EE049 Electronic Components Exercises PR Inst

INDUSTRIETECHNIK
SRI LANKA INSTITUTE of ADVANCED TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION
ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING
Instructor Manual
Training Unit
Electronic Components Exercises

Practice
No: EE 049
Training Unit
Electronic Components
Practical Part
No.: EE 049
Edition:
2008
All Rights Reserved
Editor:
MCE Industrietechnik Linz GmbH & Co

Education and Training Systems, DM-1
Lunzerstrasse 64 P.O.Box 36, A 4031 Linz / Austria
Tel. (+ 43 / 732) 6987 3475
Fax (+ 43 / 732) 6980 4271
Website: www.mcelinz.com
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS - EXERCISE
CONTENTS
Page
LE 21105-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Resistors...........................3
LE 21106-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Diodes ............................21
LE 21107-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Capacitors ......................37
LE 21108-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistor Characteristics

62
LE 21109-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Setting the Transistor
Operating Point..................................................................................................................89
6
LE 21110-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistors as Amplifiers

107
LE 21111-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistors as Switches133
LE 21112-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Constant Current Sources

148
LE 21113-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Constant Voltage Sources

169
10
LE 21118-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - High, Low, and Band-
pass Filters ......................................................................................................................187

11
LE 21119-01 - Basic Electronics Circuits - Rectification ......................................226
Learning Unit: LE 21105-01
LE 21105-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Resistors
Summary of contents
Contents:
Resistors
Skills to be acquired:
Use of the resistor as a variable resistor, fixed

resistor, PTC thermistor, photoresistor
Projects:
Voltage divider circuits with resistors

Exercise 1
Experimental set-up with modules from

and in the electronics trainer
Exercise 2
Experimental set-up in the electronics

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration
Directions for the use

This Learning Unit contains solution sheets TE 21105.
The electronics trainer, electronics experimenter and accessories contained in the lists of
equipment under Designation and Item No. can be found in the EA catalogue (Electrical
Engineering Training Equipment).
Resistors are used

to convert from current to voltage and vice versa, as well as to limit current and to divide
voltage. The energy produced is converted into heat.
Resistors occur in practically all electronic circuits.
Trimmers are a type of variable resistor. They are used as voltage dividers.
Measuring circuit:
Trimmers have the following design:

There is a circular resistance track made of hard carbon that runs about an energizing
axis. A wiper can be moved along the resistance track by using a screwdriver. The
desired resistance value subdivision is obtained between the initial soldering tab, the
wiper pick-up, and the final soldering tab. The carrier plate shows the ohmic rating of the
entire resistance track.
Structure:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Fixed resistors
are resistors with fixed resistance values that cannot change. They can be used
universally as series resistors, load resistors, or, in series circuits for limiting current and
at the same time as voltage dividers.
Measuring circuit:
Due to considerations of economy, fixed resistors are manufactured only in the standard
values recognized internationally, such as 10, 12, 15, etc. as a continuing gradation.
The tolerance is frequently 5 % or 2 %. The resistors are identified by means of coloured
rings.
Four-ring encoding for fixed resistors. Code of four
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Five-ring encoding of fixed resistors: code of five
Fixed resistors are, as a rule, constructed from a ceramic body with a coating of carbon or
metal oxide.
Structure:
Thermistors
are good conductors only when cold. Except for a slight initial drop, their resistance
increases with temperature. Because they have a positive temperature coefficient, they
are also called PTC resistors (Positive Temperature Coefficient).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Characteristic curve:
Thermistors are used to monitor temperatures. The material used for them is almost
exclusively barium titanate. They are frequently drop-shaped.
Structure:
Photoresistors
have a decreasing resistance as the intensity of light increases. They conduct best when
illuminated. They are also called LDRs (Light Dependent Resistor).
Characteristic curve:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Photoresistors are used to measure light. They are manufactured from a semiconductor
material that is applied in a meander-shape on a ceramic disc. The ceramic disc is
accommodated in a small plastic housing.
Structure:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Circuit diagram
Structure of module
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 1
9
Item
No.
Qty.
Trimmer, lin.
R1 2.2k 0.2 W
Fixed resistor
R2 1.5 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3 3.9 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4 680 1 W
Thermistor
R5 140 = 40C
Fixed resistor
R6 820 1 W
Photoresistor
R7 LDR 03
Electronics trainer
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
2GA5101-3A
The components in
Item Nos. 1 - 7 are
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
2GA5101-8F
Components"
List comprises sheet(s) 1
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 1
10
Sheet No.
1
7
Circuit diagram
Structure of Experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 2
11
Item
No.
Qty.
Trimmer, lin.
R1 2.2k 0.2 W
Fixed resistor
R2 1.5 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3 3.9 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4 680 1 W
Thermistor
R5 140 = 40C
Fixed resistor
R6 820 1 W
Photoresistor
R7 LDR 03
Bare wire
0.5mm,silver-plated
Electronics experimenter
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
2GA5101-2A
The components in
Item Nos. 1 - 8 are
contained in the
accessories kit.
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 2
12
Sheet No.
1
9
Circuit diagram
Structure of circuit board
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 3
13
10
Item
No.
Qty.
Trimmer, lin.
R1 2.2k 0.2 W
Fixed resistor
R2 1.5 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3 3.9 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4 680 1 W
Thermistor
R5 140 = 40C
Fixed resistor
R6 820 1 W
Photoresistor
R7 LDR 03
Bare wire
0.5mm,silver-plated
Printed circuit board
E100 (half)
10
Pin strip
31-pole
11
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
2GA5101-2A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 3
14
Sheet No.
11
Skills to be acquired
Use of the resistor as a variable resistor, fixed resistor, PTC thermistor and photoresistor
Job plan (electronics trainer)
1. Arrange all the required components on the assembly board in accordance with the
diagram.
2. Complete the wiring in accordance with the circuit diagrams.
3. Perform the measurements in accordance with the measurement circuits and
measurement sheets 1 and 2 and enter the missing values.
Job plan (electronics experimenter)
diagram. The connection wires of the components are not to be shortened.
Component connections which are too short or too wide are prepared by soldering on
pieces of bare wire.
2. Complete the wiring in accordance with the circuit diagram.
measurement sheets 1 and 2 and enter the missing values.
Job plan (printed circuit board arrangement)
1. Arrange all the required components on the printed circuit board in accordance with
the diagram.
2. Complete the wiring in accordance with the circuit diagrams.
3. Plug the completed PCB into the 31-pole connector of the electronics experimenter.
measurement sheets 1 and 2 enter the missing values.
Aids, tools and equipment
PCB holder, 1.0 mm tin-lead solder, 30 W soldering iron, flat-nosed pliers, soldering
tongs, conductor disconnector, side clippers, 1.3 mm twist drill, holder for 1.3 mm twist
drill, desoldering device, steel rule
Accident prevention measures
Be careful when handling the hot soldering iron (risk of burns and danger of fire).
Be careful when cutting components to length; pieces of wire flying around (risk of eye
injuries).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 1 - 3
15
12
Functional description
A variable voltage can be picked up at the wiper on the variable resistor R1.
A voltage divider consists of fixed resistors R2 and R3 arranged in such a way that two
constant voltage drops are obtained.
R4 and R5 also form a voltage divider. When the thermistor R5 warms up, UR5 rises, and
UR4 drops.
The more strongly photoresistor R7 is illuminated, the better a conductor it is. UR7 drops,
UR6 rises.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 1 - 3
16
13
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
1. Set the operating voltage to 5 V. The exact measurement obtained is
UB =
2. The voltage level at the wiper on R1 to ground can be changed
from Umin =
to Umax =
3. At voltage divider R2/R3, the voltage values are proportional to the resistances
R2 =
R3 =
UR2 =
UR3 =
4. The voltage divider consisting of resistor R4 and a thermistor R5 depends on

temperature.
At room temperature,
UR4 =
and UR5 =
When the temperature is raised using a soldering iron, the voltage drops change to
UR4 =
and UR5 =
5. In daylight, the partial voltages are

UR6 =
and UR7 =
When the photo resistor is shaded,

UR7 drops
MCE
Industrietechnik
and UR7 rises
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 1 - 3
17
14
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
1. A current IR1 of several mA can be calculated from the operating voltage and the
resistance of R1.
The corresponding measurement is
IR1 =
2. The current flowing across R2 and R3 is
IR2 = IR3 =
3. Measure IR4/R5
When the thermistor is cold, the current flowing is
I=
When the thermistor is heated, the current flowing is
I=
4. Measure IR6/R7
When the photo resistor is illuminated, the current flowing is
I=
When the photo resistor is shaded, the current flowing is
I=
5. When all circuits are connected simultaneously to voltage, the total current resulting
(with fluctuations due to the effects of temperature and light) is
I=
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Exercise 1 - 3
18
15
Measurement sheet 1
1. Set the operating voltage to 5 V. The exact measurement obtained is
UB = 5 V
2. The voltage level at the wiper on R1 to ground can be changed
from Umin = 0 V
to Umax = 5 V
3. At voltage divider R2/R3, the voltage values are proportional to the resistances
R2 = 1.5 k
R3 = 3.9 k
UR2 = 1.4 V
UR3 = 3.6 V
4. The voltage divider consisting of resistor R4 and a thermistor R5 depends on

temperature.
At room temperature,
UR4 = 4.3 V
and UR5 = 0.7 V
When the temperature is raised using a soldering iron, the voltage drops change to
UR4 = 0.4 V
and UR5 = 4.6 V
5. In daylight, the partial voltages are

UR6 = 3.1 V
and UR7 = 1.9 V
When the photo resistor is shaded,

UR7 drops
MCE
Industrietechnik
and UR7 rises
LE 21105-01
Resistors
Solution Exercise 1 - 3
19
14a
16
Measurement sheet 2
1. A current IR1 of several mA can be calculated from the operating voltage and the
resistance of R1.
The corresponding measurement is
IR1 = 2.2 mA
2. The current flowing across R2 and R3 is
IR2 = IR3 = 0.9 mA
3. Measure IR4/R5
When the thermistor is cold, the current flowing is
I = 6.3 mA
When the thermistor is heated, the current flowing is
I = 0.5 mA
4. Measure IR6/R7
When the photo resistor is illuminated, the current flowing is
I = 3.8 mA
When the photo resistor is shaded, the current flowing is
I = 0.8 mA
5. When all circuits are connected simultaneously to voltage, the total current resulting
(with fluctuations due to the effects of temperature and light) is
I = 13.2 mA
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21105-01
Resistors
20
15a
17
LE 21106-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Diodes
Summary of contents
Contents:
Diodes
Measurements on a germanium diode, silicon diode,

LED and Zener diode
Drawing of characteristics
Projects:
Recording of diode characteristics

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

21
The use of diodes

is just as necessary in power electronics as in electronic controls.
In power electronics, rectifier diodes are used to convert AC current into DC current. DC
current is used, for example, to drive DC machines. In electronic controls, diodes are used
to link control signals together logically. The resulting signals control additional electronic
components.
A characteristic of diodes is their capability to conduct a current in one direction only, and
to block it in the opposite direction. Characteristic curves show how the diodes behave in
the circuit.
Measuring circuit for recording characteristic curves:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
22
Diodes (rectifier diodes)

Diodes are made of germanium or silicon. They are semiconductors,
i.e. they do not conduct as well as metals. Directed impurity (doping) creates a P-layer
and an N-layer in the material.
In the P-layer, there is a lack of electrons (holes).
In the N-layer, there is an excess of electrons (-).
Structure:
When a voltage is applied, it can drive a current only from the anode to the cathode. The
PN junction blocks it in the reverse direction.
LEDs
The PN-junction of LEDs emits light. A special semiconductor material is used for this
purpose. LEDs are used as inertialess Signal transmitters. They require very little power.
A series resistor must limit the current. LEDs are operated in the forward direction. They
look like small, transparent beads with two wire connections.
Structure:
Zener diodes
Zener diodes are silicon diodes operated in the blocking direction. Even at a low voltage,
they become conductors in the blocking direction. This voltage is known as the breakdown
voltage or simply as the Zener voltage.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
23
Measurement circuit for recording the characteristic curve
After the breakdown, the Zener voltage remains constant even when there are fairly large
variations in current. For that reason, Zener diodes are used mainly for voltage
stabilization. A series resistor must limit the Zener current. Zener diodes are classified into
standard series according to standard values. They are available in the gradation 2.4 V,
3.3 V, 3.9 V, 4.7 V and so on. The most commonly found power classes are 0.5 W or 1.5
W. Their structure does not differ from that of other diodes.
Structure:
Semiconductor designations:
First letter = Material
A
Germanium
Silicon
Semiconductor material for LEDs
Second letter:
A
Diode
Radiation-producing semiconductor material
Zener diode
The other letters and numerals identify the type in general. Or the designation
1N ... with two to four numerals identifies a diode.
1N
1 Blocking layer (diode)
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
24
Circuit diagram
Structure of module
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 1
25
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R2 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R2 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R3 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R4 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R5 680
1W
Fixed resistor
R6 680
1W
Germanium diode
V1 AA 118
Silicon diode
V2
LED
B1 CQV 10-5 RED
10
Zener diode
B2 CQV 15-5 GR
11
Zener diode
V3 BZX 83C5V6
12
Zener diode
V4 BZX 83C8V2
13
Rheostat
100 10 W
14
Electronics trainer
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
1N 4002
2GA5101-3A
The components in
Item Nos. 1 - 13 are
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
2GA5101-8F
Components."
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 1
26
Sheet No.
1
5
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 2
27
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R2 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R3 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R4 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R5 680
1W
Fixed resistor
R6 680
1W
Germanium diode
V1 AA 118
Silicon diode
V2 1N 4002
LED
B1 CQV 10-5 RED
10
LED
B2 CQV 15-5 GR
11
Zener diode
V3 BZX 83C5V6
12
Zener diode
V4 BZX 83C8V2
13
Bare wire
0.5mm,silver-plated
14
Rheostat
100 10 W
15
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
2GA5101-2A
The components in
contained in the
accessories kit.
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 2
28
Sheet No.
1
7
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 3
29
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R2 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R3 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R4 1 k
1W
Fixed resistor
R5
680 1 W
Fixed resistor
R6
680 1 W
Germanium diode
V1 AA 118
Silicon diode
V2 1N 4002
LED
B1 CQV 10-5 RED
10
LED
B2 CQV 15-5 GR
11
Zener diode
V3 BZX 83C5V6
12
Zener diode
V4 BZX 83C8V2
13
Bare wire
0.5mm, silver-plated
14
E 100 (half)
15
Pin strip
31-pole
16
Rheostat
100 10 W
17
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
2GA5101-2A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 3
30
Sheet No.
1
9
Measurements on a germanium diode, silicon diode, LED and Zener diode Drawing of
characteristics
diagram
2. Complete the wiring in accordance with the circuit diagrams
3. Use the circuit via the variable resistor (voltage divider)
measurement sheet 1 and enter the values in the table 5. Draw the curves on
measurement sheet 2 from the measured values
2. Complete the wiring in accordance with the circuit diagram
measurement sheet 1 and enter the values in the table
5. Draw the curves on measurement sheet 2 from the measured values
the diagram
2. Complete the wiring in accordance with the circuit diagrams
3. Plug the completed PCB into the 31-pole connector of the electronics experimenter
measurement sheet 1 and enter the values in the table
6. Draw the curves on measurement sheet 2 from the measured values
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 1-3
31
10

