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Insectphysiologyincludesthephysiologyandbiochemistryofinsectorgansystems.[1]

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Althoughdiverse,insectsarequiteindifferentinoveralldesign,internallyandexternally.Theinsectismadeupof

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threemainbodyregions(tagmata),thehead,thoraxandabdomen.Theheadcomprisessixfusedsegments

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withcompoundeyes,ocelli,antennaeandmouthparts,whichdifferaccordingtotheinsectsparticulardiet,e.g.

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grinding,sucking,lappingandchewing.Thethoraxismadeupofthreesegments:thepro,mesoandmeta
thorax,eachsupportingapairoflegswhichmayalsodiffer,dependingonfunction,e.g.jumping,digging,

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swimmingandrunning.Usuallythemiddleandthelastsegmentofthethoraxhavepairedwings.Theabdomen
generallycompriseselevensegmentsandcontainsthedigestiveandreproductiveorgans.[2]Ageneraloverview

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oftheinternalstructureandphysiologyoftheinsectispresented,includingdigestive,circulatory,respiratory,

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muscular,endocrineandnervoussystems,aswellassensoryorgans,temperaturecontrol,flightandmolting.

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1 Digestivesystem
2 Circulatorysystem

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3 Respiratorysystem

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4 Muscularsystem

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5 Endocrinesystem
6 Nervoussystem

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6.1 Centralnervoussystem
6.2 Peripheralnervoussystem
6.3 Sensoryorgans
7 Reproductivesystem
7.1 Female
7.2 Male
7.3 Sexualandasexualreproduction
8 Lifecycle
9 Moulting
10 References

Digestivesystem

[ edit ]

Aninsectusesitsdigestivesystemtoextractnutrientsandothersubstancesfromthefooditconsumes.[3]Mostof
thisfoodisingestedintheformofmacromoleculesandothercomplexsubstances(such
asproteins,polysaccharides,fats,andnucleicacids)whichmustbebrokendownbycatabolicreactionsinto
smallermolecules(i.e.aminoacids,simplesugars,etc.)beforebeingusedbycellsofthebodyforenergy,
growth,orreproduction.Thisbreakdownprocessisknownasdigestion.
Theinsect'sdigestivesystemisaclosedsystem,withonelongenclosedcoiledtubecalledthealimentary
canalwhichrunslengthwisethroughthebody.Thealimentarycanalonlyallowsfoodtoenterthemouth,andthen
getsprocessedasittravelstowardtheanus.Theinsectsalimentarycanalhasspecificsectionsforgrindingand
foodstorage,enzymeproductionandnutrientabsorption.[2][4]Sphincterscontrolthefoodandfluidmovement
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betweenthreeregions.Thethreeregionsincludetheforegut(stomatodeum)(27,)themidgut(mesenteron)(13),
andthehindgut(proctodeum)(16).
Inadditiontothealimentarycanal,insectsalsohavepairedsalivaryglandsandsalivaryreservoirs.These
structuresusuallyresideinthethorax(adjacenttotheforegut).Thesalivaryglands(30)producesaliva,the
salivaryductsleadfromtheglandstothereservoirsandthenforwardthroughtheheadtoanopeningcalled
thesalivariumbehindthehypopharynxwhichmovementsofthemouthpartshelpmixsalivawithfoodinthe
buccalcavity.Salivamixeswithfoodwhichtravelsthroughsalivarytubesintothemouth,beginningtheprocessof
breakingitdown.[3][5]
Thestomatedeumandproctodeumareinvaginationsoftheepidermisandarelinedwithcuticle(intima).The
mesenteronisnotlinedwithcuticlebutwithrapidlydividingandthereforeconstantly
replaced,epithelialcells.[2][4]Thecuticleshedswitheverymoultalongwiththeexoskeleton.[4]Foodismoveddown
thegutbymuscularcontractionscalledperistalsis.[6]
1.Stomatodeum(foregut):Thisregionstores,grindsandtransports
foodtothenextregion.[7]Includedinthisarethebuccalcavity,
thepharynx,theoesophagus,thecrop(storesfood),and
proventriculusorgizzard(grindsfood).[4]Salivarysecretionsfrom
thelabialglandsdilutetheingestedfood.Inmosquitoes(Diptera),
whicharebloodfeedinginsects,anticoagulantsandbloodthinners
arealsoreleasedhere.
2.Mesenteron(midgut):Digestiveenzymesinthisregionare
producedandsecretedintothelumenandherenutrientsare
absorbedintotheinsectsbody.Foodisenvelopedbythispartofthe
gutasitarrivesfromtheforegutbytheperitrophicmembranewhich
isamucopolysaccharidelayersecretedfromthemidgutsepithelial
cells.[2]Itisthoughtthatthismembraneprevents
foodpathogensfromcontactingtheepitheliumandattackingthe
insectsbody.[2]Italsoactsasafilterallowing
smallmoleculesthrough,butpreventinglargemoleculesand
particlesoffoodfromreachingthemidgutcells.[7]Afterthelarge

