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Abstract
This work addresses the problem of estimating Klinkenbergcorrected permeability from single-point, steady-state
measurements on samples from low permeability sands. The
"original" problem of predicting the corrected or "liquid
equivalent" permeability (i.e., referred to as the Klinkenbergcorrected permeability) has been under investigation since the
early 1940s in particular, using the application of "gas
slippage" theory to petrophysics by Klinkenberg.1
In the first part of our work, the applicability of the JonesOwens4 and Sampath-Keighin5 correlations for estimating the
Klinkenberg-corrected (absolute) permeability from singlepoint, steady-state measurements is investigated. We also
provide an update to these correlations using modern petrophysical data.
In the second part of our work, we propose and validate a new
"microflow" model for the evaluation of an equivalent liquid
permeability from gas flow measurements. This work is based
on a more detailed application of similar concepts employed
by Klinkenberg. In fact, we can obtain the Klinkenberg result
as an approximate form of our result. Our theoretical "microflow" result is given as a rational polynomial in terms of the
Knudsen number (the ratio of the mean free path of the gas
molecules to the characteristic flow length (typically the
radius of the capillary)).
The following contributions are derived from this work:
Validation and extension of the correlations proposed by JonesOwens and Sampath-Keighin for low permeability samples.
Development and validation of a new "microflow" model which
correctly represents gas flow in low permeability core samples.
This model is also applied as a correlation for prediction of the
Introduction
The gas slippage phenomenon typically occurs in the laboratory when gas flow experiments are conducted at low
pressures. Gas slippage is defined as the condition where the
mean free path of the gas molecules is no longer negligible
compared to the average effective rock pore throat radius
i.e., the gas molecules tend to "slip" on the surfaces of the
porous media. This effect yields an overestimation of the
measured gas permeability compared to the true absolute
permeability if it were measured using a liquid.
For flow in tubes, the gas slippage phenomenon has been
investigated since the end of the nineteenth century. The first
study of gas slippage in porous media was conducted by
Klinkenberg.1 The Klinkenberg model approximates a linear
relationship between the measured gas permeability and the
reciprocal absolute mean core pressure.2 This model has been
a consistent basis for the development of methods computing
the absolute liquid permeability of a core sample based on a
single data point i.e., single-point steady-state permeability
measurement methods.
Subsequent work focused on correlating the parameters of the
Klinkenberg model (i.e, the Klinkenberg-corrected permeability or equivalent liquid permeability (k) and the Klinkenberg
gas slippage factor (bK). Heid et al3 and Jones and Owens4
proposed two correlations similar in form between bK and k,
while Sampath and Keighin5 proposed a different form of
correlation using effective porosity () as a third parameter.
At a more theoretical level, the gas slippage phenomenon is
part of a larger area of study the theory of rarefied gases.
This theory has developed substantially in the last fifty years,
leading to a better understanding and more accurate modeling
of the gas slippage effect. The primary objectives of this work
are:
To compare and evaluate existing correlations for single-point,
steady-state measurement of permeability, and
To develop the concept of a new model for gas slippage in low
permeability sands.
SPE 107594
In 1981 (two years after the Jones and Owens work), Sampath
and Keighin5 studied 10 core samples from a tight gas sand
field in Uinta County, Utah, and published a formula relating
the gas slippage factor (bK) to the ratio of Klinkenbergcorrected permeability to effective porosity (i.e., k/). The
Sampath-Keighin correlation is given by:
0.53
k
bK 13.851
...................................................... (5)
The data and the correlation relation developed by SampathKeighin are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2
Fig. 1
Although based on a reduced number of samples, the Sampath-Keighin correlation (Eq. 5) is interesting at a theoretical
level since it is noted in the literature7 that the square root of
the Klinkenberg-corrected permeability/porosity ratio is considered to be a "characteristic length" (recall that permeability
has the dimension of length-squared). Eq. 2 shows that the
SPE 107954
k
bK
....................................................................... (7)
Fig. 3
Comparison of the "bK vs. k" correlations by Heid et al (ref. 3) and Jones-Owen (ref. 4) with various
field and literature data, acquired with unsteady-state (USS) or steady-state (SS) techniques.