tongs, conductor disconnector, side Clippers, 1.3 mm twist drill, holder for 1.3 mm twist
drill, desoldering device, steel rule.
injuries).
When the operating voltage is raised in a series circuit, the series resistor limits the diode
current.
The voltage drop at the germanium diode V1 rises sharply as the current increases. The
voltage drop at the silicon diode V2 remains almost constant.
The voltage drop at the LEDs B1 and B2 likewise remains almost constant.
The voltage drop at the Zener diodes B3 and B4 is in the range of their standard value.
Outside of the breakpoint zone, the voltage drop increases slightly.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 1-3
32
11
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Recording of characteristic curves:
In the series circuit made up of resistor and diode, adjust the currents desired indirectly
via the variable operating voltage.
In each instance, measure the voltage drop at the diode.
1 mA
2 mA
3 mA
5 mA
10 mA
20 mA
UV1
UV2
UB1
UB2
UV3
UV4
The value pairs produce measured points in the families of characteristic curves that
follow. For each diode, connect the measured points to form a characteristic curve. For
V1, V2, B1 and B2, the forward characteristics are obtained (measurement sheet 2, top).
For V3 and V4, the breakdown characteristics are obtained (measurement sheet 2,
bottom).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 1 - 3
33
12
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
Germanium diode, silicon diode, LEDs
Zener diodes
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Exercise 1 - 3
34
13
Measurement sheet 1
In the series circuits made up of resistor and diode, adjust the currents desired indirectly
via the variable operating volage.
In each instance, measure the voltage drop at the diode.
1 mA
2 mA
3 mA
5 mA
10 mA
20 mA
UV1
0.37 V
0.5 V
0.6 V
0.77 V
1.14 V
1.76 V
UV2
0.56 V
0.6 V
0.62 V
0.64 V
0.68 V
0.71 V
UB1
1.51 V
1.54 V
1.55 V
1.57 V
1.6 V
1.62 V
UB2
1.81 V
1.84 V
1.85 V
1.88 V
1.94 V
2.02 V
UV3
5.4 V
5.5 V
5.55 V
5.6 V
5.7 V
5.75 V
UV4
8.0 V
8.05 V
8.05 V
8.1 V
8.2 V
8.25 V
The value pairs produce measured points in the families of characteristic curves that
follow. For each diode, connect the measured points to form a characteristic curve. For
V1, V2, B1 and B2, the forward characteristics are obtained (measurement sheet 2, top).
For V3 and V4, the breakdown characteristics are obtained (measurement sheet 2,
bottom).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
35
12a
14
Measurement sheet 2
Germanium diode, silicon diode, LEDs
Zener diodes
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21106-01
Diodes
Solution 1 - 3
36
13a
15
LE 21107-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Capacitors
Summary of contents
Contents:
Capacitors
Use of capacitors, storage of electrical energy

RC module
CR module
Dynamic input
Projects:
Projects:
Capacitor circuits with DC and square-wave voltages

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

This Learning Unit contains solution sheets TE 21107-01.
37
The use of capacitors

is absolutely necessary for the short-term storage of electrical energy.
If a DC voltage is applied to two metal plates that face one another with electrical
insulation between them, a difference develops in the electron population on the plates.
An electrical field is created in the space between the plates. The plates are isolated from
one another by means of the insulating material, referred to as the dielectric. The
capacitance of a capacitor depends on the size of the plates, the distance between the
plates and the dielectrics.
The plates facing one another can store a charge, i.e. a quantity of electricity determined
from current x time.
The more slowly the voltage drop at the plates rises on a capacitor during charging, the
greater its capacitance.
The farad is a very large unit. The following smaller units exist:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
38
When a resistor is connected before or after a capacitor, an RC circuit or a CR circuit is

formed respectively.
The time required to charge or discharge the capacitor depends upon the effective
resistance R in the circuit and on the value of the capacitance C. The product R x C is an
indicator of the charging time. This product is called the time constant,
= Tau:
A capacitor can be charged by 63 % and can be discharged by 37 % within the time

constant (
). The charge or discharge is viewed as completed after 5 time constants.
Charging voltage level UC with a 10 V operating voltage with R = 50 k and C = 100 F.

Because an uncharged capacitor does not offer any resistance to the current, the first
charging current peak is limited only by the resistor. The charging current peak produces
a voltage peak at the resistor. The increasing capacitor voltage opposes the operating
voltage and reduces the charging current. When the capacitor has been charged, the
capacitor voltage is exactly the same as the operating voltage.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
39
When charged, the capacitor itself has an almost infinitely high resistance. It blocks the
DC current. A discharge of the capacitor in the opposite direction produces a discharging
current peak at the resistor in the direction opposite to that during charging.
An RC circuit is frequently called an integrator circuit or a low pass. A CR circuit is called a
differentiation circuit or a high pass. Such circuits take a rectangular voltage and convert it
into a different voltage pattern.
With an RC circuit, the output voltage is tapped at the capacitor.
With a CR circuit, the output voltage is tapped at the resistor.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
40
Positive and negative needle pulses can bee tapped at the resistor of the CR circuit.
Either all positive or all negative needle pulses can be blocked for the circuit that follows,
or possibly for a load resistor, by using a diode. The CR circuit with an additional diode is
used in a logic circuit as a so-called dynamic input.
The dynamic input allows a quick change in voltage with a given switching edge to pass
through to the load resistor as a needle pulse.
Dynamic input for the positive switching edge
Dynamic input for the negative switching edge
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
41
Capacitor types
Electrolytic capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors have a thin coat of oxides as a dielectric. This coat is formed by
applying the positive pole of a DC voltage to a metal foil within a fluid, the electrolyte. In
order to maintain the oxide coating, electrolytic capacitors may be operated only at the DC
voltage which is printed an them.
The most commonly used type is the aluminium electrolytic capacitor in sizes from 1 to
100,000 F.
Metal-plastic capacitors
In metal-plastic capacitors, very thin coatings of metal are vaporized onto plastic foils. The
foils are rolled into round or flat coils. The different plastics used as the dielectric affect the
electrical properties of the capacitors. Typical capacitances are from 1 to 100,00 F.
Ceramic capacitors
The development of ceramic masses with a very high insulating resistance has made
possible the simple and compact construction of capacitors with a ceramic dielectric. The
ceramic mass is simultaneously the basic body and the housing. Such capacitors are
made in versions from 1 pF to 1 F.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
42
Circuit diagram
Structure of module
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 1
43
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
47 k
Fixed resistor
R2
10 k
Fixed resistor
R3
18 k
Fixed resistor
R4
120 k
Fixed resistor
R5
100 k
Fixed resistor
R6
18 k
Electrolytic
C1
100 F
C2
100 nF
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
capacitor
8
Metal-plastic
capacitor
Ceramic capacitor
C3
47 nF
10
Ceramic capacitor
C4
10 nF
11
Diode
V1
1N4148
12
Diode
V2
1N4148
13
Electronics trainer
2GA5101-3A
The components in
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
Components"
2GA5101-8F
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 1
44
Sheet No.
1
7
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 2
45
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
47 k
Fixed resistor
R2
10 k
Fixed resistor
R3
18 k
Fixed resistor
R4
120 k
Fixed resistor
R5
100 k
Fixed resistor
R6
18 k
Electrolytic
C1
100 F
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
capacitor
8
Metal-plastic capacitor
C2
100 nF
Ceramic capacitor
C3
47 nF
10
Ceramic capacitor
C4
10 nF
11
Diode
V1
1N4148
12
Diode
V2
1N4148
13
2GA5101-2A
The components in
contained in the
accessories kit.
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 2
46
Sheet No.
1
9
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 3
47
10
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
47 k
Fixed resistor
R2
10 k
Fixed resistor
R3
18 k
Fixed resistor
R4
120 k
Fixed resistor
R5
100 k
Fixed resistor
R6
18 k
Electrolytic
C1
100 F
C2
100 nF
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
capacitor
8
Metal-plastic
capacitor
Ceramic capacitor
C3
47 nF
10
Ceramic capacitor
C4
10 nF
11
Diode
V1
1N4148
12
Diode
V2
1N4148
13
Bare wire
0.5 mm, plated
14
E 100 (half)
15
Pin strip
31-pole
16
Electronics
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
17
Function generator
5 V square-wave
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 3
48
Sheet No.
11
The use of capacitors in the storing of electric energy in an RC module, a CR module and
with a dynamic input
diagram
2. Complete the circuit in accordance with the circuit diagrams
3. Perform the measurements in accordance with the measurement sheets and enter the
missing curves
pieces of bare wire
2. Complete the circuit in accordance with the circuit diagram
missing curves
the diagram
missing curves
tongs, conductor interrupter, side Clippers, 1.3 mm twist drill, holder for 1.3 mm twist drill,
desoldering device, steel rule
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercises 1-3
49
12
Measuring and testing equipment

1 oscilloscope
Accident prevention measure
Be careful when handling the hot soldering iron (risk of burns and danger of fire). Be
careful when cutting components to length; pieces of wire flying around (risk of eye
injuries). Be careful when handling the capacitors; there is a danger of explosion if the
opering voltage is too high or if the poles are incorrectly connected (risk of eye injuries).
Functional description RC circuit R1; C1
If 5 V DC is applied to the circuit, the charging of C1 across R1 begins. Initially, the
capacitor acts as if it is short-circuited, i.e. it offers no resistance to the charging current.
The height of the charging current is limited only by R1. The first charging current is large
but it then drops off quickly. After a time of one
, the capacitor chare has reached 3 V.
There are 2 V left at R1, since the charging voltage opposes the operating voltage.
Further charging occurs significantly more slowly because the difference in voltage
between the operating voltage and the charging voltage continually decreases. After 5
the capacitor is fully charged to 5 V. There is no longer any voltage differential at R1, and
therefore no further charging current flows there.
After the operating voltage is unplugged, the discharge is initiated by bridging over the
entire RC circuit. This corresponds to a parallel connection of R1 and C1. At first, the
capacitor voltage drives a high current across R1. The discharge current decreases
sharply during the first time of 1
, with the capacitor voltage dropping by 3 V. At C1, only
2 V are left.
Further discharge takes place significantly more slowly and ends after 5
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercises 1-3
50
with 0 V at Cl.
13
Description of Operation RC circuit R2; C2

The circuit is operated using a DC voltage that is switched on and off alternately for 5 ms
each. This is called a 100 Hz square-wave voltage. The voltage levels are to be + 5 V and
0 V.
With each positive switching edge, C2 begins charging across R2. The capacitor voltage
rises logarithmically, at first quickly and then more and more slowly. With each negative
switching edge, C2 starts discharging across R2. The capacitor voltage drops
logarithmically, at first quickly and then more and more slowly. The time constant 1
selected was small enough to allow the capacitor to be fully charged and fully discharged
100 times per second.
Voltage characteristic at the capacitor
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercises 1-3
51
14
Dynamic input with C3; R3; V1 and load resistor R4.
The circuit is operated using a 100 Hz square-wave voltage. The voltage levels are to be
+5 V and 0 V.
With each positive switching edge, the capacitor charging current peak produces a
positive voltage peak at R3 and R4. At R4, it is smaller than at R3 by the threshold voltage
of the diode V1.
With each negative switching edge, the capacitor discharging current peak produces a
negative voltage peak at R3. A capacitor discharge current cannot flow across the load
resistor R4 because V1 is blocking. Compared to R3, R4 is high-ohmic in order to ensure
that the charging time for the capacitor would not be noticeably shorter than the
discharging time.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercises 1-3
52
15
Dynamic input with C4; R5; V2 and load resistor R6.
The circuit is operated using a 100 Hz square-wave voltage. The voltage levels are to be
+5 V and 0 V.
With every positive switching edge, the capacitor loading current peak causes a positive
voltage peak at R5. Load resistor R6 is not affected by this because diode V2 is blocking.
With every negative switching edge, the capacitor discharging current peak causes a
negative voltage peak at R5 and R6. At R6 it is smaller than at R5 by the threshold
voltage of V2. Compared to R5, R6 is low-ohmic so that the discharge time of the
capacitor is clearly shorter than the charging time. The negative voltage peak R6 thus
becomes a narrow needle pulse.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercises 1-3
53
16
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Apply 5 V to the series circuit made up of R1 and C1. The charging of the capacitor may
be observed using an oscilloscope connected in parallel to C1. Draw the oscillogram for
the fully-charged C1. Adjust the zero line (0) with automatic triggering.
The scale on the x-axis is to be 5 ms per cm.
The scale on the y-axis is to be 1 V per cm.
The discharging of C1 can be observed when the series circuit of R1 and C1 is shortcircuited. The time constant (Tau R x C) can be determined by means of repeated
charging and discharging. The time constant corresponds to the time required for charging
or discharging C1 by 63 %, or by approx. 3 V.
t=
Calculations for the time constant are:
=RxC=
After 5 time constants (5 x R x C), the capacitor voltage is approximately the same as the
operating voltage.
UB =
UC1 =
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 1 - 3
54
17
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
The RC circuit made up of R2 and C2 is operated using a 100 Hz square-wave voltage
with +5 V and 0 V. A single oscillogram showing both the Input voltage at the RC module
and the output voltage at C2 is to be recorded. Select the positive trigger edge (
).
Adjust the zero line (0) with automatic triggering. With manual triggering, set the triggering
level to just above zero.
Determine the time it takes to charge C2 by 63 % from the oscillogram.

t=
Calculate the time mathematically from the time constant.
=RxC=
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 1 - 3
55
18
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 3
The dynamic input consisting of C3, R3 and V1 is operated using a 100 Hz square wave
voltage with +5 and 0 V.
A single oscillogram showing the input voltage of the RC module and the output voltage at
the load resistor R4 is to be recorded. In an additional measurement, the voltage loss at
R3 is to be determined.
Select the positive trigger edge (
). Adjust the zero line (0) with automatic triggering.
With manual triggering, set the trigger level to barely above zero.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 1 - 3
56
19
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 4
The dynamic input consisting of C4, R4 and V2 is operated using a 100 Hz square-wave
voltage with +5 V and 0 V.
A single oscillogram showing the input voltage at the RC module and the output voltage at
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
Exercise 1 - 3
57
20
Measurement sheet 1
Apply 5 V to the series circuit made up of R1 and C1. The charging of the capacitor may
be observed using an oscilloscope connected in parallel to C1. Draw the oscillogram for
the fully-charged C1. Adjust the zero line (0) with automatic triggering.
The discharging of C1 can be observed when the series circuit of R1 and C1 is shortcircuited. The time constant (Tau R x C) can be determined by means of repeated
charging and discharging. The time constant corresponds to the time required for charging
or discharging C1 by 63 %, or by approx. 3 V.
t=6s
Calculations for the time constant are:
= R x C = 56 k x 100 F = 5.6 s
After 5 time constants (5 x R x C), the capacitor voltage is approximately the same as the
operating voltage.
UB = 5 V
UC1 = 5 V
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
58
17a
21
Measurement sheet 2
The RC circuit made up of R2 and C2 is operated using a 100 Hz square-wave voltage
with +5 V and 0 V. A single oscillogram showing both the Input voltage at the RC module
and the output voltage at C2 is to be recorded. Select the positive trigger edge (
).
Adjust the zero line (0) with automatic triggering. With manual triggering, set the triggering
level to just above zero.
Determine the time it takes to charge C2 by 63 % from the oscillogram.

