safety concerns influence the purchase intentions of
occasional consumers. Implications are discussed.

The market for organic food continues to expand worldwide at an average rate of 20% annually. Currently, over thirty-seven million hectares of
land worldwide are managed organically by roughly two million farmers. In Europe, more than 250,000 farms manage around ten million
hectares of organic land, with the highest share of organic agricultural
land found in Spain, Italy and Germany (Willer and Kilcher 2011). In the
last decades, this increasing popularity has fueled the growth of a multidisciplinary stream of research that has investigated the psychological
and anthropological drivers of organic food consumption. Several studies
have concluded that ethical principles, such as ecological sustainability
and care for animal welfarewhich constitute a sort of inspirational
framework for organic farmingdrive consumers choices of organic
food. Other studies posit that organic food purchase behavior is motivated
by the perceived healthiness of such products (Guido 2009; Guido et al.
Giovanni Pino is a PhD student at the ISUFI School of Advanced Studies of the University of
Salento, Lecce, Italy (giovanni.pino@unisalento.it). Alessandro M. Peluso is an assistant professor
of marketing at the University of Salento, Lecce (Italy) and an adjunct professor of marketing
at the LUISS Guido Carli University of Rome, Italy (apeluso@luiss.it). Gianluigi Guido is a
full professor of marketing and business management at the University of Salento, Lecce, Italy
(gianluigi.guido@unisalento.it).
The Journal of Consumer Affairs, Spring 2012: 157169
DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-6606.2012.01223.x

Copyright 2012 by The American Council on Consumer Interests

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2010). Many consumers are becoming more and more aware of health
risks associated with the consumption of traditional (nonorganic) as well
as novel (e.g., genetically modified) food products (Siegrist 2008). As a
consequence, the perceived healthfulness of organic food products may
be a driving force of their consumption.
On the basis of these considerations, we argue that organizations
aimed at fostering interest in organic food production should address the
specific concerns of the different groups of consumers. By developing
tailored communication programs, such institutions may efficaciously
promote organic food consumption and, possibly, stimulate the adoption
of sustainable consumption patterns. Royne, Levy, and Martinez (2011,
p. 332) maintain that reaching different consumer groups with the
appropriate strategies may translate into more positive eco-friendly
behaviors [. . .] and improved health for current and future generations.
However, in doing so, the above-mentioned organizations should
attempt to identify different consumer groups to target using customized
strategies. In this article, we propose that buying frequency may be relevant to this purpose. Indeed, we will show that the purchasing intentions
of consumers who buy organic food products frequently and those of consumers who do so only occasionally are driven by different motivating
factors. Hence, we will conclude that distinguishing organic consumers
based on their purchase frequency may be useful in developing tailored
communication strategies for different consumer groups.
CONSUMPTION PATTERNS OF REGULAR AND OCCASIONAL
CONSUMERS OF ORGANIC FOOD
Research on organic food consumption has shown that the public
benefits deriving from the environmental soundness of organic farming
as well as the private motives relative to the perceived healthiness and
safety of organic food act as driving forces of consumers purchasing
intentions (e.g., Gracia and De Magistris 2008; Honkanen, Verplanken,
and Olsen 2006; Magnusson et al. 2003). People tend to perceive
organic agriculture as an ecological production system able to preserve
biodiversity and reduce the concentration of polluting substances in the
environment (Magkos, Arvaniti, and Zampelas 2006). Environmental
preservation and other ethical concerns can be considered factors that
triggered early purchasers support of organic farming (Storstad and
Birkhaug 2003). This behavioral pattern, originally known as green
consumerism, has subsequently broadened its meaning and nowadays
greenor, in general, ethicalconsumers consider organic food

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consumption a matter of lifestyle choice (Fotopoulos and Krystallis

2002). Ethical consumers take into account the public consequences
of their private acts of consumption and use their bargaining power
to foster the achievement of socially relevant objectives (cf. Freestone
and McGoldrick 2008). This sense of responsibility, or perceived ethical
obligation, is connected with their endorsement of a set of internalized
rules (or norms) and acts as a trait-like dimension because it
represents an essential part of these persons self-identity.
Michaelidou and Hassan (2008) have merged self-identity and perceived ethical obligation into a single construct addressing peoples
inclination to perceive themselves as ethical consumers, termed ethical self-identity. The same authors proved that such a construct impacts
consumers disposition toward organic food and related purchase intention. Existing research, however, suggests that the tendency to identify
with ethical consumers is stronger for regular purchasers of organic food
than for occasional ones. The former, in fact, seem to draw a sense
of fulfillment from purchasing organic food. By contrast, the latter may
consider environmental protection a beneficial effect of organic farming, rather than a personal goal (Barrena and Sanchez 2010). Following
this reasoning we expect that ethical self-identity influences the purchase intentions of regular consumers of organic food, but it does not
affect those of the occasional consumers. We formalize this hypothesis
as follows:
H1: Ethical self-identity influences the purchase intentions of regular consumers
but not those of occasional consumers.