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
SPE 107594
Comparison of the "bK vs. k/" correlations by Sampath and Keighin (ref. 5) and this work with various field
and literature data, acquired with unsteady-state (USS) or steady-state (SS) techniques.
Comparison of the steady-state data with the JonesOwens and Heid et al correlations. The Heid et al
correlation seems well adapted for these datasets,
whereas the Jones-Owens correlation generally
underestimates the gas slippage factor, especially for
the first Cotton Valley sample set.
Fig. 6
SPE 107954
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
SPE 107594
Kn
......................................................................... (9)
lchar
In Eq. 9, is the mean free path of the gas molecules (i.e., the
average distance (length) between two consecutive molecular
interactions) and lchar is the characteristic length of the flow
geometry (e.g., channel height, pipe radius).
For our purposes, the Knudsen number is difficult to define
rigorously for a porous medium but for the sake of
argument, we presume that some "characteristic length" can be
estimated for a porous medium. More generally, we assume
that we can define the Knudsen number based on the properties of the porous medium.
SPE 107954
The classical definition of the mean free path from thermodynamics is:
( p, T ) / 2
1
RT
p
M
[ ( p, T )] ......................... (10)
where:
p = mean pressure (absolute)
T = absolute temperature
= viscosity of the gas at T and p
R = universal gas constant
M = molecular weight of the gas
This particular definition (Eq. 10) is based on the kinetic
theory for a perfect gas.14
In addition to the definitions above, we also must consider
various other flow regimes as follows (see Fig. 12):
Continuum Flow Regime: For Kn < 0.01, the mean free
path of the gas molecules is negligible compared to the
characteristic dimension of the flow geometry (i.e., the lchar
-parameter). In this case the continuum hypothesis of fluid
mechanics is applicable (i.e., the system is described by the
Navier-Stokes equations).
"Slip-Flow" Regime: For 0.01 < Kn < 0.1, the mean free
path is no longer negligible, and the slippage phenomenon
appears in the "Knudsen" layer (layer of gas molecules
immediately adjacent to the wall).
"Transition" Regime: For 0.1 < Kn < 10.
Free Molecular Flow Regime: For Kn > 10, the flow is
dominated by diffusive effects.
128
( Kn)
tan -1 4 Kn 0.4 ............................................. (12)
152
128
4 Kn p
k a k
1
tan -1 4 Kn p 0.4 Kn p
1
15
1 Kn p
........................................................................................ (14)
Fig. 12
128
4 Kn p
k a k
1
tan -1 4 Kn p 0.4 Kn p
1
0
2
15
1 Kn p
........................................................................................ (15)
1 0.598 0.352
ka
............................................ (16)
p
SPE 107594
1 a1 a2
ka
128
a1 a2
-1 1
1 2 tan 4
a0 k
a0 k
k 15
p
p
1 a1 a2
a0 k
1 1/
............................................................................................ (19)
1 0.553 0.3897
k
.......................................... (17)
p
Fig. 13
SPE 107954
lchar
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
p
p
q
r
Fig. 14
Recommendations/Comment
We note that the theoretical square-root correlation (Appendix
B) has a limited accuracy in this work. However, the squareroot model validates use of the permeability/porosity ratio in
modeling the gas slippage factor and serves to connect the
classical Klinkenberg model with our new "microflow model."
Upon further validation, we believe that our microflow model
=
=
=
=
=
=
References
1. Klinkenberg, L.J.: "The Permeability of Porous Media to Liquid
and Gases," paper presented at the API 11th Mid Year Meeting,
Tulsa, Oklahoma (May 1941); in API Drilling and Production
Practice (1941), 200-213
2. RP40, Recommended Practices for Core Analysis, 2nd edition,
API, Washington, DC (1998).