t = 0.5 cm x 2 ms / cm = 1 ms
Calculate the time mathematically from the time constant.
= R x C = 10 k x 0,1 F = 1ms
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
59
18a
22
Measurement sheet 3
The dynamic input consisting of C3, R3 and V1 is operated using a 100 Hz square wave
voltage with +5 and 0 V.
A single oscillogram showing the input voltage of the RC module and the output voltage at
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
60
19a
23
Measurement sheet 4
The dynamic input consisting of C4, R4 and V2 is operated using a 100 Hz square-wave
voltage with +5 V and 0 V.
A single oscillogram showing the input voltage at the RC module and the output voltage at
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21107-01
Capacitors
61
20a
24
LE 21108-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistor

Characteristics
Summary of contents
Contents:
Transistor characteristics
Use of transistors
Determining the input characteristic
Determining the output characteristic
Determining the current control characteristic
Projects:
Recording of transistor characteristics

Emitter connection with negative current feedback
Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

62
The use of transistors

makes possible contactless controls.
A transistor can be compared to a relay switch.
On-off switch open
On-off switch open
Relay switch open
Transistor blocks
Signal light does
Signal light does
not come on
not come on
On-off switch closed
On-off switch closed
Relay switch closed
Transistor is conducting
Signal light comes on
Signal light comes on
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
63
When a small base current flows through the base-emitter circuit, the transmitter becomes
conductive in the collector-emitter circuit and a large collector current flows.
The base current and collector current are added to form the emitter current
IB + IC = IE
The ratio between the base current and the collector current is referred to as the DC gain
factor B. In the last diagram, this current gain was 100 x.
B=
IC
In the example:
IB
100 mA = 100 x
1 mA
Approximately 0.7 V is required to achieve conductance in the base-emitter circuit. Under

favourable conditions, conductance can be achieved in the collector-emitter circuit with
only
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
64
Operation of the transistor
Corresponding to the flow of electrons, there is a simultaneous flow of holes in the

opposite direction because each electron that travels upward (car) leaves behind it a hole
that apparently travels downward (parking space). The technical direction of flow is that of
the holes. The base current controls a collector current. The voltage at the base is positive
with respect to the emitter. Electrons are conducted from the emitter into the base.
Because the base offers only a few spaces for electrons and the electrons in the base are
attracted by the positive voltage at the collector, they break through the PN-junction in the
direction of the collector.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
65
Transistors are usually made out of silicon. A NPN transistor made up of two diodes is
conceivable.
Structure:
Symbol and structure:
The circle (housing)
Seen from below
can be omitted
Designations for semiconductors
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
66
For every circuit which is to be dimensioned, a suitable transistor must be selected. Data
books can be used to help in doing this. The transistor data are classified into
characteristic data and limit data. The characteristic data are typical operating data for
transistors. By combining many characteristic data, it is possible, for example, to
determine input characteristics, output characteristics and current control characteristics.
The limit data indicate absolute limit values. If these are exceeded, you must expect the
transistor to be destroyed. It is possible to work out transistor data yourself from
measurements and experiments.
The input characteristic corresponds to a diode characteristic. The base current and the
base emitter voltage are measured an a transistor.
The higher the base current is set, the greater the voltage drop at the base-emitter track.
Measurement circuit
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
67
Input characteristic
The Input characteristic can be used to determine the base current with a given baseemitter voltage.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
68
An output characteristic indicates the relationship between the collector current and the
collector-emitter voltage for a constant base current.
A family of output characteristics is obtained by grouping together several characteristic
curves. The constant base current is the parameter, i.e. the constant quantity. The
collector-emitter voltage and the collector current are measured.
When the collector-emitter voltage rises, the collector current at first increases sharply,
and then remains approximately at the same level once the current gain B of the transistor
has been fully utilized.
IC = IB x B
Measuring circuit
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
69
Output characteristic
In the family of output characteristics, the collector current can be determined for a given
collector-emitter voltage.
If the collector current is divided by the base current (parameter), the current amplification
B can be found.
In the overdriving range, the base current (parameter) is higher than would be necessary
for the collector current flowing at the moment. The full current gain B is not yet being
utilized here.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
70
The current control characteristic identifies the transistor current amplification.

Here, the base current and the collector current are measured: the higher the base
current, the higher the collector current.
Measuring circuit
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
71
Current control characteristic
The current control characteristic can be used to find the collector current for a given base
current.
If the collector current is divided by the base current, the current gain B is obtained.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
72
Circuit diagram
Structure of module
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
73
11
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
Fixed resistor
R2 330 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3 120 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4 820 k 1 W
Transistor
V1 BC 140-16
Transistor
V2 BC 140-16
Transistor
V3 BC 237-A
LED
81 CQV 20-5 red
Rheostat
100 10 W
10
Electronics trainer
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
1 k 1 W
2GA5101-3A
The components in
Item Nos. 1 - 9 are
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
Components"
2GA5101-8F
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 1
74
Sheet No.
12
Circuit diagram
Set-up of experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 2
75
13
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
Fixed resistor
R2 330 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3 120 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4 820
Transistor
V1 BC 140-16
Transistor
V2 BC 140-16
Transistor
V3 BC 140-16
LED
B1 CQV 20-5 red
Bare wire
0.5 mm silver-
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
1 k 1 W
1 W
plated
10
Rheostat
11
Electronics trainer
100 10 W
2GA5101-3A
The components in
contained in the
accessories kit.
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 2
76
Sheet No.
14
Circuit diagram
Circuit board arrangement
MCE Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 3
77
15
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
Fixed resistor
R2 330 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3 120 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4 820
Transistor
V1 BC 140-16
Transistor
V2 BC 140-16
Transistor
V3 BC 237-A
LED
B1 CQV 20-5 red
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silver-
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
1 k 1 W
1 W
plated
10
E 100 (half)
11
Pin strip
31-pole
12
Rheostat
100 10 W
13
Electronics
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 3
78
Sheet No.
16
Skills to be acquired - Transistor measurements: determining the input, output and control
current characteristics.
diagram.
2. Complete the circuit in accordance with the circuit diagrams.
3. Use the circuit via variable resistors (voltage dividers).
measurement sheets and enter the missing values in the table.
measurement sheet and enter the values in the table.
5. Form the curves from the measured values.
the diagram.
5. Perform the measurements in accordance with the measurement circuit and
measurement sheets and enter the values in the table.
6. Form the curve from the measured values.
Aids, tools and equipment - PCB holder, 1.0 mm tin-lead solder, 30 W soldering iron, flatnosed pliers, soldering tongs, conductor interrupter, side clippers, 1.3 mm twist drill,
holder for 1.3 mm twist drill, desoldering device, steel rule.
Accident prevention measures - Be careful when handling the hot soldering iron (risk of
burns and danger of fire). Be careful when cutting components to length; pieces of wire
flying around (risk of eye injuries).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
79
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Determine the input characteristic at transistor V1.
As the base voltage across R1 rises, the base current of V1 increases. It is limited by the
base series resistor R1. Each value for the base current causes a given drop in the baseemitter voltage. The collector-emitter circuit of V1 must remain open because the high
base current (due to the low-ohmic series resistor R1) would allow too great a collector
current to pass.
Determine the output characteristics at transistor V2.
The base current of V2 can be adjusted using the operating voltage across R2. It is
permissible to connect a second source of operating voltage directly to the collectoremitter circuit because the small base current (due to the high-ohmic series resistor R2)
will also allow only a small collector current to pass.
An increase in collector-emitter voltage has a very strong effect an the collector current in
the overdriving range, but only a very slight effect after that. The maximum collector
current depends upon the base current that has been set.
Determine the current control characteristic at transistor V3.
With increasing operating voltage across R3, the base current of V3 rises. A second
source of operating voltage allows a medium-large collector current depends upon the
base current. In the collector-emitter circuit, the voltage drop decreases as the base
current increases.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
80
18
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Recording of characteristic curves
Adjust the Base currents desired indirectly in the series circuit made up of series resistor R1
and the base-emitter circuit of transistor V1 using the variable operating voltage. In each
case, measure the voltage drop in the base-emitter circuit.
IB
1 mA
2 mA
3 mA
5 mA
10 mA
20 mA
UBE V1
The value pairs UBE, IB produce measured points for a
Transistor input characteristic
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 1 - 3
81
19
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
Adjust the desired base current indirectly in the series circuit made up of series resistor R2 and
the base-emitter circuit of transistor V2 using the variable operating voltage. Using a second
source of operating voltage, change the collector-emitter voltage for each base current value.
The collector current IC is to be measured in each instance.
UCE
0V
0.25 V
0.5 V
1.0 V
2.5 V
5.0 V
IC at IB = 50 A
IC at IB = 40 A
IC at IB = 30 A
IC at IB = 20 A
The value pairs UCE, IC produce measured points for four output characteristics for plotting an
measurement sheet 3.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 1 - 3
82
20
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 3
Transistor output characteristics
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 1 - 3
83
21
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 4
Set the desired base current values for V3 with a variable operating voltage. Connect the
collector circuit to a second operating voltage source of 24 V.
In each case, measure the collector current.
IB
10 A
20 A
30 A
50 A
100 A
IC
The value pairs IB, IC produce measured points for a
Transistor current control characteristic.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 1 - 3
84
22
Measurement sheet 1
Adjust the Base currents desired indirectly in the series circuit made up of series resistor R1
and the base-emitter circuit of transistor V1 using the variable operating voltage. In each
case, measure the voltage drop in the base-emitter circuit.
IB
1 mA
2 mA
3 mA
5 mA
10 mA
20 mA
UBE V1
0.64 V
0.67 V
0.69 V
0.72 V
0.76 V
0.81 V
The value pairs UBE, IB produce measured points for a

Transistor input characteristic
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
Exercise 1 - 3 - Solution
85
19a
23
Measurement sheet 2
Adjust the desired base current indirectly in the series circuit made up of series resistor R2 and
the base-emitter circuit of transistor V2 using the variable operating voltage. Using a second
source of operating voltage, change the collector-emitter voltage for each base current value.
The collector current IC is to be measured in each instance.
UCE
0V
0.25 V
0.5 V
1.0 V
2.5 V
5.0 V
IC at IB = 50 A
0 mA
7.20 mA
8.27 mA
8.33 mA
8.47 mA
8.62 mA
IC at IB = 40 A
0 mA
6.14 mA
6.73 mA
6.80 mA
6.82 mA
6.94 mA
IC at IB = 30 A
0 mA
4.68 mA
4.91 mA
4.93 mA
4.99 mA
5.05 mA
IC at IB = 20 A
0 mA
3.16 mA
3.24 mA
3.26 mA
3.30 mA
3.36 mA
The value pairs UCE, IC produce measured points for four output characteristics for plotting an
measurement sheet 3.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
86
20a
24
Measurement sheet 3
Transistor output characteristics
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
87
21a
25
Measurement sheet 4
Set the desired base current values for V3 with a variable operating voltage. Connect the
collector circuit to a second operating voltage source of 24 V.
In each case, measure the collector current.
IB
10 A
20 A
30 A
50 A
100 A
IC
2.15 mA
4.33 mA
6.62 mA
11.18 mA
20.94 mA
The value pairs IB, IC produce measured points for a

Transistor current control characteristic.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21108-01
88
22a
26
LE 21109-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Setting the

Transistor Operating Point
Summary of contents
Contents:
Setting the transistor operating points
Setting the operating point in a common collector

connection.
Setting the operating point in a common emitter
connection
Projects:
Collector connection
Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

89
Adjustment of the transistor operating point

is necessary to operate the transistor as an amplifier.
lt is usually done in such a way that the voltage drop in the C-E circuit is half the operating
voltage.
There is then a medium current flowing in the load current circuit. This adjustment
corresponds to an average operating point.
However, it is also possible to select a different operating point.
Collector circuit
One basic circuit is the collector circuit.
The adjustment of the desired operating point is made at the input side, using a voltage
divider, with simultaneous measurement of the output voltage.
The circuit input is located between base and ground. The circuit output is located
between emitter and ground.
If the input voltage UE is increased, the base current IB and with it the collector current I is
also increased.
The output voltage UA follows the input voltage at the base-emitter threshold voltage
interval UBE.
The operating point is stabilized by means of the full negative current feedback at the load
resistor RL.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01
Adjustment of transistor operating

point
90
Procedure for stabilizing the operating point: Collector circuit

As soon as the transistor warms up, there is an undesirable increase in its DC
amplification factor B:
IRL
rises,
URL
rises,
UBE
drops because UE remains constant,
IB
drops and
IRL
drops approximately to the original value.
Since the stabilization is controlled by the current this is called negative current feedback.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

point
91
Emitter circuit
Another basic circuit is the emitter circuit with negative current feedback. In addition to the
load resistor RL, it contains the emitter resistor RE for stabilization of the operating point.
The desired operating point is adjusted at the input side using a voltage divider, with
simultaneous measurement of the output voltage.
The circuit input is located between base and ground.
The circuit output is located between collector and ground, if the input voltage UE is
raised, the base current IB and with it the collector current IC is also increased, but the
output voltage UA drops because the voltage drop URL at load resistor RL increases.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

point
92
Procedure for stabilizing the operating point: Emitter circuit

As soon as the transistor warms up, there is an undesirable increase in its DC
amplification factor B.
IRE
rises,
URE
rises,
UBE
drops because UE remains constant,
IB
drops and
IRE
drops to approximately the original value.
Since the stabilization is controlled by the current this is called negative current feedback.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01
Adjustment of transistor operating point