Food safety concerns and individuals readiness to undertake health

actionsa construct known as health consciousness (Schifferstein and
Oude Ophuis 1998)are other relevant drivers of organic food consumption. Williams and Hammitt (2001) have shown that, compared to
consumers of conventional food products, organic food buyers tend to
estimate far higher annual rates of mortality caused by ingestion of agrochemical residues and exposure to synthetic pesticides. Generally, the
latter consumers consider organic products harmless to human health
and safer than conventionally produced food. Moreover, it has been also
ascertained that responsibility of family and self well-being, as well as
buying healthy food for the sake of the children, are primary motives
for some consumers to purchase organic food products (see Makatouni
2002). We argue, however, that food safety concerns and health consciousness are more likely to affect the purchase intentions of occasional

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FIGURE 1
Hypothesized Links for Regular Buyers
Ethical SelfIdentity

Attitude Toward
Organic Food

Purchase
Intention

: Direct Effect
: Mediated Effect

consumers of organic food than those of regular ones. Exploratory studies suggest, in fact, that the former may be induced to purchase organic
food products by particular events such as pregnancy, suffering from
certain illnesses or the spread of food-borne diseases (Richter 2005).
Furthermore, compared to people who regularly consume organic food,
occasional consumers hold a more pragmatic view of consumption and
are basically interested in products that guarantee superior value in terms
of safety and healthiness (Pellegrini and Farinello 2009). On the other
hand, it has been shown that regular buyers of organic food attach less
importance to values like security, safety, and health preservation
than occasional buyers (Fotopoulos, Krystallis, and Ness 2008; Naspetti
and Zanoli 2004). This reasoning has led us to formalize the following
hypothesis:
H2: Food safety concerns and health consciousness affect the purchase intentions
of occasional consumers, but not those of regular consumers.

We also argue that the constructs discussed above affect purchase

intentions indirectly, through attitude toward organic food. More precisely, we hypothesize that individual attitude toward organic food serves
as a mediator (see Baron and Kenny 1986) that transfers the effect of
the alleged antecedent variables on consumers purchase intentions.1 The
hypothesized linkages among the study variables for regular and occasional consumers are represented in Figures 1 and 2, respectively.
THE STUDY
A total of 291 Italian buyers of organic food (mean age = 47.04,
SD = 10.17) were surveyed by means of a questionnaire in MayJune
1. A mediating variable accounts for the relationship between an independent and a dependent
variable (Baron and Kenny 1986). Such a relationship may be either fully mediated by the variable
in question (if it reduces to zero the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable) or
partially mediated (if the mediator reduces the effect of the independent variable, but not to zero).

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VOLUME 46, NUMBER 1

FIGURE 2
Hypothesized Links for Occasional Buyers
Food Safety
Concerns
Attitude Toward
Organic Food

Purchase
Intention

Health
Consciousness
: Direct Effect
: Mediated Effect

2010. These subjects were approached by a student volunteer who was

instructed to randomly select respondents in a medium-sized supermarket.
The supermarket sold both conventional and organic food and was
located in a suburban area of a Southern Italian city of almost 100,000
inhabitants. Once introduced to the research topic, potential respondents
were invited to take part in the study and, upon agreement, were given a
questionnaire. They were informed that the questionnaire was anonymous
and were asked to complete it at home and return it within the next few
days. To minimize possible social desirability biases, respondents were
requested to deposit the questionnaire in a box located in the waiting
area of the same supermarket (away from the student volunteer) during
a subsequent visit. The return rate was almost 45%.
The questionnaire was prefaced by a small definition of organic
foods, according to which such products are produced without artificial
fertilizer or chemical pesticides, and do not contain artificial colouring,
flavouring or aromatic substances, preservatives or genetically modified
ingredients (European Commission 2007).
This survey instrument was structured into five sections, the first
of which was designed to record participants buying frequency. Such
a scale allowed us to distinguish between regular and occasional
consumers on the basis of the following criterion: respondents who
asserted they purchase organic food more than ten times per year
were considered regular consumers of organic food, whereas those
who indicated that they purchase organic food less than ten times per
year were considered occasional buyers (cf. Cunningham 2001; Sirieix
and Schaer 2005). We chose this threshold because previous research has
shown that although many consumers tend to overestimate their buying
frequency, self-reported behavior seems to be consistent with actual
behavior above and below this threshold (Niessen and Hamm 2008).