3. Heid, J.G., et al: "Study of the Permeability of Rocks to
Homogeneous Fluids," in API Drilling and Production Practice
(1950), 230-246
4. Jones, F.O. and Owens, W.W.: "A laboratory Study of Low
Permeability Gas Sands," paper SPE 7551 presented at the 1979
SPE Symposium on Low-Permeability Gas Reservoirs, May 2022, 1979, Denver, Colorado.
5. Sampath, K. and Keighin, C.W.: "Factors Affecting Gas Slippage
in Tight Sandstones," paper SPE 9872 presented at the 1981
SPE/DOE Low Permeability Symposium, May 27-29, 1981,
Denver, Colorado.
6. Kundt, A. and Warburg, E.: "ber Reibung und Wrmelei-tung
verdnnter Gase," Poggendorfs Annalen der Physik und Chemie
(1875), 155, 337.
7. Jones, S.C.: "Using the Inertial Coefficient, , to Characterize
Heterogeneity in Reservoir Rock," paper SPE 16949 presented at
the 1987 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
September 27-30, 1987, Dallas, Texas
8. Lower Cotton Valley Formation Core Report Anadarko
Petroleum Corp., (2005)
9. Lower Cotton Valley Formation Core Report Anadarko
Petroleum Corp., (2006)
10. Travis Peak Formation Core Report Well Howell No. 5, S.A.
Holditch, (1986)
11. Travis Peak Formation Core Report Well S.F.E. No. 2, S.A.
Holditch, (1987).
12. Frontier Formation Core Report Well S.F.E. 4-24, S.A.
Holditch, (1991).
10
dv
.................................................................... (A-2)
dr
where:
dv
............................................. (A-3)
dr
SPE 107594
yields:
dv
d (v
r)
dr
2L(r
r)
dr
dv
d 2 v dv
d 2v
2L
r
r (r
)
r2
dr
dr 2 dr
dr 2
...................................................................................... (A-6)
In Eq. A-6, the term
r2(d2v/dr2) is negligible compared to the
other terms neglecting this term and substituting Eq. A-6
into Eq. A-5 yields:
dv
dr
dv
d 2 v dv
2L
r
r (r
)
dr
dr 2 dr
2pr
r 2Lr
...................................................................................... (A-7)
Expanding and simplifying Eq. A-7 gives:
d 2 v dv
rp L
r
.................................................. (A-8)
2
dr
dr
1 dv
p
........................................................ (A-9)
r dr
L
p
v
( R0 2 r 2 ) ...................................................... (A-11)
4L
The gas flowrate (qg) is obtained by integrating the gas flowrate through the considered cylinder shell section (v(2rdr))
over the cross-section of the capillary tube, which yields the
Poiseuille equation:
p
2r
( R0 2 r 2 ) dr
R0 4 ................ (A-12)
4 L
8 L
0
qg
R0
SPE 107954
v0 c
dv / dr
r R ................................................... (A-13)
0
11
dv
p
r ............................................................... (A-14)
dr
2 L
p
R0 ............................................................ (A-15)
2 L
p
A0
R0 2 2cR0 ............................................... (A-16)
4 L
p
v
R0 2 r 2 2cR0 .......................................... (A-17)
4 L
0 4 L
qg
R0 p
R0 2 r 2 2cR0 dr
p 4 4c
R0
1
8 L
R0
R 2
1 p 4c
0 R0 2
1
8
L R0
..................................................................................... (A-18)
Re-writing Eq. A-18 in terms of superficial velocity (vl):
q
vg l
Atube
q
R 2 1 p 4c
l 0
1
2
8 L R0
R0
..................................................................................... (A-19)
Gas Flow Through an Idealized Porous Medium. The
"Klinkenberg" idealized porous medium is composed of solid
material through which the capillaries are oriented randomly
and have all the same radius, r. The direction of flow is
parallel to one of the planes of the cube, and let there be N
capillaries. The system for Klinkenberg's idealized porous
medium is shown in Fig. A-1.