Exercise 1
93
Circuit diagram
Module configuration
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

point
94
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
8.2 k
Trimmer, vertical
R2
47 k
Fixed resistor
R3
1 k
Fixed resistor
R4
6.8 k
Trimmer, vertical
R5
10 k
Fixed resistor
R6
390 k
Fixed resistor
R7
100 k
Transistor
V1
BC 140-16
Transistor
V2
BC 140-16
10
Electronics trainer
11
Power pack
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
2GA5101-3A
24 V DC
The components in
Item Nos. 1 - 9 are
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
Components"
2GA5101-8F
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 1
95
Sheet No.
1
6
Circuit diagram
Configuration of electronics experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 2
96
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
8.2 k
Trimmer, vertical
R2
47 k
Fixed resistor
R3
1 k
Fixed resistor
R4
6.8 k
Trimmer, vertical
R5
10 k
Fixed resistor
R6
390 k
Fixed resistor
R7
100 k
Transistor
V1
BC 140-16
Transistor
V2
BC 140-16
10
Bare wire
11
Electronics
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
The components in
contained in the
accessories kit.
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 2
97
Sheet No.
1
8
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 3
98
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
8.2 k
Trimmer, vertical
R2
47 k
Fixed resistor
R3
1 k
Fixed resistor
R4
6.8 k
Trimmer, vertical
R5
10 k
Fixed resistor
R6
390 k
Fixed resistor
R7
100 k
Transistor
V1
BC 140-16
Transistor
V2
BC 140-16
10
Bare wire
11
E 100 (half)
12
Pin strip
31-pole
13
Electronics
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 3
99
Sheet No.
10
Use of transistor
Setting the operating point in a common collector connection
Setting the operating point in a common emitter connection
diagram.
missing values.
Component connection which are too short or too wide are prepared by soldering on
2. Complete the circuit in accordance with the circuit diagram.
missing values.
the diagram.
missing values.
PCB holder, 1.0 mm tin-lead solder, 30 W soldering iron, flat-no-sed pliers, soldering
tongs, conductor interrupter, side clippers, 1.3 mm twist drill, holder for 1.3 mm twist drill,
desoldering
1 multimeter
injuries).
MCE
LE 21109-01
11
point
Industrietechnik
100
Collector circuit
Various operating points can be adjusted using trimmer R2. At an average operating
point, an average collector current Ic flows. There is a voltage drop of 12 V in the C-E
circuit. The remaining 12 V drop occurs at load resistor R3. For this output level, an input
level of 12.7 V is to be set if UBE is assumed to be equal to 0.7 V.
Family of output characteristics
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 1-3
101
12
Emitter circuit
Trimmer R5 can be used to adjust various operating point. At an average operating point,
there is an average collector current Ic flowing. There is a voltage drop of 12 V in the C-E
circuit. At load resistor R6 and emitter resistor R7, the remaining 12 V divides
proportionally to the resistance.
UR6 = 9.6 V, UR7 = 2.4 V.
For the output level of UA = 14.4 V, set an input level of UE = 3.1 V if UBE is assumed to
be equal to 0.7 V.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 1-3
102
13
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Collector circuit
1. Adjust the output voltage as desired (emitter to ground) by continuously changeling
the resistance of R2.
Calculate the emitter currents IE = IR3 = UR3 / R3
Work out the measurements line-by-line.
UA
16V
14V
12V
10V
8V
UCE
UE
UBE
IC
2. The value pairs UCE, IC produce operating points in the family of output
characteristics. The resistance straight line (operating straight line) of R3 can be
drawn in by connecting all operating points.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 1-3
103
14
Measurement sheet 2
Emitter circuit with negative current feedback
1. The Input voltage UE drops off at R5. By continuously changing R5, adjust the desired
output voltage values
UA = UCE + UR7
Calculate the collector current values Ic = IR6 = UR6 / R6
Work out the measured values line-by-line.
UA
8V
10 V
12 V
14 V
16 V
18 V
20 V
UCE
UR6
UR7
UE
IC
2. The value pairs UCE, IC produce operating points on the resistance straight line
(operating straight line).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Exercise 1-3
104
15
Collector circuit
1. Adjust the output voltage as desired (emitter to ground) by continuously changeling
the resistance of R2.
Calculate the emitter currents IE = IR3 = UR3 / R3
Work out the measurements line-by-line.
UA
16V
14V
12V
10V
8V
UCE
8.0 V
10.0 V
12.0 V
14.0 V
16.0 V
UE
16.6 V
14.6 V
12.6 V
10.6 V
8.6 V
UBE
0.63 V
0.62 V
0.62 V
0.61 V
0.60 V
IC
16 mA
14 mA
12 mA
10 mA
8 mA
2. The value pairs UCE, IC produce operating points in the family of output
characteristics. The resistance straight line (operating straight line) of R3 can be
drawn in by connecting all operating points.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Solution Exercise 1-3
105
14a
16
Measurement sheet 2
Emitter circuit with negative current feedback
1. The Input voltage UE drops off at R5. By continuously changing R5, adjust the desired
output voltage values UA = UCE + UR7
Calculate the collector current values Ic = IR6 = UR6 / R6
Work out the measured values line-by-line.
UA
8V
10 V
12 V
14 V
16 V
18 V
20 V
UCE
3.8 V
6.4 V
8.7 V
11.3 V
13.8 V
16.5 V
19.1 V
UR6
16.1 V
14.0 V
12.0 V
9.9 V
7.9 V
6.0 V
3.8 V
UR7
4.2 V
3.6 V
3.1 V
2.6 V
2.0 V
1.5 V
1.0 V
UE
4.9 V
4.3 V
3.7 V
3.2 V
2.6 V
2.1 V
1.6 V
IC
41.3 mA
35.9 mA
30.8
25.4
20.3mA
15.4 mA
9.7 mA
2. The value pairs UCE, IC produce operating points on the resistance straight line
(operating straight line).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21109-01

Solution Exercise 1-3
106
15a
17
LE 21110-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistors as

Amplifiers
Summary of contents
Contents:
Transistors as amplifiers
Use of the transistor as an amplifier

Amplification of a sinusoidal voltage
Projects.

Collector connection
Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

107
The transistor (Tr) is used as an amplifier

mainly to amplify AC voltages and AC currents.
Signals are coupled into an amplifier circuit via a capacitor which superimposes DC
voltages and DC currents, and de-coupled from the amplifier circuit after processing via
another capacitor.
Dynamic characteristics of a transistor
rBE
Input resistance
rBE
UBE =
Change in base voltage
IB
Change in base current
rCE
Output resistance
rCE
UCE =
Change in output voltage
IC
Change in output current
Current amplification of the transistor (beta)
IC
Change in collector current
IB
Change in base current
Dynamic characteristics of an amplifier circuit (Scha)

re
Input resistance
re
Ue
Ie
Change in input voltage

Change in input current
ra
Output resistance
ra
Ua
Ia
Vu
Voltage amplification
Vu
Ua
Ue
Change in input voltage
Vi
Current amplification
Vi
Ia
Ie
MCE
Industrietechnik

Change in input current
LE 21110-01
108
Collector circuit
Due to its high input resistance together with its low output resistance, the collector circuit
is frequently used as an impedance converter to adjust the resistance of a low-ohmic
consuming device to a high-ohmic signal source. Impedance is AC resistance.
With respect to AC current, U and ground are short-circuited across the low-ohmic internal
resistance of the DC voltage source.
Equivalent AC circuit diagram for the collector circuit
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
109
The phase angle of the AC output voltage relative to the AC input voltage is 0.
The input resistance re is large.
re Tr
re Scha =
approx. x (RL / / Ra) ( re TR
re from the base of the transistor)
approx. R1 / / R2 / / re Tr (re Scha
re of the total circuit)
Example
re Tr
= 100 x (15 k / / 1.2 k ) = approx. 111 k
re Scha = 120 k / / 120 k / / 111 k = approx. 40 k

The output resistance ra is small
re Scha =
approx. Ri of the Signal source
Example
re Scha =
10 k = 100
100
The max. voltage amplification Vu is 1 x.

Vu Scha =
Ua
Ue
Example
Vu Scha =
20mV =
20 mV
The current amplification Vi
Vi Tr = approx.
Vi Sch = approx. x
re Scha
re Tr
Example
Vi Tr = 100
Vi Scha =
100 x
40 k = 30
120 k
approx. DC amplification factor B
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
110
Emitter circuit
Due to their high current and voltage amplification, emitter circuits are used as universal
amplifiers for the current, voltage and therefore also power amplification of signals.
With respect to AC current, +UB and ground are short-circuited across the low-ohmic
internal resistance of the DC voltage source.
Equivalent AC circuit diagram for the emitter circuit
LE 21110-01
111
The output voltage is 180 out-of-phase with the AC input voltage. The input resistance re
is small.
re Tr
re Scha =
approx. rBE
(re Tr
re of the base of the transistor)
approx. R1 / / R2 / / re Tr (re Scha
re of the total circuit)
Example
re Tr
re Scha =
approx. 1 k
22 k / / 3.3 k / / 1 k = 740
The output resistance ra is, as a rule, small whenever RL / / Ra << rCE

ra Scha =
approx. RL / / Ra
Example
ra Scha =
1 k / / 1 k = 0.5 k
The voltage amplification Vu

Vu Scha = approx. x RL / / Ra
re Tr
Example
Vu Scha
100 x 1 k / / 1 k = 50
1 kQ
omitting Ra
Vu Scha 100 x 1 k = 100
1 k
The current amplification Vi
Vi Tr
Vi Scha =
approx.
approx. x re Scha x ra Scha
re Tr
RL
Example
Vi TR
Vi Scha =
100
100 x 740 x 0.5 k
1 k
1 k
In order that the negative current feedback RE does not reduce the AC amplification, RE is
bridged with respect to AC current using the large capacitor CE. For that reason, RE has
no longer been drawn in the equivalent AC circuit diagram.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
112
Voltage frequency response

Transistor amplification depends an frequency. The frequency working range of an
amplifier is called the bandwidth. The bandwidth ends at the top limit frequency fgo and the
bottom limit frequency fgu. At these points, the amplification Vu has dropped to 0.7 times
the rated value VuN (at the rated frequency fN = 1 kHz). Expressed in decibels, that means
a drop in amplification of -3 dB.
Vu
Ua
VuN = Vu at fN
Ue
Vu [dB] =
20 x log Amplification at the selected frequency
VuN
Amplification at the rated 1 kHz
Example
fN
= 1 kHz
Ua
= 5.4 V
Ue
= 20 mV
VuN
= 5.4 V = 270
Vu
= 270 = 1
Vu
= 20 x log 1.0 = 0 dB
20 mV
VuN
270
VuN
fN
= 100 Hz
Ua
= 3.7 V
Ue
= 20 mV
VuN
= 3.7 V = 185
Vu
= 185 = 0.68
Vu
= 20 x log 0.68 = -3,3 dB
20 mV
MCE
Industrietechnik
VuN
LE 21110-01
270
VuN
113
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
114
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1,
120 k
Fixed resistor
R2,
120 k
Fixed resistor
R3,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R4,
22 k
Fixed resistor
R5,
3.3 k
Fixed resistor
R6,
1 k
Fixed resistor
R7,
220
Transistor
V1, BC 140-16
Transistor
V2 BC 140-16
10
Electrolytic
C1, 4.7 F
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
capacitor
11
Electrolytic
C2, 47 F
capacitor
12
Electrolytic
C3, 470 F
capacitor
13
Electrolytic
C4, 47 F
capacitor
14
Electronics trainer
15
Power pack 24 V
2GA5101-3A
The components in
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
Components"
2GA5101-8F
'
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1
115
Sheet No.
1
8
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 2
116
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1,
120 k
Fixed resistor
R2,
120 k
Fixed resistor
R3,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R4,
22 k
Fixed resistor
R5,
3.3 k
Fixed resistor
R6,
1 k
Fixed resistor
R7,
220
Transistor
V1, BC 140-16
Transistor
V2, BC 140-16
10
Electrolytic
C1,
4.7 F
C2,
47 F
C3,
470 F
C4,
47 F
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
capacitor
11
Electrolytic
capacitor
12
Electrolytic
capacitor
13
Electrolytic
capacitor
14
Bare wire
0.5 mm silverplated
15
Electronics
2GA5101-8A
experimenter
The components in
contained in the
accessories kit
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 2
117
Sheet No.
10
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 3
118
11
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1,
120 k
Fixed resistor
R2,
120 k
Fixed resistor
R3,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R4,
22 k
Fixed resistor
R5,
3.3 k
Fixed resistor
R6,
1 k
Fixed resistor
R7,
220
Transistor
V1, BC 140-16
Transistor
V2, BC 140-16
10
Electrolytic
C1,
4.7 F
C2,
47 F
C3,
470 F
C4,
47 F
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
capacitor
11
Electrolytic
capacitor
12
Electrolytic
capacitor
13
Electrolytic
capacitor
14
E100 (half)
15
Pin strip
31-pole
16
Bare wire
0.5 mm silverplated
17
Electronics
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 3
119
Sheet No.
12
Skills to be acquired - Use of the transistor as an amplifier

diagram
3. Perform the measurements in accordance with the measurement circuit and
measurement sheets 1 and 2
4. Form the curves from the measured values (measurement sheet 3)
pieces of bare wire
the diagram
3. Plug the complete PCB into the 31-pole connector of the electronics experimenter
Measuring and testing equipment - 2 multimeters, 1 oscilloscope, 1 sinus-wave generator
injuries).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
120
13
Collector circuit
An AC current is feed in across capacitor C1. The capacitive resistance XC is significantly
smaller than the circuit input resistance re Scha. The current divides across R1, R2 and the
series circuit made up of V1BE and R3. The base current causes a current across R3
amplified by the factor . The output voltage drops across R3. The AC voltage at the
output is exactly as large as at the input but it lies lower by UBE V1 = 0.7 V. To decouple AC
voltage signal at R3, capacitor C2 is connected at the output. The capacitive resistance
XC2 depends an the consuming device that follows. If, for example, the following
consuming device RA has a resistance of 1.2 k, V1 automatically conducts more current
so that the output voltage does not drop. The current amplification of the transistor =
remains constant. The base current, which likewise rises, adapts to the load current. The
voltage amplification factor remains 1x.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
121
14
Collector circuit
Example with Ra = 1.2 k,
re Tr
approx. x R3 / / Ra
100 x 15 k / / 1.2 k = 111 k
re Scha =
IB
= 100
approx. R1 / / R2/re Tr
120 k / / 120 k / / 111 k = approx. 40 k
Ue
Vu Scha =
re Tr
=
Ue
20 mV =
0.18 A
111 k
Ie
Ue
Vi Scha =
Ia
Ie
20 mV =
0.5 A
40 k
Ic
20 mV =
20 mV
re Scha
=
Ua
16.6 A
33
0.5 A
approx. IB x
Vi Tr
0.18 A x 100 = 18 A
Ic
IB
18 A =
100
0.18 A
R3/ /Ra =
approx. 15 k / / 1.2 k = 1.1 k
Ua
approx. IC x R3 / / Ra
18 A x 1.1 k
Ua
Ia
20 mV
ra
=
20 mV =
16.6 A
1.2 k
IR3
Ua
r3
20 mV =
1.33 A
15 k
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
122
15
Emitter circuit
An AC current is feed in across capacitor C2. The capacitive resistance XC is significantly
smaller than the circuit input resistance re Scha. The current divides across R4, R5 and V1BE.
The base current produces a current amplified by the factor across R6. The capacitor
C3 (CE) has such a small capacitive resistance that there is no drop in the AC voltage at
the parallel circuit with R7. The change in the input voltage has an effect an the B-E circuit
of V2. The output voltage is formed in the C-E circuit of V2. The output voltage depends
upon the resistance ratic R6 to RBE.
UR6 is greater than R6 by the factor . To decouple the AC
rBE
voltage signal in the C-E circuit / / R6, capacitor C2 is connected at the output. XC2
depends upon the consuming device that follows. If, for example, the following consuming
device Ra has a resistance of 1 kg , the load current divides in a ratio of 1 : 1. The
transistor currents remain equal. The output voltage of its C-E circuit / / R6 / / Ra is divided
in half. Accordingly, the voltage amplification is reduced by half.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
123
16
Emitter circuit
Example with Ra = 1 k,
re Tr
= 100,
rBE = approx. 1 k
approx. rBE = approx. 1 k
Vu Scha = Ua = 1 V
50
Vi Scha = Ia = 1 mA =
37
Ue
re Scha =
UBE
IB
approx. R4 / / R5 / / re Tr
22 k / / 3.3 k / / 1 k = 740
approx. Ue
20 mV
Ue
Ie
=
re Tr
Ie
Ue
20 mV =
1 k
20 mV =
27 A
re Scha
740
20 A x 100
Vi Tr
= IC = 2 mA = 100
IB
IB x =
ra
approx. R6 / / Ra
1 k / / 1 k =
0.5 k
Ua
approx. IC x ra
2 mA x 0.5 k =
1V
Ia
Ua
1 mA
mA
Ra
=
R6
Ua
27 A
20 A
IC
IR6
20 mV
1V
20 A
2 mA
1 k
=
1V
1 k
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
124
17
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Join connections a and b. Use connection c for decoupling. From a sine-wave generator,
feed in a sinusoidal voltage Uss = 20 mV with a frequency of 1 kHz at the input of the
collector circuit. The input signal and the amplified output signal can be recorded using the
oscilloscope. For Ue, select the positive trigger edge.
The scale on the x-axis is to be 0.2 ms per division.
The scale on the y-axis is to be 10 mV per cm for Ue.
The scale on the y-axis is to be 10 mV per cm for Ua.
Calculate the voltage amplification Vu from Ue and Ua.