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The following sections of the questionnaire were designed to measure

the other study constructs. Specifically, respondents attitudes toward
organic food and the related purchase intentions were measured using
items developed from Ajzens (1991) work. Ethical self-identity was
measured by a two-item scale drawn from prior studies of fair trade
products (Shaw and Shiu 2003) and organic food products (Sparks and
Shepherd 1992). Food safety concerns and health consciousness were
measured on scales drawn from Roddy, Cowan, and Hutchinson (1996)
and Goulds (1988) works, respectively. All constructs were measured on
7-point Likert scales. The questionnaire also collected sociodemographic
variables, namely the typology of retail outlet in which respondents
normally did the shopping, their gender and age.
RESULTS
Data on purchase frequency were preliminarily examined to distinguish between regular and occasional consumers. We established
that 178 respondents (mean age = 47.47, SD = 9.80) rated their buying frequency above the scale midpoint, i.e., ten times per year and,
hence, were classified as regular consumers. The other participants
(N = 113, mean age = 46.37, SD = 10.73), who scored below the scale
midpoint, were assigned to the second group. Both groups of buyers were
largely composed of females who stated that they usually purchased food
products in supermarkets.
The basic descriptive statistics for the study variables for the sample
as a whole, and for regular and occasional buyers separately, are
shown in Table 1. As expected, regular buyers were found to hold
a stronger intention to purchase organic food than occasional buyers
(M (Regular buyers) = 3.63; M (Occasional buyers) = 1.57), as well as a
more favorable disposition toward such products (M (Regular buyers) =
2.52; M (Occasional buyers) = 1.64). Bivariate correlations were lower
than .50 for all pairs of variables, with the exception of that between
attitude toward organic food and related purchase intention (Table 1).
To test our research hypotheses, a Structural Equation Model (SEM)
was employed. Before implementing the model, we assessed the validity
of each measure according to Anderson and Gerbings (1988) approach.
For each construct, the average variance extracted (AVE) was not lower
than the recommended threshold of .50 and greater than the squared
correlations among other scales, thus satisfying the discriminant validity
criterion. Moreover, the level of internal consistency of each measure
(Cronbachs ) was higher than .70, thus satisfying the convergent

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TABLE 1
Means, Standard Deviations and Correlations of the Study Variables

Pooled sample
Purchase intention
Attitude
Ethical self-identity
Food safety concerns
Health consciousness
Regular buyers
Purchase intention
Attitude
Ethical self-identity
Food safety concerns
Health consciousness
Occasional buyers
Purchase intention
Attitude
Ethical self-identity
Food safety concerns
Health consciousness

Mean

SD

2.832
2.178
1.854
1.955
1.964

1.648
0.957
0.894
1.222
0.920

1
0.651
0.402
0.315
0.204

1
0.362
0.286
0.196

1
0.285
0.386

1
0.326

3.633
2.519
2.005
2.144
2.021

1.255
0.748
0.838
1.057
0.939

1
0.546
0.396
0.136
0.193

1
0.412
0.184
0.238

1
0.237
0.392

1
0.375

1.572
1.641
1.615
1.657
1.874

1.386
1.005
0.930
1.398
0.885

1
0.526
0.294
0.381
0.206

1
0.195
0.265
0.115

1
0.275
0.362

1
0.257

Note: 1 = purchase intention; 2 = attitude; 3 = ethical self-identity; 4 = food safety concerns; 5 =

health consciousness; SD = standard deviation.
p < .05; p < .001.

validity criterion. To test the model fit, we ran separate confirmatory

factor analyses (CFAs) for the whole sample and for each of the
two subgroups of regular and occasional buyers, respectively. In each
case, such analyses yielded adequate fit statistics and satisfactory factor
loadings (Table 2).
To check whether the model structure and the hypothesized relationships among the examined constructs were invariant across the investigated subsamples, a test of measurement invariance was performed.
Through this test, we established that for both groups of respondents the
adopted items measured the same psychological constructs and that the
proposed model allowed for a meaningful comparison of the patterns of
responses of the two investigated groups.2
2. This test involved a comparison of the fit of two nested models: a constrained one, wherein
factor loadings were constrained to be equal for both groups of regular and occasional buyers,
and an unconstrained one, wherein no equality constraints were imposed in the analysis. In both
cases, data were fitted adequately and, while the first model guaranteed the existence of configural
invariance across the surveyed subsamples, a nonsignificant Chi-square difference between the
unconstrained and the constrained model (" 2 = 15.184; "df = 8; p > .050) led to consideration
of the proposed model as metrically invariant across the examined samples.