The liquid flow rate (ql) through the capillary is given by
Poiseuille's law as: (3-dimensional flow, so Klinkenberg used
1/3 of the total flow for a particular direction).
1 R 2
1 p
ql N 0 R0 2
3
8
L
Fig. A.1
1 p
L
................................ (A-19)
8 L R0
R0 2
2
1 R
Substituting kl N 0 into Eq. A-19 for yields:
3
8
v g kl
1 p 4c
1
................................................ (A-25)
L R0
1 p
.............................................................. (A-26)
L
Where ka is the apparent permeability to gas. Setting Eq. A25 equal to Eq. A-26 and simplifying, yields:
4c
k a kl
1
......................................................... (A-27)
R0
12
4c bK
................................................................... (A-28)
r
p
r ....................................... (B-1)
8 L
8 L
n
n
................................. (B-2)
2
Bulk Volume
R0 L
R02
SPE 107594
2
r 2
n
r 8k r 2 8k ........................................ (B-7)
R2
0
r 2 2 C0 k / .................................................. (B-9)
Using C0 = 3.141510-6, Eq. B-9 becomes:
r 8.886 10 6 k / .................................................. (B-10)
r2 1
p
1 p 4
(r 2 )
n
r ............................ (B-3)
8
L
8 L
4c bK
................................................................... (B-12)
r
p
qtot n
r
k R02 ................................................................... (B-6)
8
n
r 8k
R2
0
k
4
bK
p
8.886 10
.................................... (B-14)
1
RT
p
M
[ ( p, T )] ...................... (B-15)
SPE 107954
Table B.1
13
Flowing Gas
hydrogen
helium
air
nitrogen
carbon dioxide
Molecular
Weight
(kg/kg-mole)
2.0159
4.0026
28.9586
28.01348
44.0095
Gas Viscosity at
1atm and 298 K
(Pa.s)
8.845x10-6
1.985x10-5
1.842x10-5
1.781x10-5
1.503x10-5
Eq. B-20
Intercept
(psi)
80.236
127.802
44.106
43.345
29.181
13.85T 1.5
N 2 ,1 atm (T )
10 7 ................................... (B-16)
T 102
The value of the universal gas constant, R = 8,314 J/K/kgmole. The product p in Eq. B-15 can be calculated using
Eq. B-15 and B-16:
p / 2
1
p
10 7 p 0.00664
28.01348
298 102
........................................................................................ (B-17)
To obtain the radius, r, in meters (recall that the base unit of
the mean free path is the meter), Eq. B-10 (expressed in
traditional units) becomes;
r 8.886 10 8 k /
Fig. B.1
Using the result from Eq. B-17 and Eq. B-18 in Eq. B-14
yields:
0.5
4 0.00664 k
bK
8.886 10 8
0.5
k
2.9885 105
........ (B-19)
k
bK 43.345
.................................................... (B-20)
(B-18)
1 p
4 Kn
q lchar 4
[1 ( Kn) Kn]
1
.................(C-1)
8
L
1 bKn
where:
q
Volumetric flow rate in the conduit, cc/sec
lchar
Characteristic length of the flow geometry (e.g.,
channel height, pipe radius), cm
L Length of conduit, cm
p
Pressure drop across the length of the conduit, atm
= Gas viscosity at temperature and pressure, cp
b
= Dimensionless slip coefficient, (b is defined as -1)
14
Kn
..................................................................... (C-2)
lchar
where is the mean free path of the gas molecules (i.e., the
average distance (length) between two consecutive molecular
interactions).
We use a value of -1 for the general slip coefficient (b) as
recommended by Karniadakis and Beskok. The role of the
rarefaction coefficient [1+
Kn) Kn] is to account for the
transition between the "slip-flow" regime (for which Klinkenberg model was developed) and the "free molecular flow"
regime. In the "slip-flow" regime (i.e., 0.01 < Kn < 0.1), the
rarefaction coefficient is equal to 1 (i.e., = 0); in the "free
molecular flow" regime (i.e., Kn > 10), the volumetric flowrate is independent of the Knudsen number and the parameter
tends toward a constant value (for Kn ).