Vu
Ua
Ue
Vu will correspond exactly to the calculated example of the collector circuit.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
125
18
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
Join connections c and d. Feed in across connection b. From a sine-wave generator, feed
in a sinusoidal voltage of USS = 20 mV/1 kHz to the input of the emitter circuit. The input
signal and the amplified output signal can be recorded using the oscilloscope. For Ue
select the positive trigger edge.

Vu
Ua
Ue
Vu will be better than the calculated example of the emitter circuit, because would be
200 and the circuit would operate without Ra.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
126
19
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 3
Join connections a and b, c and d. Couple the input of the emitter circuit to the output of
the collector circuit across C2. From a sine-wave generator, feed in a sinusoidal voltage of
USS = 20 mV at the input of the collector circuit. Change the frequency step-by-step.
Determine the voltage values from the the input and output oscillograms.
Calculate
Vu,
Vu
and
VuN
VuN
Vu [dB]
VN
Vu at 1 kHz
Enter the values for Vu
and
VuN
Vu [dB] into the diagram that follows

VuN
Join up the marked points to form a transmission characteristic.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
127
20
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Diagram:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
128
21
Measurement sheet 1
Join connections a and b. Use connection c for decoupling. From a sine-wave generator,
feed in a sinusoidal voltage Uss = 20 mV with a frequency of 1 kHz at the input of the
collector circuit. The input signal and the amplified output signal can be recorded using the
oscilloscope. For Ue, select the positive trigger edge.

Vu
Ua
Ue
MCE
Industrietechnik
20 mV =
20 mV
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
129
18a
22
Measurement sheet 2
Join connections c and d. Feed in across connection b. From a sine-wave generator, feed
in a sinusoidal voltage of USS = 20 mV/1 kHz to the input of the emitter circuit. The input
signal and the amplified output signal can be recorded using the oscilloscope. For Ue
select the positive trigger edge.

Vu
Ua
Ue
MCE
Industrietechnik
4.4 mV =
220
20 mV
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
130
19a
23
Measurement sheet 3
Join connections a and b, c and d. Couple the input of the emitter circuit to the output of
the collector circuit across C2. From a sine-wave generator, feed in a sinusoidal voltage of
USS = 20 mV at the input of the collector circuit. Change the frequency step-by-step.
Determine the voltage values from the the input and output oscillograms.
Calculate
Vu,
Vu
and
VuN
VuN
Vu [dB]
VN
Vu at 1 kHz
Enter the values for Vu
and
VuN
Vu [dB] into the diagram that follows

VuN
Join up the marked points to form a transmission characteristic.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
131
20a
24
Diagram:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21110-01
Exercise 1 - 3
132
21a
25
LE 21111-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistors as

Switches
Summary of contents
Contents:
Transistors as switches
Use of the transistor as switches
Projects.
Two-stage inverter
Switching amplifer
Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

133
Transistors used as switches

are found mainly in signal processing. There, innumerable transistor functions (transistors
as switches) are used in the form of integrated circuits (IC). Relatively few individual
transistors switch the end consuming devices an and off.
The actual switching element is the collector-emitter circuit. It can only work in a binary
manner, i.e. it must have two clearly defined switching conditions:
a) The transistor blocks - almost absolutely.
b) The transistor conducts - almost without losses.
The switching condition of a transistor passes a signal along to the transistors or signal
transmitters that follow. Machines can be controlled. Signals are often reversed (inverted)
and amplified. An inverter (e.g. a transistor in an emitter circuit) does the signal inversion.
A high level at the input brings about a low level at the output, and a low level at the input
brings about a high level at the output. A signal is amplified and may also be inverted by a
switching amplifier. One transistor output can provide the control current for several
following transistor inputs.
Fundamentals typical of the circuit
Transistors used as switches are overdriven, i.e. they receive a relatively high base
current in order to keep the transmission losses low. If the base current IB = IC / B
is multiplied by the overdriving factor m = 3, the collector-emitter voltage drops to a
saturation value of approx. UCEsat = 0.1 V.
The AC amplification factor B which is assumed is the value that can be expected in the
worst possible case. If the transistor used actually has better amplification than expected,
the overdriving is greater than 3x, which, as a rule, can only be advantageous.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Transistor as switches
134
Calculations for a transistor used as a switch

Problem:
Solution:
UB = 15 V,
UBE = 0.7 V,
UCESat = 0.1 V
RL = 330 ,
B = 150,
m = 3,
RV = ?
IRL
URL
UB - UCESat
RL
IB
RV
=
=
5 V - 0.1 V
RL
330
IC x m =
IRL x m =
45 mA x 3
150
UB - UBE
URV
IRV
IB
Operating point 1
Transistor is conducting
OP2
Operating point 2
Transistor is blocking
MCE
LE 21111-01
135
15 V - 0.7 V
OP1
Industrietechnik
= 45 mA
0.9 mA
= 15.9 k
0.9 mA
Circuit diagram
LE 21111-01
Exercise 1
136
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R2,
8.2 k
Fixed resistor
R3,
330
Fixed resistor
R4,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R5,
330
Fixed resistor
R6,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R7,
10
Fixed resistor
R8
560
Transistor
V1 BC 237 B
10
Transistor
V2 BC 237 B
11
Transistor
V3 BC 107 B
12
LED
B1 CQV 24-5
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
YELLOW
13
Electronics trainer
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The components in
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Components"
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LE 21111-01
Exercise 1
137
Sheet No.
1
4
Circuit diagram
Configuaration of electronics experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Exercise 1
138
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R2,
8.2 k
Fixed resistor
R3,
330
Fixed resistor
R4,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R5,
330
Fixed resistor
R6,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R7,
10
Fixed resistor
R8
560
Transistor
V1 BC 237 B
10
Transistor
V2 BC 237 B
11
Transistor
V3 BC 107 B
12
LED
B1 CQV 24-5
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
YELLOW
13
Bare wire
0.5 mm silverplated
14
Electronics
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The components in
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MCE
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LE 21111-01
Exercise 2
139
Sheet No.
1
6
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Exercise 3
140
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R2,
8.2 k
Fixed resistor
R3,
330
Fixed resistor
R4,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R5,
330
Fixed resistor
R6,
15 k
Fixed resistor
R7,
10
Fixed resistor
R8
560
Transistor
V1 BC 237 B
10
Transistor
V2 BC 237 B
11
Transistor
V3 BC 107 B
12
LED
B1 CQV 24-5
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
YELLOW
13
Bare wire
0.5 mm silverplated
14
E 100 (half)
15
Pin strip
31-pole
16
Electronics
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MCE
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LE 21111-01
Exercise 3
141
Sheet No.
1
8
Use of the transistor as a switch
diagram
3. Perform the measurements n accordance with the measurement sheets
Component connection which are too short or too wide are prepared by soldering on
pieces of bare wire
3. Perform the measurments in accordance with the measurement sheet
Job plan (pinted circuit board arrangement)
the diagram
4. Perform the measurements in accordance with the measurement sheet
PCB holer, 1.0 mm tin-lead solder, 30 W soldering iron, flat-nosed pliers, soldering tongs,
conductor interrupter, side clippers, 1.3 mm twist drill, holder for 1.3 mm twist drill,
injuries).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Exercises 1 - 3
142
When operating voltage has been connected and the transistor inputs of V1 and V3
remain open or are connected to negative, V1 and V3 are blocked and V2 conducts. If the
transistor inputs of V1 and V3 are connected to positive, V1 and V3 are conducting and
V2 is blocked. If the input of V3 is connected to the output of V2, V3 depends upon the
switching condition of V2 and V2 in turn depends an the switching conditions of V1. V1
and V2 are inverters. V3 is used as a switching amplifier. When V3 is conducting, B1
lights up. Load resistors R3, R5 and R8 limit the collector current. Series resistors R1, R4
and R6 limit the base current. R2 and R7 are base leakage resistors which guarantee that
V1 and V3 will block if the transistor inputs are opened. R8 is the series resistor before B1
to limit the LED current.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Exercises 1 - 3
143
10
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Voltage measurements
1. If transistors V1 and V3 are not energized, the following values can be measured:
UCEV1
UR3
UR4
UBEV2
UR5
UCEV2
2. If the positive operating voltage is appiied before R1 and V3 is energized across the
connection from V2 shown in a broken line, B1 lights. The switching conditions are:
V3 conducts
V3 blocks
V2 conducts
V2 blocks
V1 conducts
V1 blocks
3. If negative is now connected before Rl instead of positive, the voltage levels can be
measured.
UCEV3 = Low
UCEV3 = High
UCEV2 = Low
UCEV2 = High
UCEV1 = Low
UCEV1 = High
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Exercise 1 - 3
144
11
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
Measurements of voltage
Measure the voltages when V3 depends on V2 and V2 on V1.
If V1 is correctly energized, B1 is to light up.
UBEV1
UBEV2
UBEV3
UCEV1
UCEV2
UCEV3
UR1
UR4
UR6
UR3
UR5
UR2
UR7
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Exercise 1 - 3
145
12
Measurement sheet 1
Voltage measurements
4. If transistors V1 and V3 are not energized, the following values can be measured:
UCEV1
14.69 V
UR3
0.31 V
UR4
13.91 V
UBEV2
0.77 V
UR5
14.85 V
UCEV2
0.15 V
5. If the positive operating voltage is appiied before R1 and V3 is energized across the
connection from V2 shown in a broken line, B1 lights. The switching conditions are:
X
V3 conducts
V3 blocks
V2 conducts
V2 blocks
V1 conducts
V1 blocks
6. If negative is now connected before Rl instead of positive, the voltage levels can be
measured.
UCEV3 = Low
UCEV3 = High
UCEV2 = Low
UCEV2 = High
UCEV1 = Low
UCEV1 = High
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21111-01
Solution - Exercise 1 - 3
146
11a
13
Measurement sheet 2
Measurements of voltage
Measure the voltages when V3 depends on V2 and V2 on V1.
If V1 is correctly energized, B1 is to light up.
UBEV1
0.77 V
UBEV2
0.15 V
UBEV3
0.75 V
UCEV1
0.15 V
UCEV2
14.69 V
UCEV3
0.07 V
UR1
14.23 V
UR4
0.00 V
UR6
13.94 V
UR3
14.84 V
UR5
0.31 V
UR2
0.77 V
UR7
0.75 V
MCE
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LE 21111-01
147
12a
14
LE 21112-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Constant

Current Sources
Summary of contents
Contents:
Constant current sources
Use of a constant current source
Projects.
with NPN transistor
with PNP transistor
with field effect transistor (FET)
Constant current source

-
with fixed resistor as load
with linear capacitor charge
with variable load resistor
Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

148
The use of constant current sources

is necessary to improve electronic switching functions.
It is frequently found in instrumentation and control systems. With constant current
sources, the internal resistance Ri is very high so the load current remains almost nondependent an the value of the load resistance. However, only small load currents are
possible.
High-ohmic constant current source with load resistor
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01
Use of constant current sources
149
In order to keep larger currents constant, transistors are used. The constant voltage at the
emitter resistor RE keeps the emitter current constant.
The base current (IB) is not taken into consideration.
IC
approx. IE
A capacitor can be loaded with a constant current in such a way that its charging voltage
rises as a linear function.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01
150
As a rule, the circuits are constructed using an NPN or PNP tran-sistor. Because the field
effect transistor (FET) can also be used, its Operation is explained below.
D = Drain
= Collector
S = Source = Emitter G = Gate = Base
The field effect transistor selected is conducting in the N-channel. As the negative voltage
at the gate increases with respect to source (-UGS = UR
Source)
the drain-source cicuit
blocks. (The N-channel becomes high-ohmic). The transistor control is accomplished by

means of the electrical field between the N and P layers. No control current flows.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01
151
Compared with a transistor controlled by current, a negative gate source voltage (-UGS)
corresponds to a smaller base current (IB).
Comparison of output characteristics
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01
152
Comparison of structures
BC 237 B
NPN low-frequency transistor