Styliseddiagramofinsectdigestivetract
showingMalpighiantubule
(Orthopterantype)

substancesarebrokendownintosmallerones,digestionand
consequentnutrientabsorptiontakesplaceatthesurfaceoftheepithelium.[2]Microscopicprojectionsfromthe
midgutwall,calledmicrovilli,increasesurfaceareaandallowformaximumabsorptionofnutrients.
3.Proctodeum(hindgut):Thisisdividedintothreesectionstheanterioristheileum,themiddleportion,
thecolon,andthewider,posteriorsectionistherectum.[7]Thisextendsfromthepyloricvalvewhichislocated
betweenthemidandthehindguttotheanus.[4]Hereabsorptionofwater,saltsandotherbeneficialsubstances
takeplacebeforeexcretion.[7]Likeotheranimals,theremovaloftoxicmetabolicwasterequireswater.However,
forverysmallanimalslikeinsects,waterconservationisapriority.Becauseofthis,blindendedducts
calledMalpighiantubulescomeintoplay.[2]Theseductsemergeasevaginationsattheanteriorendofthehindgut
andarethemainorgansofosmoregulationandexcretion.[4][7]Theseextractthewasteproductsfrom
thehaemolymph,inwhichalltheinternalorgansarebathed).[2]Thesetubulescontinuallyproducetheinsectsuric
acid,whichistransportedtothehindgut,whereimportantsaltsandwaterarereabsorbedbyboththehindgut
andrectum.Excrementisthenvoidedasinsolubleandnontoxicuricacidgranules.[2]Excretionand
osmoregulationininsectsarenotorchestratedbytheMalpighiantubulesalone,butrequireajointfunctionofthe
ileumand/orrectum.[7]

Circulatorysystem

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Seealso:Hemolymph
Themainfunctionofinsectblood,hemolymph,isthatoftransportanditbathestheinsectsbodyorgans.Making
upusuallylessthan25%ofaninsectsbodyweight,ittransportshormones,nutrientsandwastesandhasarole
inosmoregulation,temperaturecontrol,immunity,storage(water,carbohydratesandfats)andskeletalfunction.It
alsoplaysanessentialpartinthemoultingprocess.[2][4]Anadditionalroleofthehemolymphinsomeorders,can
bethatofpredatorydefence.Itcancontainunpalatableandmalodourouschemicalsthatwillactasadeterrentto
predators.[7]
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Hemolymphcontainsmolecules,ionsandcells.[7]Regulatingchemicalexchangesbetweentissues,hemolymphis
encasedintheinsectbodycavityorhaemocoel.[6][7]Itistransportedaroundthebodybycombinedheart
(posterior)andaorta(anterior)pulsationswhicharelocateddorsallyjustunderthesurfaceofthebody.[2][4][7]It
differsfromvertebratebloodinthatitdoesntcontainanyredbloodcellsandthereforeiswithouthighoxygen
carryingcapacity,andismoresimilartolymphfoundinvertebrates.[6][7]
Bodyfluidsenterthroughonewayvalvedostiawhichareopeningssituatedalongthelengthofthecombined
aortaandheartorgan.Pumpingofthehemolymphoccursbywavesofperistalticcontraction,originatingatthe
body'sposteriorend,pumpingforwardsintothedorsalvessel,outviatheaortaandthenintotheheadwhereit
flowsoutintothehaemocoel.[6][7]Thehemolymphiscirculatedtotheappendagesunidirectionallywiththeaidof
muscularpumpsoraccessorypulsatileorganswhichareusuallyfoundatthebaseoftheantennaeorwingsand
sometimesinthelegs.[7]Pumpingrateacceleratesduetoperiodsofincreasedactivity.[4]Movementof
hemolymphisparticularlyimportantforthermoregulationinorderssuch
asOdonata,Lepidoptera,HymenopteraandDiptera.[7]