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TABLE 2
Results of Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFAs)

Purchase Intention:
G1
G2
G3
Attitude
H1
H2
Ethical self-identity:
I1
I2
Food safety concerns:
J1
J2
J3
Health consciousness:
K1
K2
K3
Fit statistics
2
2 /df
GFI
CFI
RMSEA

Pooled
Sample (FL)

Regular
Buyers (FL)

Occasional
Buyers (FL)

0.948
0.883
0.770

0.897
0.876
0.736

0.951
0.752
0.645

0.917
0.891

0.962
0.844

0.790
0.949

0.667
0.943

0.694
0.885

0.559
1.107

0.797
0.899
0.703

0.737
0.918
0.706

0.824
0.904
0.668

0.922
0.971
0.776

0.914
0.979
0.760

0.935
0.959
0.806

128.655
2.339
0.938
0.970
0.068

113.133
2.057
0.916
0.958
0.077

75.746
1.377
0.904
0.974
0.058

Note: FL = factor loadings; df (degrees of freedom) = 55; GFI = goodness of fit index; CFI =
comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; N (Pooled sample) =
291; n(Regular buyers) = 178; n(Occasional buyers) = 113.
p < .05; p < .001.

Once the validity of the measurement model was verified, causal

links among variables were set according to the hypothesized paths
and the structural model was tested with respect to the entire sample
of respondents (Table 3). The model fit was adequate and, as expected,
confirmed the existence of a significant relationship between attitude
toward organic food and purchase intention ( = .619; p < .001).
Significant linkages were also detected between ethical self-identity and
attitude toward organic food ( = .285; p < .001), as well as between
food safety concerns and the attitude mediator ( = .223; p < .001).
Furthermore, only ethical self-identity was found to affect organic food
purchase intention ( = .192; p < .001). Since these results appeared
congruent with the expected relationships among the study constructs,
we proceeded with testing our research hypotheses.

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TABLE 3
Mediation Tests

Paths and Indicators

Pooled
Sample

Ethical self-identity intention

0.192
Ethical self-identity attitude
0.285
Food safety concerns intention
0.061
Food safety concerns attitude
0.223
Health consciousness intention 0.025
Health consciousness attitude
0.046
Attitude intention
0.619
2
128.655
df
55
2 /df
2.339
p
0.000
GFI
0.938
CFI
0.970
RMSEA
0.068

Regular Buyers

Occasional Buyers

Model 1

Model 2

Model 1

Model 2

0.587
0.572
0.022
0.082
0.023
0.045
0.000
145.497
56
2.598
0.000
0.895
0.936
0.095

0.245
0.422
0.050
0.115
0.020
0.013
0.495
113.133
55
2.057
0.000
0.916
0.958
0.077

0.167
0.024
0.309
0.303
0.102
0.097
0.000
105.215
56
1.879
0.000
0.878
0.938
0.089

0.147
0.021
0.164
0.272
0.068
0.085
0.514
75.746
55
1.377
0.033
0.904
0.974
0.058

Note: GFI = goodness of fit index; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square
error of approximation; Model 1: constrained; Model 2: mediated (free); N (Pooled sample) = 291;
n(Regular buyers) = 178; n(Occasional buyers) = 113.
p < .05; p < .001.

H1 posits the importance of ethical self-identity and a mediating

effect of attitudes in the relation between ethical self-identity and regular
consumers buying intentions. As a basic condition for mediation to
occur, Baron and Kenny (1986) suggest that the link between the
predictor and the outcome variable should be weakened by the insertion
of the mediating variable in the model. Thus, two models are compared to
test whether attitude toward organic food has a mediating effect (Table 3):
one in which the path from attitude toward organic food to purchase
intention is constrained to zero (Model 1), and one in which all paths
among variables are allowed to freely vary (Model 2). Variations in the
structural coefficients between the two models are checked to verify
whether the mediation effect of attitude is significant.
For the sample of regular buyers we find that Model 1 fits the data
acceptably and reveals that ethical self-identity positively impacts both
attitude toward organic food ( = .572; p < .001) and buying intentions
( = .587; p < .001). In Model 2 which frees the path from the mediator
(attitude) to the outcome variable, the incidence of ethical self-identity
on purchase intention is smaller than in Model 1 ( = .245; p < .050).
This suggests a mediating effect exerted by attitude toward organic food.
The inclusion of this variable in the model also led to a significant