LF operating range
up to 50 kHz
BC 308 B
PNP low-frequency transistor

LF operating range
up to 50 kHz
BF 245 B
High-frequency field effect transistor

HF operating range
above 50 kHz
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01
153
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Execise 1
154
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
470 1 W
Fixed resistor
R2
220 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3
220 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4
560 1 W
Fixed resistor
R5
22 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R6
220 1 W
Trimmer
R7 1klin 0.2 W
LED
B1 CQV 13-6
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
YELLOW
9
Zener diode
V1 BZX 83 C4 V7
10
Transistor
V2 BC 237 B
11
Transistor
V3 BC 308 B
12
Field effect
V4 BF 245 B
transistor
13
Electrolytic
C1 22 F/40 V
capacitor
14
Electronics trainer
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Power pack 12 V
2GA5101-3A
The components in
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
Components"
2GA5101-8F
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercise 1
155
Sheet No.
1
7
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Execise 2
156
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
470 1 W
Fixed resistor
R2
220 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3
220 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4
560 1 W
Fixed resistor
R5
22 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R6
220 1 W
Trimmer
R7 1klin 0.2 W
LED
B1 CQV 13-6
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
YELLOW
9
Zener diode
V1 BZX 83 C4 V7
10
Transistor
V2 BC 237 B
11
Transistor
V3 BC 308 B
12
Field effect
V4 BF 245 B
transistor
13
Electrolytic
C1 22 F/40 V
capacitor
14
Bare wire
0.5 mm silverplated
15
Electronics
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
The components in
contained in the
accessories kit.
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercise 2
157
Sheet No.
1
9
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Execise 3
158
10
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
470 1 W
Fixed resistor
R2
220 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3
220 1 W
Fixed resistor
R4
560 1 W
Fixed resistor
R5
22 k 1 W
Fixed resistor
R6
220 1 W
Trimmer
R7 1klin 0.2 W
LED
B1 CQV 13-6
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
YELLOW
9
Zener diode
V1 BZX 83 C4 V7
10
Transistor
V2 BC 237 B
11
Transistor
V3 BC 308 B
12
Field effect
V4 BF 245 B
transistor
13
Electrolytic
C1 22 F/40 V
capacitor
14
Bare wire
0.5 mm silverplated
15
E 100 (half)
16
Pin strip
31-pole
17
Electronic
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercise 3
159
Sheet No.
11
Use of a constant current source
-
with an NPN transistor
with an PNP transistor
with an FET transistor

diagram
missing values
Component connections which are too skort or too wide are prepared by soldering on
pieces of bare wire
missing values
the diagram
4. Perform the measurements in accordacne with the measurement sheets and enter the
missing values
1 Multimeter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercises 1 - 3
160
12

Be careful whenn cutting components to length; pieces of wire flying around (risk of eye
injuries).
Be careful when handling capacitors; there is a danger of explosion if the operating
voltage is too high or the poles are incorrectly connected (risk of eye injuries).
Constant current source with NPN transistor
R1 and V1 form a Zener diode voltage stabilization. The B-E circuit of transistor V2 and
the fixed resistor R3 are located parallel to the Zener diode. As a result, R3 is at a
constant voltage 0.7 V lower than the Zener voltage. This constant voltage causes a
constant current across R3. The collector current is almost the same size as the emitter
current. Any desired resistance can be therefore used in the collector circuit up to a given
maximum value. The constant current causes a voltage drop at load resistor R2.
Consideration: Assume load resistor R2 is male low-ohmic. The base voltage relative to
ground is kept constant by the Zener diode. The collector current (load current) and the
emitter current rise. There is a greater voltage drop at R3. The base-emitter voltage
decreases (UBE = UZ -UR3). The base current and the collector current drop.
This control process approximately restores the original load current. The principle of
Operation is negative current feedback.
Constant current source with a PNP transistor
When B1 and R4 are connected in series, there is a constant voltage drop at the LED B1.
R5 and the B-E circuit of V3 are parallel to B1. As a result, a constant voltage drop occurs
at R5 of 0.7 V less than the voltage drop at the LED. The current across R5 is likewise
constant. It fiows further via the emitter-collector circuit of V3 and charges capacitor C1 in
accordance with a linear function.
The charging starts when the operating voltage is switched on. After the operating voltage
is taken away, C1 discharges according to a logarithmic function across the emitter-base
circuit of V3 and across R4, first quickly, and then more and more slowly.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercises 1 - 3
161
13
Constant current source with field effect transistor

When there is no voltage at its gate connection, field effect transistor V4 is conducting an
its drain-source circuit. The current causes a voltage drop at source resistor R6. After R6,
the voltage level is more negative than before R6, and at the same time more negative
than at the source. By means of the Feedback of this negative voltage level to the gate
(compared to source), the drainsource circuit blocks somewhat. At a given ratio between
the size of the drain-source current and the negative gate voltage, a constant transistor
operating condition sets in. A constant current flows across the transistor regardless of
how the variable load resistor R7 that follows is set.
Consideration:
becomes larger,
becomes smaller
(no Tonger so negative)
As a result of this control process, the load current IR7 once again assumes approximately
its original value.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercises 1 - 3
162
14
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Measure voltages in the circuit with the NPN transistor V2.
After the first series of measurements, bridge R2 with a measuring line. This corresponds
to a load resistor R2 of 0 .
R3
220
R3
220
R2
220
R2
UR1
UR1
UV1
UV1
UR3
UR3
UV2CE
UV2CE
UV2BE
UV2BE
UR2
UR2
Calculations of current show that the collector current (load current) remains
approximately constant.
IC
before R2 is bridged
IC
approx. IR3 (IB is not considered)
IR3
UR3
R3
IC when R2 is bridged
IC
IR3
UR3
R3
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercises 1 - 3
163
15
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
Determine the capacitor charging current in the circuit with PNP transistor V3. For this
purpose, the capacitor is bridged with a measuring line before the circuit is put into
operation.
UR5
IR5
UR5
R5
Icharge =
IR5
Remove the bridge. The capacitor charging time is estimated to be:

t=
The charging takes place according to a linear function
The charging takes place according to a logarithmic function
The discharging process can be observed after the operating voltage is switched off.
The discharging takes place according to a logarithmic function
The discharging takes place according to a linear function
MCE
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LE 21112-01

Exercises 1 - 3
164
16
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 3
Measure voltages in the circuit with field effect transistor V4.
Calculate currents ID = IR6. Set the resistance values desired at R7.
R6
220
R6
220
R7
1 k
R7
UR6
UR6
UR7
UR7
UDS
UDS
Value pair a
Value pair b
ID
ID
The UDS ID value pairs "a" and "b" produce operating points an the load curves "a" and "b".
By connecting the operating points, the -UGS paramet can be obtained and ID can be read
off.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

Exercises 1 - 3
165
17
Measurement sheet 1
Measure voltages in the circuit with the NPN transistor V2.
After the first series of measurements, bridge R2 with a measuring line. This corresponds
to a load resistor R2 of 0 .
R3
220
R3
220
R2
220
R2
UR1
7.15 V
UR1
7.15 V
UV1
4.82 V
UV1
4.81 V
UR3
4.12 V
UR3
4.15 V
UV2CE
3.69 V
UV2CE
7.55 V
UV2BE
0.694 V
UV2BE
0.615 V
UR2
4.07 V
UR2
0V
Calculations of current show that the collector current (load current) remains
approximately constant.
IC
before R2 is bridged
IC
IR3
UR3
R3
4.12 V =
18.72 mA
220
IC when R2 is bridged
IC
IR3
UR3
R3
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01
4.12 V =
18.86 mA
220

Solution - Exercises 1 - 3
166
15a
18
Measurement sheet 2
Determine the capacitor charging current in the circuit with PNP transistor V3. For this
purpose, the capacitor is bridged with a measuring line before the circuit is put into
operation.
UR5
1.86 V
IR5
UR5
R5
Icharge =
1.86 V =
85 A
22 k
IR5
Remove the bridge. The capacitor charging time is estimated to be:

t = 4 seconds
X
The charging takes place according to a linear function
The charging takes place according to a logarithmic function

The discharging process can be observed after the operating voltage is switched off.
X
The discharging takes place according to a logarithmic function
The discharging takes place according to a linear function
MCE
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LE 21112-01

167
16a
19
Measurement sheet 3
Measure voltages in the circuit with field effect transistor V4.
Calculate currents ID = IR6. Set the resistance values desired at R7.
R6
220
R6
220
R7
1 k
R7
UR6
1.08 V
UR6
1.14 V
UR7
5.05 V
UR7
0V
UDS
5.85 V
UDS
10.81 V
Value pair a
ID
Value pair b
4.91 mA
ID
5.18 mA
The UDS ID value pairs "a" and "b" produce operating points an the load curves "a" and "b".
By connecting the operating points, the -UGS paramet can be obtained and ID can be read
off.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21112-01

168
17a
20
LE 21113-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Constant

Voltage Sources
Summary of contents
Contents:
Constant voltage sources
Use of a constant voltage source

with transistors
Use of a constant voltage source
with a fixed voltage controller
Projects:
Constant voltage source with Zener diode and

Darlington connection Constant voltage source with
fixed voltage controller
Exercise 1

Exercise 2

experimenter
Exercise 3
PCB configuration

169
The use of constant voltage sources

makes it possible to provide the operating voltage for every active electronic instrument
economically. Without constant voltage sources, batteries or accumulators would be
necessary for that purpose.
The Zener diode voltage stabilization has been the basic circuit most frequently used in
the past.
With an additional transistor in a collector circuit, a constant voltage source for higher load
currents (RL = low-ohmic) is formed.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01
170
Frequently a combination circuit using two transistors is used. This is called a Darlington
circuit.
The current amplification of the two transistors is multiplied. The base currents are not
taken into consideration.
Example:
BV2 x BV3 = Btotal;
100 x 40 = 4000
A large change in load current requires only an insignificant change in base current. The
Darlington circuit is connected to a Zener diode voltage stabilization like the collector
circuit. It should be borne in mind that the base-emitter voltage drops must be added
together. The output voltage is lower than the Zener voltage by the amount of the
threshold voltage.
Example:
Uthreshold
UA
MCE
Industrietechnik
UBEV2 UBEV3
0.7 V + 0.7 V
1.4 V
UZ
6 V - 1.4 V
4.6 V
LE 21113-01
Uthreshold
171
Today, increasing use is being made of integrated circuits (ICs) as voltage regulators.
They can be used to construct high-performance constant voltage sources simply, without
extensive calculations. Fastened to a heat sink, the regulator supplies up to 1 A. It is
short-circuit-proof and protected against overload.
Fluctuations in the input voltage have practically no effect on the output voltage.
Structure: Fixed voltage regulator TDB 7805 T
Additional models of the same structural type from the 78-series:

TDB 7806 T ( 6 V)
TDB 7808 T ( 8 V)
TDB 7812 T (12 V)
TDB 7815 T (15 V)
TDB 7818 T (18 V)
TDB 7824 T (24 V)
The last two digits indicate the output voltage.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01
172
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 1
173
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
100 1 W
Fixed resistor
R2
150 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3
150 1 W
Zener diode
V1 BZY 97 C6 V2
Transistor
V2 BC 107 A
Transistor
V3 BC 140-16
Tantalum electrolytic
Designation
Detail No.
capacitor
8
Remarks
C1 1 F 40 V
capacitor
C2 1 F 40 V
LED
B1 CQV 10-5 RED
10
LED
B2 CQV 10-5 RED
11
Fixed voltage
N1 TDB 7805 T
regulator
12
Electronics trainer
13
Power supply
2GA5101-3A
The components in
Items Nos. 1-11 are
contained in the
accessories for
"Fundamentals of
Electronic
Components"
2GA5101-8F
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 1
174
Sheet No.
1
5
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 2
175
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
100 1 W
Fixed resistor
R2
150 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3
150 1 W
Zener diode
V1 BZY 97 C6 V2
Transistor
V2 BC 107 A
Transistor
V3 BC 140-16
Designation
Detail No.
capacitor
8
Remarks
C1 1 F 40 V
capacitor
C2 1 F 40 V
LED
B1 CQV 10-5 RED
10
LED
B2 CQV 10-5 RED
11
Fixed voltage
N1 TDB 7805 T
regulator
12
Bare wire
0.5 mm silverplated
13
Electronics
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
The components in
Item Nos. 1-12 are
contained in the
accessories kit.
2GA5101-8A
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 2
176
Sheet No.
1
7
Circuit diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 3
177
Item
No.
Qty.
Fixed resistor
R1
100 1 W
Fixed resistor
R2
150 1 W
Fixed resistor
R3
150 1 W
Zener diode
V1 BZY 97 C6 V2
Transistor
V2 BC 107 A
Transistor
V3 BC 140-16
C1 1 F 40 V
Designation
Detail No.
Remarks
capacitor
8
C2 1 F 40 V
capacitor
9
LED
B1 CQV 10-5 RED
10
LED
B2 CQV 10-5 RED
11
Fixed voltage
N1 TDB 7805 T
regulator
12
Bare wire
13
14
Pin strip
15
Electronics
2GA5101-2A
experimenter
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 3
178
Sheet No.
1
9
Use of a constant voltage source with transistors.
Use of a constant voltage source with a fixed voltage controller.
diagram
mising values
diagram.
2. The component connections which are too short or too wide are prepared by soldering
on pieces of bare wire
4. Perform the measurements in accordance with the measurement sheets an enter the
missing values
the diagram
missing values
Measuring and test equipment - 1 Multimeter
injuries). Be careful when handling capacitors; there is a danger of explosion if the
operating voltage is too high or if the poles are incorrectly connected (eye injuries).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 1 - 3
179
10
Constant voltage source with transistors
A constant voltage source has already been attained by means of the series connection of
the series resistor Rl and the Zener diode V1. The Zener diode stabilizes to the desired
Zener diode voltage. This constant voltage can be tapped parallel to the Zener diode.
Only a very little current should flow off so that the voltage remains stable.
The Darlington circuit with V2 and V3 works as follows:
When a base current flows into transistor V2, the collector current of V2 is added to it,
producing the emitter current from V2. The emitter current from V2 is the base current for
transistor V3. To this is added the collector current from V3, producing the emitter
current from V3. The emitter current is also called the output current or the load current. It
flows across R2 and B1. The output voltage is less than the Zener diode voltage by the
amount of the threshold voltage, 1.4 V, because each transistor requires 0.7 V an its B-E
circuit. The difference between the input operating voltage and the output voltage is
present in the C-E circuit of V3. The voltage in the C-E circuit of V2 is less than this by 0.7
V.
Constant voltage source with voltage regulator

The integrated fixed voltage regulator (N1) contains a constant voltage source for 5 V.
The input voltage must be at least 2 V higher than the output voltage. A small tantalum
capacitor is required before and after the regulator to keep the internal circuit from
fluctuating. B2 indicates that the constant voltage source is operating.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 1 - 3
180
11
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Block the transistors with an external bridge so that R2 and B1 lie directly parallel to the
Zener diode.
Circuit
Measurements
UR1
UZ
UR2
Calculations
IR1
UR1
R1
IR2
UR2
R2
IZ
MCE
Industrietechnik
IR1 - IR2 =
LE 21113-01

Exercise 1 - 3
181
12
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
Measure the voltages in the constant voltage source with transistors. (Remove the
bridge.)
UE
UR1
UZ
UA
UCEV3
Uthreshold
Calculate the Zener diode current neglecting IB of V2.
IZ
IR1
UR1
R1
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 1 - 3
182
13
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 3
Measure the Input voltage and the output voltage in the constant voltage source with a
fixed voltage regulator.
UE
UA
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01

Exercise 1 - 3
183
14
Measurement sheet 1
Block the transistors with an external bridge so that R2 and B1 lie directly parallel to the
Zener diode.
Circuit
Measurements
UR1
5.68 V
UZ
6.33 V
UR2
4.68 V
Calculations
IR1
UR1
R1
IR2
IZ
=
=
MCE
Industrietechnik
UR2
5.68 V =
56.8 mA
100
=
4.68 V =
31.2 mA
R2
150
IR1 - IR2 =
56.8 mA - 31.2 mA
LE 21113-01

184
25.6 mA
12a
15
Measurement sheet 2
Measure the voltages in the constant voltage source with transistors. (Remove the
bridge.)
UE
12.0 V
UR1
5.61 V
UZ
6.39 V
UA
5.16 V
UCEV3
6.83 V
Uthreshold
1.24 V
Calculate the Zener diode current neglecting IB of V2.