Respiratorysystem

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Seealso:Invertebratetrachea
Insectrespirationisaccomplishedwithoutlungsusingasystemofinternaltubesandsacsthroughwhichgases
eitherdiffuseorareactivelypumped,deliveringoxygendirectlytotissuesthatneedoxygenandeliminatecarbon
dioxideviatheircells.[7]Sinceoxygenisdelivereddirectly,thecirculatorysystemisnotusedtocarryoxygen,and
isthereforegreatlyreducedithasnoclosedvessels(i.e.,noveinsorarteries),consistingoflittlemorethana
single,perforateddorsaltubewhichpulsesperistaltically,andindoingsohelpscirculatethehemolymphinsidethe
bodycavity.[7]
Airistakeninthroughspiracles,openingswhicharepositionedlaterallyinthepleuralwall,usuallyapaironthe
anteriormarginofthemesoandmetathorax,andpairsoneachoftheeightorlessabdominalsegments,
Numbersofspiraclesvaryfrom1to10pairs.[2][4][6][7]Theoxygenpassesthroughthetracheaetothetracheoles,
andentersthebodybytheprocessofdiffusion.Carbondioxideleavesthebodybythesameprocess.[4]
Themajortracheaearethickenedspirallylikeaflexiblevacuumhosetopreventthemfromcollapsingandoften
swellintoairsacs.Largerinsectscanaugmenttheflowofairthroughtheirtrachealsystem,withbodymovement
andrhythmicflatteningofthetrachealairsacs.[4]Spiraclesareclosedandopenedbymeansofvalvesandcan
remainpartlyorcompletelyclosedforextendedperiodsinsomeinsects,whichminimiseswaterloss.[2][4]
Therearemanydifferentpatternsofgasexchangedemonstratedbydifferentgroupsofinsects.Gasexchange
patternsininsectscanrangefromcontinuous,diffusiveventilation,todiscontinuousgasexchange.[7]
Terrestrialandalargeproportionofaquaticinsectsperformgaseousexchangeaspreviouslymentionedunderan
opensystem.Othersmallernumbersofaquaticinsectshaveaclosedtrachealsystem,forexample,Odonata,
Tricoptera,Ephemeroptera,whichhavetrachealgillsandnofunctionalspiracles.Endoparasiticlarvaearewithout
spiraclesandalsooperateunderaclosedsystem.Herethetracheaeseparateperipherally,coveringthegeneral
bodysurfacewhichresultsinacutaneousformofgaseousexchange.Thisperipheraltrachealdivisionmayalso
liewithinthetrachealgillswheregaseousexchangemayalsotakeplace.[7]