For reference, the "Knudsen" flow regimes are defined as
follows below and are illustrated graphically in Fig. 12 in the
text. .
Continuum Flow Regime: For Kn < 0.01, the mean free
path of the gas molecules is negligible compared to the
characteristic dimension of the flow geometry (i.e., the lchar
-parameter). In this case the continuum hypothesis of fluid
mechanics is applicable (i.e., the system is described by the
Navier-Stokes equations).
"Slip-Flow" Regime: For 0.01 < Kn < 0.1, the mean free
path is no longer negligible, and the slippage phenomenon
appears in the "Knudsen" layer (layer of gas molecules
immediately adjacent to the wall)
"Transition" Regime: For 0.1 < Kn < 10.
Free Molecular Flow Regime: For Kn > 10, the flow is
dominated by diffusive effects.
The variation of the -parameter as a function of Kn is represented using: (see ref. 13)
( Kn) 0
2
tan -1
c Kn c 2 .......................................... (C-3)
................................................... (C-4)
3 4 15
1
1
RT
p
M
[ ( p , T )] ........................ (C-5)
SPE 107594
13.85T 1.5
N 2 ,1 atm (T )
T 102
N 2 (T , p) N 2 ,1 atm (T ) 0.12474 0.123688 p
1.05452 10 3 p 2 1.5052 10 6 p 3
.................................................................................................(C-6)
Minimum and maximum Knudsen numbers corresponding to the models used to represent the
characteristic length lchar.
Sample ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
Kn Estimated from
Eq. C-7
min Kn
max Kn
0.64
1.51
0.32
0.77
0.40
0.91
0.72
1.67
0.12
0.27
0.41
0.80
0.22
0.50
0.16
0.26
0.28
0.63
0.28
0.52
0.31
0.57
SPE 107954
1 p
4 Kn
q lchar 4
[1 ( Kn) Kn]
1
................ (C-1)
8
L
1 bKn
Poiseuille's law for fluid flow in a pipe (or tube) is given by:
1 p
q lchar 4
......................................................... (C-8)
8
L
1 p
............................................................ (C-9)
L
4 Kn
1
.................. (C-11)
1 bKn
where:
k
= Permeability, D
q
Volumetric flow rate in the conduit, cc/sec
lchar
The characteristic length of the flow geometry (e.g.,
channel height, pipe radius), cm
L
Length of conduit, cm
p
Pressure drop across the length of the conduit, atm
L
and using b=-1, we
A p
obtain:
q
L
4 Kn
k [1 ( Kn) Kn]
1
...................... (C-12)
A p
1 bKn
Eq. C-13 provides an independent relation between the apparent gas permeability (ka), the slip-corrected permeability
(or Klinkenberg-corrected permeability) (k), and the
Knudsen number (Kn). We now need to finalize Eq. C-13 by
substitution of the relations for
Kn). We substitute Eq. C-3
into Eq. C-1 (and assume that c1 = 4.0 and c2 = 0.4 in Eq. C-
15
128
( Kn)
tan -1 4 Kn 0.4 .........................................(C-14)
2
15
We now substitute Eq. C-14 into Eq. C-13 to yield our formal
(or complete) result for this work:
128
4 Kn
k a k
1
tan -1 4 Kn 0.4 Kn
1
2
1 Kn
15
.....................................................................................(C-15)
Klinkenberg Model as a Simplified Microflow Model for
Slip-Flow Regime. We can prove "mathematically" (using
rigorous assumptions) that the model developed by
Klinkenberg is actually a simplification of the microflow
model for the case of the slip-flow regime (0.01 < Kn < 0.1).