IZ
IR1
UR1
R1
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21113-01
5.61 V =
56.1 mA
100

185
13a
16
Measurement sheet 3
Measure the Input voltage and the output voltage in the constant voltage source with a
fixed voltage regulator.
MCE
Industrietechnik
UE
12.0 V
UA
4.92 V
LE 21113-01

186
14a
17
10 LE 21118-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - High, Low, and

Band-pass Filters
Summary of contents
Contents:
Voltage response of RC elements
Designing low, high, and band-pass circuits
Projects:
Integrating circuit
Exercises 1a, b
Low-pass
Exercises 2a, b
Differential element
Exercises 3a, b
High-pass
Exercises 4a, b
Band-pass
Exercises 5a, b

187
The respective curves for voltage and current when a capacitor is charged are given by
the e-function (curve of natural growth). The time constant T serves as a guide value for
this process over time.
=RxC
is obtainedin second, if C is inserted in F and R in .
The voltage and current of an RC circuit have reached 63 % of the final value after the
time 1 and 99 % of this value after 5 .
Example of switching on:
After 1 , the voltage across the capacitor (UC) has reached 63 % of the operating voltage,
and only 37 % is still applied across the resistor (UR).
At the instant of switching-on, the capacitor acts like a short-circuit. The current is limited
only by the Ri of the power source and the resistor R1.
Switching on
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
188
Example of switching off:

The voltage across the capacitor (Uc) has fallen to 37 % of the operating voltage (UE).
Switching-off
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
189
Integrating element
If the output voltage of the RC element is tapped at the capacitor, we call this an
integrating circuit.
When a voltage UE is applied, capacitor C is charged via resistor R. The time behavior of
the charging current depends on the time constant of the RC circuit. No current flows after
the charging process has been completed. There is a certain constant voltage across the
capacitor. If no voltage is now applied to the input, the capacitor C is discharged via the
consumer RA.
The discharge voltage and current are determined by the load resistor RA.
If square-wave pulses are applied to the circuit input, the capacitor charging and
discharging processes alternate periodically. The gradient of the rising and falling edges
may be modified by changing R or RA
The duration of the pulses supplied may be extended using an integrating circuit.
Compared with the pulse duration of UE, the time constant may be so large that several
rapidly successive pulses may be combined (= integrated) to form one Jong pulse.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
190
Low-pass filter
A low-pass filter is a circuit which allows "low" frequencies to "pass" and which cuts out
high frequencies.
An integrating circuit is the simplest form of low-pass filter.
If a frequency mixture (music, speech) is supplied to its input, the low frequencies are
given preference.
The circuit practically acts as an AC voltage divider.
Since the capacitive reactance
1
XC
where
2x
.f
w.C
is frequency dependent, the relation of XC to R also changes with frequency f. Because XC
is reduced with increasing frequency, there is a greater voltage drop across the resistor.
Therefore, the higher the frequency of the supplied AC voltage, the lower UA.
In order to make a clear statement an the effect of frequency, the concept of cut-off
frequency has been introduced. The cut-off frequency fg of an RC circuit is the frequency
at which XC = R (reactance is equal to active resistance). if this is true, then 70.7 % of the
AC input voltage is available at the circuit output (UA = 0.7 x UE).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
191
If the output voltage of the RC element is tapped at the resistor, we call this a differential
circuit.
If a voltage UE is applied to the input, the capacitor is charged. The charging voltage
depends only on the capacitance C and the resistance R.
A Voltage pulse is therefore produced at the output with a form which is completely
independent of the ON duration of the appplied voltage. No current flows via R if the
capacitor has been charged up to the applied voltage; the output voltage is then zero.
If the input is short-circuited, the capacitor acts as a power source for the circuit C - R.
The potentials have been reversed.
The positive potential of UC is now negative (2). Consequently, the discharge current flows
in the opposite direction.
A negative voltage pulse is produced at R.
If a square-wave voltage is applied to the input, the processes are repeated in a periodic
sequence.
The differential circuit converts pulses with a long pulse duration into short-time pulses.
Therefore, the smaller the time constant, the lower the pulse duration.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
192
High-pass filter
A high-pass filter is a circuit which allows "high" frequencies to "pass" and which cuts out
low frequencies.
A differential circuit operates like a high-pass filter.
High frequencies are given preference when a frequency mixture is transmitted. This
circuit is also an AC voltage divider.
Here, the resistance is parallel to the output.
The higher the frequency of the supplied AC voltage, the lower the value of XC and the
component voltages are displaced in favor of UA (UR).
Consequently, the higher the frequency of the supplied AC voltage the greater the value
for UA.
The following diagram shows that the output voltage rises steeply at first below the cut-off
frequency fg, but rises only slightly above fg.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
193
Band-pass filter
In practice, it is often necessary to filter out only those frequencies lying within a certain
frequency range from a mixture of voltage at different frequencies.
The band-pass filter is an important instrument in this task.
In the simplest case, band-pass filters are equipped with two RC elements, one of which
is a low-pass filter and the other is a high-pass filter. It is important that the cut-off
frequency of the low-pass filter be higher than that of the'high-pass filter.
The cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the reactance XC is equal to the value of
the ohmic resistance R, whereby the outpuf voltage falls to 70.7 % of its maximum value.
The cut-off frequency of the high-pass filter is the lower cut-off frequency fu:
fu
1
2 n R1 C1
The cut-off frequency of the low-pass filter determines the upper cut-off frequency fo:
fo
1
2 n R2 C2
The difference between these two frequencies is the bandwidth

b = fo - fu
These equations apply only if both RC elements do not influence each other.
For this reason, it is sometimes necessary to decouple the two filter elements.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
194
Circuit diagram:
Exercise 1a: set-up with electronics trainer
- Items 1 - 2.
Exercise 1b: set-up an PC board
- Items 3 - 14.
Solder R and C onto the soldering tag.

14
Soldering tag
13
Bare wire
0.5 mm,silvered
12
Capacitor
1 F/40 V
11
Capacitor
470 nF/40 V
10
Capacitor
47 nF/40 V
Capacitor
10 nF/40 V
Capacitor
2.2 nF/40 V
Resistor
0.5 W 10 k
Resistor
0.5 W 2.2k
Resistor
0.5 W 1.2k
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
2GA5101-8G
Fund. of analog./
Electronics trainer
2GA5101-3B
el. engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
MCE
Industrietechnik
DIN 41617
100x160mm,SM2.54
Designation
LE 21118-01
31 poles, SM2.54
Detail No.

Exercises 1a, b
195
Remarks
Task
Designing an integrating element and observing and recording the deformation of a
square-wave signal.
1. Arrange all the required component modules on the assembly board.
2. Wire the circuit in accordance with the circuit diagram.
3. Carry out the measurements in accordance with the measurement sheet.
4. Enter the missing measurement values and curves on the measurement sheet.
Job plan (PC board set-up)
1. Fit and wire all the required components an the PC board in accordance with the
circuit diagram.
3. Enter the missing measurement values and curves an the measurement sheet
Auxiliaries, tools and working materials
PC board holder, tin-lead solder 1.0 mm, soldering iron 30 W, flat pliers, pointed soldering
pliers, diagonal cutter, desoldering device, steel rule.
Measuring and checkinq instruments
Multimeter, oscilloscope, frequency generator
Accident and damage prevention
Exercise care when handling the hot soldering iron (risk of burns and fire).
Exercise care when cutting off components because wire ends may fly off leading to eye
injuries.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01

Exercises 1a, b
196
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Using the frequency generator, supply a square-wave voltage to the input of the
integrating element. Measure the deformation of the squarewave at the output using the
oscilloscope and draw the curve shape an the measurement sheets.
Set the frequency generator to 5 kHz and UEss = 4 V
Adjust the square-wave Signal so that the botton line is an the zero line (K2).
Oscilloscope: time base 50 gs/DIV, channel 1 is the trigger sources,
channels 1 and 2 = 2 V/DIV, input switch set to DC
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Integrating circuit
Exercise 1a, b
197
10
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Integrating circuit
Exercise 1a, b
198
11
Circuit diagram:
- Items 1 - 2.
- Items 3 - 7
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silvered
Capacitor
4.7 nF/40 V
Resistor
0.5 W 5.6 k
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
2GA5101 -8G
Fund. of analog./
Electronics trainer
2GA5101 -3B
el. engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
MCE
Industrietechnik
DIN 41617
SM2.54
100x160mm, SM2.54
Designation
LE 21118-01
31 poles
Detail No.
Low-pass filter
Exercises 2a, b
199
Remarks
12
Task
Design a low-pass filter. Study its effect by changing the Input frequency. Enter the
measured results in the table and draw the low-pass filter curve on the graph.
1. Fit and wire all the required components on the PC board in accordance with the
circuit diagram.
3. Enter the missing measurement values and curves on the measurement sheet
PC board holder, tin-lead solder 1.0 mm, soldering iron 30 W, fiat pliers, pointed soldering
Measuring and checking instruments
injuries.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Low-pass filter
Exercise 2a, b
200
13
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 3
Apply sinusoidal voltage of different frequencies to the input of the low-pass filter.
Measure the voltage values at the output and enter them in the table. Then transfer these
measured values to the graph and draw a curve.
Set a sinusoidal AC voltage UESS = 10 V an the frequency generator. Successively set the
frequencies given in the table.
Determine the voltage UASS for each frequency.
Calculate the cut-off frequency:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Low-pass filter
Exercise 2a, b
201
14
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 4
Calculate the range for the coordinates
Insert the actual value of the cut-off frequency into the diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Low-pass filter
Exercise 2a, b
202
15
Circuit diagram:
- Items 1 - 2.
- Items 3 - 14.
Solder R and C onto the soldering tag.
14
Soldering tag
13
Bare wire
0.5 mm, siivered
12
Capacitor
1 F/40V
11
Capacitor
470 nF/40V
10
Capacitor
47 nF/40V
Capacitor
10 nF/40V
Capacitor
2.2 nF/40V
Resistor
0.5 W 10 k
Resistor
0.5 W 2.2 k
Resistor
0.5 W 1.2 k
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
2GA5101-8G
Fund. of analog./
Electronics trainer
2GA5101-3B
el. engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
MCE
Industrietechnik
DIN 41617
100x160 mm, SM2.5
Designation
LE 21118-01
31 poles, SM2.54
Detail No.
Differential circuit
Exercises 3a, b
203
Remarks
16
Task
Design a differential element and observe and record the deformation of a square-wave
signal.
circuit diagram.
Accident and damalte prevention
injuries.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Exercise 3a, b
204
17
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 5
differential element. Measure the deformation of the square-wave at the output using the
oscilloscope and draw the curve shape on the measurement sheets.
Set the frequency generator to 5 kHz and UESS = 4 V
Adjust the square-wave signal so that the botton line is on the zero line.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Exercise 3a, b
205
18
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 6
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Exercise 3a, b
206
19
Circuit diagram:
Exercise 4a: set-up with electronics trainer - Items 1 - 2.

- Items 3 - 7
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silvered
Capacitor
4.7 nF/40 V
Resistor
0.5 W 5.6 k
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
2GA5101 -8G
Fund. of analog./
Electronics trainer
2GA5101 -3B
el. engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
MCE
Industrietechnik
DIN 41617
SM2.54
100x160mm, SM2.54
Designation
LE 21118-01
31 poles
Detail No.
High-pass filter
Exercises 4a, b
207
Remarks
20
Task
Design a high-pass filter. Observe its effects by changing the Input frequency. Enter the
measured resuits in the table and draw the high- pass filter curve on the graph.
circuit diagram.
Auxiliaries, tools and workinq materials
Accident and damaqe prevention
Exercise care when cutting off components because wire ends may fly of leading to eye
injuries.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
High-pass filter
Exercises 4a, b
208
21
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 7
Apply sinusoidal voltage of different frequencies to the input of the high-pass filter.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
High-pass filter
Exercises 4a, b
209
22
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 8
Determine the scale for the ccordinate system.
Enter the actual value of the cut-off frequency on the graph.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
High-pass filter
Exercises 4a, b
210
23
Circuit diagram:

- Items 3 - 8
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silvered
Capacitor
C2
1 nF/40 V
Capacitor
C1
100 nF/40 V
Resistor
R1, R2, 0.5 W 1.5 k
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
2GA5101 -8G
Fund. of analog./
Electronics trainer
2GA5101 -3B
el. engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
MCE
Industrietechnik
DIN 41617
SM2.54
100x160mm, SM2.54
Designation
LE 21118-01
31 poles
Detail No.
Band-pass filter
Exercises 5a, b
211
Remarks
24
Task
Design a band-pass filter. Study its effects by changing the input frequency. Enter the
measured results in the table and draw the band- pass filter curve on the graph.
Job plan (electronic trainer)
circuit diagram.
injuries.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Band-pass filter
Exercises 5a, b
212
25
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 9
Apply sinusoidal voltage of different frequencies to the input of the band-pass filter.
Set a sinusoidal AC voltage UESS = 10 V an the frequency generator.
Successively set the frequencies given in the table.
Calculate the cut-off frequency and the band with:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Band-pass filter
Exercises 5a, b
213
26
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 10
Determine the scale for the coordinate system.
Enter the actual value of the cut-off frequency on the graph and determine the band width.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Band-pass filter
Exercises 5a, b
214
27
Circuit diagram:

- Items 3 - 8
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silvered
Capacitor
C2
1 nF/40 V
Capacitor
C1
100 nF/40 V
Resistor
R1, R2, 0.5 W 1.5 k
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
2GA5101 -8G
Fund. of analog./
Electronics trainer
2GA5101 -3B
el. engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
MCE
Industrietechnik
DIN 41617
SM2.54
100x160mm, SM2.54
Designation
LE 21118-01
31 poles
Detail No.
Band-pass filter
Exercises 5a, b
215
Remarks
24
Measurement sheet 1
integrating element. Measure the deformation of the squarewave at the output using the
oscilloscope and draw the curve shape an the measurement sheets.
Set the frequency generator to 5 kHz and UEss = 4 V
Adjust the square-wave Signal so that the botton line is an the zero line (K2).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Integrating circuit
Solution - Exercise 1a, b
216
10a
28
Measurement sheet 2
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Integrating circuit
217
11a
29
Measurement sheet 3
Apply sinusoidal voltage of different frequencies to the input of the low-pass filter.
In case of fg: XC = R
fg =
1
2xxRxC
R=
1
wxC
fg = 6047 Hz
2xxfxC
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Low-pass filter
218
14a
30
Measurement sheet 4
Calculate the range for the coordinates
Insert the actual value of the cut-off frequency into the diagram
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Low-pass filter
219
15a
31
Measurement sheet 5
differential element. Measure the deformation of the square-wave at the output using the
oscilloscope and draw the curve shape on the measurement sheets.
Set the frequency generator to 5 kHz and UESS = 4 V
Adjust the square-wave signal so that the botton line is on the zero line.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
220
18a
32
Measurement sheet 6
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Exercise 3a, b
221
19a
33
Measurement sheet 7
Apply sinusoidal voltage of different frequencies to the input of the high-pass filter.
fg =
6047 Hz
2xxRxC
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
High-pass filter
Solution - Exercises 4a, b
222
22a
34
Measurement sheet 8
Determine the scale for the ccordinate system.
Enter the actual value of the cut-off frequency on the graph.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
High-pass filter
223
23a
35
Measurement sheet 9
Apply sinusoidal voltage of different frequencies to the input of the band-pass filter.
Set a sinusoidal AC voltage UESS = 10 V an the frequency generator.
Successively set the frequencies given in the table.
Calculate the cut-off frequency and the band with:
fu
1061 Hz
2 x x R1 x C1
fo
106.1 kHz
2 x x R2 x C2
b
= fo - f o
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
105 Hz
Band-pass filter
224
26a
36
Determine the scale for the coordinate system.
Enter the actual value of the cut-off frequency on the graph and determine the band width.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21118-01
Band-pass filter
225
27a
37
11 LE 21119-01 - Basic Electronics Circuits - Rectification
Summary of contents
Contents:
One-pulse center-tap connection

Two-pulse center-tap connection
Two-pulse bridge connection
Rectification, demonstration model
Setting up of rectifier circuits
Projects:
One-pulse center-tap
Exercises 1a, b
Two-pulse center-tap
Exercises 2a, b
Two-pulse bridge
connection

226
Exercises 3a, b
With ohmic load
The diode is forward-biased during the positive half-wave of the secondary voltage U2.
The anode of diode V1 is negative in respect of the cathode during the negative half-wave
and the diode is reverse-biased.
The diagrams show the curves of the secondary voltage U2 and the voltage URL across
the load resistor RL.
The sympol u (lower case) expresses the instantaneous voltage value, the pulsating DC
voltage measured with the oscilloscope.
U (upper case) denotes the DC voltage measured using a moving-coil instrument (mean
time value).
The ideal no-load direct voltage Udi may be calculated in accordance with the following
formula:
Udi = 0.45 x U2
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
227
With ohmic load and capacitor

A pulsating DC voltage is not usually suitable as a power supply. For this reason, a
capacitor is parallel-connected to RL. The capacitor is called the charging capacitor CL.
The capacitor is charged by the positive half-wave of the secondary voltage (U2) as Jong
as the "charging voltage" (U2) is larger than the capacitor voltage (u).
If u2 falls below the capacitor voltage u, the capacitor is discharged via the load resistor
RL:
a) No discharge
MCE
Industrietechnik
b) Slow
LE 21119-01
c) Rapid
228
With ohmic load
The two-way or center-tap connection is basically the combination of two one-way

connections.
V1 is forward-biased during the positive half-wave, and V2 is forward-biased during the
negative half-wave.
In both cases, the current flows in the same direction through RL. This connection is also
called full-wave rectifier.
The output voltage URL has the curve shown below.
The voltage URL measured across RL using the measuring instrument is approximately
double that which was measured in the case of the one-way connection.
Udi 0.45 x (U2 + U3)
since U2 = U3
it follows that:
Udi 0.9 x U2
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
229
The charging capacitor CL causes "smoothing" of the output voltage in this circuit also. For
this reason, it is also called a smoothing capacitor. The degree of smoothing depends an
the size of the capacitor.
High capacitor value - good smoothing (low ripple voltage).
Low capacitor value - poor smoothing (high ripple voltage).
Formula for Udi with C:
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
Udi 2 x U2 (since U2 = U3)
230
Ripple voltage and frequency

The voltage at RL, which is not fully smooth is considered as a DC voltage Udi with a
superimposed AC voltage U. This AC voltage is called a ripple voltage.
The ripple voltage U may be determined using an oscilloscope.
It is measured using the peak-to-peak values.
(Uss: peak-to-peak superimposed AC voltage)
The frequencies for one-way and center-tap connections are different. One-way
connection f = 50 Hz, center-tap connection f = 100 Hz.
With ohmic load
The bridge connection is used most often. In the contrast to the one-way connection, both
half-waves are used.
In contrast to two-way connection, a transformer with center tap is not required.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
231
The current I flows through the diodes V1 and V3 during the positive half-wave; V2 and V4
are reverse-biased. The current flows through the diodes V2 and V4 during the negative
half-wave; V1 and V3 are reversed-biased. The current therefore flows through RL in the
same direction during the positive and negative half-waves. A pulsating DC voltage is
available at RL.
Calculation formula: Udi 4.9 x U2

If a charging capacitor CL is connected in parallel with the load resistor RL, the voltage u is
smoothed.
The diagram shows the effect of the smoothing (charging) capacitor CL:
Calculation formula for Udi:
Udi = 2 x U2
CL is charged during the period between t11 and t12. CL is discharged via RL between t12
and t21, and CL is recharged between t21 and t22 etc.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
232
AC component (ripple)
The concept of ripple is defined in accordance with DIN 41755. It
is understood as the ratio of the actual value of the superimposed AC voltage to the ideal
noload direct voltage.
W
US
Udi
Other ways of depicting a bridge connection
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
233
Circuit diagram
Suggestion for assembly diagram
Wiring examples
One-pulse center-tap Two-pulse
bridge connection
connection
Set the signal generator to a low frequency: 1Hz - 10Hz. Signal amplitude: 6.3 V.
Signal generator
0.5 mm, silvered
Bare wire
4 mm
10
Socket contacts
R1-R4, RL100 1W
Resistor
H1 - H4 red
LED
80 x 20 x 5 mm
Support blocks
70 x 60 mm
PC Board
Item
No.
Qty.
MCE
Industrietechnik
Designation
LE 21119-01
Detail No.
Rectification
Demonstration model
234
Remarks
Circuit diagram
Soldering capacitor C1 on supports.

Exercise 2b: set-up on PC board
- Items 3 - 8
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silvered
Capacitor
C2 elco 470 F/25 V
Resistor
RL 0.5 W 470
Diode
V1, 1N4004
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
DIN 41617
31 poles SM2.54
100x160mm, SM2.54
2GA5101-8G
Fund. of analog.electr.Engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
Electronics trainer
MCE
Industrietechnik
2GA5101-3B
Designation
LE 21119-01
Detail No.

Exercises 1a, b
235
Remarks
Task
Study and measure the effect of rectification with and without a charging capacitor. Enter
the values in the table and draw the oscillographs.
1. Arrange all the required component modules on the assembly board
circuit diagram.
2. Connect the finished PC board to the power supply. (e.g. mounting rack LE 2195/96)
PC board holder, tin-lead solder 1.0 mm, soldering fron 30 W, flat pliers, pointed soldering
Multimeter, oscilloscope.
Exercise care when handling the hot soldering fron (risk of burns and fire).
injuries.
Exercise care when handling capacitors. There is a danger of explosion if the operating
voltage is too high or if the polarity is incorrect (eye injuries).
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 1a, b
236
10
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 1
Measure the voltage URL using the multimeter

Measured
Calculated
Without charging capacitor
With charging capacitor
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 1a, b
237
11
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 2
Record the oscillograph of the output voltage URL, at the load resistor.
Rectification without CL
Rectification with CL
How high is the ripple voltage? Uss =
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 1a, b
238
12
Circuit diagram
Solder capacitor onto the soldering tag!

- Items 3 - 8
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silvered
Capacitor
C2 elco 470 F/25 V
Resistor
RL 0.5 W 470
Diode
V1, V2 1N4004
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
DIN 41617
31 poles SM2.54
100x160mm, SM2.54
2GA5101-8G
Fund. of analog. electr.Engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
Electronics trainer
MCE
Industrietechnik
2GA5101-3B
Designation
LE 21119-01
Detail No.

Exercises 2a, b
239
Remarks
13
Task
circuit diagram.
2. Connect the finished PC board to the power supply. (e.g. mounting rack LE 2195/96)
3. Carry out the measurements in accordance with the measurements heet.
Exercise care when handling the hot soldering fron (risk of bums and fire).
injuries.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 2a, b
240
14
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 3

Measured
Calculated
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 2a, b
241
15
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 4
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 2a, b
242
16
Circuit diagram
Solder capacitor onto the soldering tag!

- Items 3 - 8
Bare wire
0.5 mm, silvered
Capacitor
C2 elco 470 F/25 V
Resistor
RL 0.5 W 470
Diode
V1-V4 1N4004
Terminal strip
PC board
Accessory set
DIN 41617
31 poles SM2.54
100x160mm, SM2.54
2GA5101-8G
Fund. of analog. electr.Engineering
Item
No.
Qty.
Electronics trainer
MCE
Industrietechnik
2GA5101-3B
Designation
LE 21119-01
Detail No.

Exercises 2a, b
243
Remarks
17
Task
2. Wire the circuit in accordance with the circuit diagram
circuit diagram.
2. Connect the finished PC board to the Power supply. (e.g. mounting rack LE 2195/96)
3. Carry out the measurements in accordance with the measurements heet.
Exercise care when handling the hot soldering fron (risk of bums and fire).
injuries.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 3a, b
244
18
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 5

Measured
Calculated
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 3a, b
245
19
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 6
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

Exercises 3a, b
246
20
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement Sheet 7
Measurement success check
1. What is the maximum possible voltage URL across the output terminals of the centertap connection?
2. Which diagram shows a bridge connection?
3. A rectifier circuit (see circuit diagram below) is connected to 220 V AC. Which voltage
is available at the unloaded output?
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
Exercises 1 - 3
247
21
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 8
4. The half-wave or one-way rectifier circuit is supplied with a sinusoidal AC voltalte from
the transformer.
Which oscillograph shows the curve of the voltalte URL?
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
Exercises 1 - 3
248
22
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
Measurement sheet 9
5. Which of the four curve traces is formed when an oscilloscope is connected to the load
resistor RL of the following circuit?
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
Exercises 1 - 3
249
23
Trade: ____________________________Name:________________________________
6. The depicted voltage is measured using a moving-coil instrument set to the DC
voltage range. Which value is indicated ?
7. A frequency of 50 Hz is measured in a center-tap circuit with charging capacitor CL.

Which statement is correct?
The circuit is operating correctly
A diode is disconnected
The capacitance of the charging capacitor is too low
The capacitance of the charging capacitor is too high
The charging capacitor is missing
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
Exercises 1 - 3
250
24
Measurement sheet 1

Measured
Calculated
2.75 V
2.83 V
8.5 V
8.9 V
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

251
11a
25
Measurement sheet 2
How high is the ripple voltage? Uss = 0.4 V
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

252
12a
26
Measurement sheet 3

Measured
Calculated
5.7 V
5.67 V
8.8 V
8.9 V
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

253
15a
27
Measurement sheet 4
How high is the ripple voltage? Uss = 0.3 V
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

254
16a
28
Measurement sheet 5

Measured
Calculated
4.9 V
5.67 V
7.9 V
8.9 V
At these relatively low voltages, the voltage drop across the diodes is extremely
pronounced; that is why the calculated values are between 10 % and 20 % above the
measured values.
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

255
19a
29
Measurement sheet 6
How high is the ripple voltage? Uss = 290 mV
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01

256
20a
30
Measurement Sheet 7
Measurement success check
1. What is the maximum possible voltage URL across the output terminals of the centertap connection?
2. Which diagram shows a bridge connection?
3. A rectifier circuit (see circuit diagram below) is connected to 220 V AC. Which voltage
is available at the unloaded output?
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
257
21a
31
Measurement sheet 8
4. The half-wave or one-way rectifier circuit is supplied with a sinusoidal AC voltalte from
the transformer.
Which oscillograph shows the curve of the voltalte URL?
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
258
22a
32
Measurement sheet 9
5. Which of the four curve traces is formed when an oscilloscope is connected to the load
resistor RL of the following circuit?
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
259
23a
33
Measurement sheet 8
6. The depicted voltage is measured using a moving-coil instrument set to the DC
voltage range. Which value is indicated ?
7. A frequency of 50 Hz is measured in a center-tap circuit with charging capacitor CL.

Which statement is correct?
The circuit is operating correctly
A diode is disconnected
The capacitance of the charging capacitor is too low
The capacitance of the charging capacitor is too high
The charging capacitor is missing
MCE
Industrietechnik
LE 21119-01
260
24a
34
261

EE049 Electronic Components Exercises PR Inst

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INDUSTRIETECHNIK

SRI LANKA INSTITUTE of ADVANCED TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION

ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC

Electronic Components Exercises

MCE Industrietechnik Linz GmbH & Co

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS - EXERCISE

LE 21105-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Resistors...........................3

LE 21106-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Diodes ............................21

LE 21107-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Capacitors ......................37

LE 21108-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistor Characteristics

LE 21109-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Setting the Transistor

LE 21110-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistors as Amplifiers

LE 21111-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Transistors as Switches133

LE 21112-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Constant Current Sources

LE 21113-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Constant Voltage Sources

LE 21118-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - High, Low, and Band-

pass Filters ......................................................................................................................187

LE 21119-01 - Basic Electronics Circuits - Rectification ......................................226

Learning Unit: LE 21105-01

LE 21105-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Resistors

Use of the resistor as a variable resistor, fixed

Voltage divider circuits with resistors

Experimental set-up with modules from

Experimental set-up in the electronics

Directions for the use

Resistors are used

Trimmers have the following design:

Five-ring encoding of fixed resistors: code of five

List comprises sheet(s) 1

List comprises sheet(s) 1

Structure of circuit board

Printed circuit board

List comprises sheet(s) 1

4. The voltage divider consisting of resistor R4 and a thermistor R5 depends on

5. In daylight, the partial voltages are

When the photo resistor is shaded,

and UR7 rises

4. The voltage divider consisting of resistor R4 and a thermistor R5 depends on

and UR5 = 0.7 V

and UR5 = 4.6 V

5. In daylight, the partial voltages are

and UR7 = 1.9 V

When the photo resistor is shaded,

and UR7 rises

Learning Unit: LE 21106-01

LE 21106-01 - Fundamentals of Electronic Components - Diodes

Measurements on a germanium diode, silicon diode,

Recording of diode characteristics

Experimental set-up with modules from

Experimental set-up in the electronics

Directions for the use

The use of diodes

Diodes (rectifier diodes)

Measurement circuit for recording the characteristic curve

Semiconductor material for LEDs

Radiation-producing semiconductor material

1 Blocking layer (diode)

B1 CQV 10-5 RED

List comprises sheet(s) 1

B1 CQV 10-5 RED

List comprises sheet(s) 1

Structure of circuit board

B1 CQV 10-5 RED