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change in the Chi-square statistic and an improvement in model fit when

comparing Model 1 and Model 2. Hence, we have established that for
regular buyers the link between ethical self-identity and the intention
to purchase organic food is partially mediated by consumers attitudes
(Table 3). For occasional buyers Model 1 fits the data adequately but
reveals that ethical self-identity does not affect buying intentions. Thus,
H1 finds support in our estimates.
As far as the effects of food safety concerns and health consciousness
are concerned, our analysis reveals that none of these constructs affects
the buying intentions of regular consumers (Table 3). Food safety
concerns, but not health consciousness, are found to exert a significant
effect on the attitudes and buying intentions of occasional consumers.
For this group, food safety concerns are found to influence both attitude
toward organic food ( = .303; p < .050) and purchasing intention
( = .309; p < .001) in Model 1 (when the mediating effect of attitude
is constrained to zero). However, when the effect of attitude is allowed to
freely vary in Model 2, the link between food safety concerns and organic
food purchase intentions is no longer significant ( = .164; p > .050).
This suggests that the relation between the two variables is fully mediated
by attitude toward organic food. Consequently, H2 is confirmed only in
part.
Finally, to check whether the results yielded by the application of
the structural model can be considered indicative of different behavior
patterns among the surveyed consumer groups, we conducted a multiplegroup test of invariance.3 This test proved to be significant, thus
corroborating the conclusion that the behaviors of regular and occasional
consumers of organic foods are driven by different psychological
constructs.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Our study shows that, for regular consumers, ethical self-identity
affects attitude toward organic food, as well as related buying intention.
This result implies that these consumers are aware of the relevance of
moral considerations in food consumption and are willing to express
3. We compared a model in which measurement and structural weights as well as structural
covariances were constrained to be equal for both groups with a model wherein all parameters
were allowed to vary freely with a second. These modifications resulted in a significant decrease in
Chi-square (" 2 = 39.443; "df = 21; p = .017) indicating that the unconstrained model performs
better than the constrained one. This finding confirms that the relationships among the examined
variables are different between the two groups.

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this sensitivity through their purchase behavior. In contrast, the results

for occasional buyers show that food safety concerns significantly affect
their attitudes toward organic food and, through the mediating effects of
this variable, subsequent purchase intentions.
For regular consumers, the linkage between ethical self-identity and
the intention to buy organic food is mediated only in part by the
attitude toward such products. This indicates that these consumers
ethical commitment is able not only to determine a favorable disposition
toward organic food products, but also to affect their intention to
buy these products. Operationally, this finding implies that organic
food producers and regulatory bodies interested in supporting organic
farming should allow these consumers to express their ethical concerns
and contribute to the welfare of nature and other people by simply
choosing to consume organic products. For example, programs directed
at establishing a connection between ethical causes (like reforestation
projects or humanitarian initiatives) and the act of purchasing organic
food may enable these consumers to achieve a sense of self-actualization
as ethically oriented individuals.
For occasional consumers we ascertained that the link between food
safety concerns and purchase intention is fully mediated by attitude
toward organic food products. This suggests that food-related risks are
more likely to generate a favorable disposition toward these products
rather than immediately influencing occasional consumers purchase
intentions. Providing arguments in favor of the safety properties of
organic food may have the effect of raising the favorable attitudes of
occasional consumers toward organic farming and its output. In turn,
the more favorable attitudes can be expected to increase the likelihood
that these consumers will purchase organic food. Hence, to capture the
interest of infrequent consumers, food producers and regulatory agencies
should focus on the naturalness of organic products and raise confidence
in the organic label. For example, they could promote new distribution
channels suitable to match occasional consumers need for safe food, such
as the so-called farmers markets (i.e., direct sale markets). Such markets
may, in fact, allow customers to personally check the genuineness of the
purchased products.
Overall, the results of this study indicate that regulatory bodies
and consumer associations interested in supporting the growth of the
organic food sector may increase the receptiveness of their messages
by taking into account that different groups of organic buyers pursue
different values, and tailoring communication campaigns appropriately.
By addressing the specific concerns of each consumer group, such a

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differentiated approach may boost the effectiveness of policies directed at

stimulating sustainable consumption patterns and foster public confidence
in the safety standards of organic farming.
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