Recalling the Klinkenberg equation:
bK
k a k
1 ..........................................................(C-16)
p
where:
k = Klinkenberg-corrected permeability, D
ka
Apparent gas permeability, D
bK
....................................................................(C-17)
r
p
k a k
1 4c .........................................................(C-18)
r
We assume that we are in a slip-flow regime, then by definition, (Kn) = 0 (see ref. 13). Hence Eq. C-13 becomes:
4 Kn
k a k
1
.....................................................(C-19)
1 Kn
Hence:
4 Kn
4 Kn 4 Kn 2 o( Kn 2 )
......................................(C-21)
1 Kn
4 Kn
16
Kn
..................................................................... (C-2)
lchar
.................................................... (C-22)
k
1 4
lchar
SPE 107594
128
4 Kn
k a k
1
tan -1 4 Kn 0.4 Kn
1
0
2
15
1 Kn
...................................................................................... (D-1)
It is easily proven that for any pair of values for ka and k, Eq.
D-1 has a unique positive solution: we refer to this solution as
the "pseudo Knudsen" number.
Correlation of the Pseudo-Knudsen Number with Pressure, Permeability and Porosity. We have developed two
correlations to relate the "pseudo-Knudsen" numbers (Knp)
and the available data (ka, k, , p). The first correlation given
below relates the "pseudo-Knudsen" number (Knp) to the
reciprocal mean pressure, the porosity (), and the gas
permeability (ka):
Kn p 0.4
1 0.598 0.352
ka
.......................................... (D-2)
p
1
1
k a k
1
tan 1
4[0.4 k a 0.5980.352 ] 0.4 0.4 k a 0.5980.352
p
152
1 0.598 0.352
0. 4 k a
1 0.598 0.352
1 0.4 k a
...................................................................................... (D-3)
The equivalent liquid permeability can then be easily
computed by:
128
1
1
k k a /
1
tan 1
4[0.4 k a 0.5980.352 ] 0.4 0.4 k a 0.5980.352
2
p
p
15
1 0.598 0.352
0.4 k a
1 0.598 0.352
1 0.4 k a
Sample
ID
k
(md)
bK
(psi)
1-8
2-10
2-22
3-8
3-48
1-1
1-5
1-7
2-2
2-7
2-8
2-12
2-28
3-4
3-6
3-10
3-36
3-55
0.0001
0.1322
0.0168
0.0439
0.0035
0.00007
0.00004
0.00003
0.0004
0.0124
0.0025
0.0025
0.0052
0.0002
0.0999
0.0067
0.0168
0.0013
565.3
14.2
32.5
32.8
83.6
753.5
801.0
771.0
165.1
26.8
77.1
215.1
58.6
303.1
26.4
84.8
39.2
183.7
(fraction)
0.023
0.063
0.056
0.078
0.07
0.029
0.02
0.017
0.036
0.06
0.051
0.055
0.037
0.04
0.066
0.071
0.057
0.066
...................................................................................... (D-4)
For the second correlation we replaced the gas permeability
with the equivalent liquid permeability:
Kn p 2.62
1 0.553 0.3897
k
........................................ (D-5)
p
1
1
k a k
1
tan 1
4[ 2.62 k 0.5530.3897 ] 0.4 2.62 k 0.5530.3897
p
p
152
1
2.62 k 0.5530.3897
4
p
1
0.553 0.3897
1 2.62 k
...................................................................................... (D-6)
Rearranging Eq. D-6 yields:
SPE 107954
17
128
1
1
k a k
1
tan 1
4[ 2.62 k 0.5530.3897 ] 0.4 2.62 k 0.5530.3897
2
p
p
15
1
2.62 k 0.5530.3897
4
p
1
0
1
0.5530.3897
1 2.62 k
....................................................................................... (D-7)
Eq. D-7 is an implicit relation where k is solved as a root of
this relation. Fig. D.1 presents the "pseudo-Knudsen" numbers obtained with Eqs. D-2 and D-5 plotted against the reference "pseudo-Knudsen" numbers (recall that we defined the
reference "pseudo-Knudsen" number as solution of Eq. D-1).
Fig. D.1
Fig. D.2
Fig. D.3
18
Fig. D.4
SPE 107594