Muscularsystem

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Manyinsectsareabletolifttwentytimestheirownbodyweightandmayjumpdistancesthataremanytimes
greaterthantheirownlength.Thisisnotbecausetheyarestrongbutbecausetheyaresosmall.Musclepoweris
proportionaltoitscrosssectionalarea.Becausethemass(theinsect'sbody)thatismovedisinproportiontoits
volumeandthefactthattheyalsohaveabetterleveragesystemthanhumansdo,theycanjumpremarkable
distances.[4][6]
Themuscularsystemofinsectsrangesfromafewhundredmusclestoafewthousand.[4]Unlikevertebratesthat
havebothsmoothandstriatedmuscles,insectshaveonlystriatedmuscles.Musclecellsareamassedintomuscle
fibersandthenintothefunctionalunit,themuscle.[6]Musclesareattachedtothebodywall,withattachment
fibersrunningthroughthecuticleandtotheepicuticle,wheretheycanmovedifferentpartsofthebodyincluding
appendagessuchaswings.[4][7]Themusclefiberhasmanycellswithaplasmamembraneandoutersheath
orsarcolemma.[7]Thesarcolemmaisinvaginatedandcanmakecontactwiththetracheolecarryingoxygentothe
musclefiber.Arrangedinsheetsorcylindrically,contractilemyofibrilsrunthelengthofthemusclefiber.Myofibrils
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comprisingafineactinfilamentenclosedbetweenathickpairofmyosinfilamentsslidepasteachotherinstigated
bynerveimpulses.[7]
Musclescanbedividedintofourcategories:
1.Visceral:thesemusclessurroundthetubesandductsandproduceperistalsisasdemonstratedin
thedigestivesystem.[6]
2.Segmental:causingtelescopingofmusclesegmentsrequiredformoulting,increaseinbodypressureand
locomotioninleglesslarvae.[6]
3.Appendicular:originatingfromeitherthesternumorthetergumandinsertedonthecoxaethesemuscles
moveappendagesasoneunit.[6]Thesearearrangedsegmentallyandusuallyinantagonistic
pairs.[4]Appendagepartsofsomeinsects,e.g.thegaleaandthelaciniaofthemaxillae,only
haveflexormuscles.Extensionofthesestructuresisbyhaemolymphpressureandcuticleelasticity.[4]
4.Flight:Flightmusclesarethemostspecialisedcategoryofmuscleandarecapableofrapid
contractions.Nerveimpulsesarerequiredtoinitiatemusclecontractionsandthereforeflight.These
musclesarealsoknownasneurogenicorsynchronousmuscles.Thisisbecausethereisaonetoone
correspondencebetweenactionpotentialsandmusclecontractions.Ininsectswithhigherwingstroke
frequenciesthemusclescontractmorefrequentlythanattheratethatthenerveimpulsereachesthem
andareknownasasynchronousmuscles.[2][7]
Flighthasallowedtheinsecttodisperse,escapefromenemiesandenvironmentalharm,andcolonise
newhabitats.[2]Oneoftheinsectskeyadaptationsisflight,themechanicsofwhichdifferfromthoseofother
flyinganimalsbecausetheirwingsarenotmodifiedappendages.[2][6]Fullydevelopedandfunctionalwingsoccur
onlyinadultinsects.[7]Tofly,gravityanddrag(airresistancetomovement)havetobeovercome.[7]Mostinsects
flybybeatingtheirwingsandtopowertheirflighttheyhaveeitherdirectflightmusclesattachedtothewings,or
anindirectsystemwherethereisnomuscletowingconnectionandinsteadtheyareattachedtoahighlyflexible
boxlikethorax.[7]
Directflightmusclesgeneratetheupwardstrokebythecontractionofthemusclesattachedtothebaseofthe
winginsidethepivotalpoint.Outsidethepivotalpointthedownwardstrokeisgeneratedthroughcontractionof
musclesthatextendfromthesternumtothewing.Indirectflightmusclesareattachedtothetergumandsternum.
Contractionmakesthetergumandbaseofthewingpulldown.Inturnthismovementlevertheouterormainpart
ofthewinginstrokesupward.Contractionofthesecondsetofmuscles,whichrunfromthebacktothefrontof
thethorax,powersthedownbeat.Thisdeformstheboxandliftsthetergum.[7]

Endocrinesystem

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Hormonesarethechemicalsubstancesthataretransportedintheinsectsbodyfluids(haemolymph)thatcarry
messagesawayfromtheirpointofsynthesistositeswherephysiologicalprocessesareinfluenced.These
hormonesareproducedbyglandular,neuroglandularandneuronalcentres.[7]Insectshaveseveralorgansthat
producehormones,controllingreproduction,metamorphosisandmoulting.[4]Ithasbeensuggestedthat
abrainhormoneisresponsibleforcastederminationintermitesanddiapauseinterruptioninsomeinsects.[4]
Fourendocrinecentershavebeenidentified:
1.Neurosecretorycellsinthebraincanproduceoneormorehormonesthataffectgrowth,
reproduction,homeostasisandmetamorphosis.[4][7]
2.Corporacardiacaareapairofneuroglandularbodiesthatarefoundbehindthebrainandoneithersides
oftheaorta.Thesenotonlyproducetheirownneurohormonesbuttheystoreandreleaseother
neurohormonesincludingPTTHprothoracicotropichormone(brainhormone),whichstimulatesthe
secretoryactivityoftheprothoracicglands,playinganintegralroleinmoulting.
3.Prothoracicglandsarediffuse,pairedglandslocatedatthebackoftheheadorinthethorax.These
glandssecreteanecdysteroidcalledecdysone,orthemoultinghormone,whichinitiates
theepidermalmoultingprocess.[7]Additionallyitplaysaroleinaccessoryreproductiveglandsinthefemale,
differentiationofovariolesandintheprocessofeggproduction.
4.Corporaallataaresmall,pairedglandularbodiesoriginatingfromtheepitheliumlocatedoneithersideof
theforegut.Theysecretethejuvenilehormone,whichregulatereproductionandmetamorphosis.[4][7]

Nervoussystem
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Insectshaveacomplexnervoussystemwhichincorporatesavarietyofinternalphysiologicalinformationaswell
asexternalsensoryinformation.[7]Asinthecaseofvertebrates,thebasiccomponentistheneuronornervecell.
Thisismadeupofadendritewithtwoprojectionsthatreceivestimuliandanaxon,whichtransmitsinformationto
anotherneuronororgan,likeamuscle.Asforvertebrates,chemicals(neurotransmitterssuch
asacetylcholineanddopamine)arereleasedatsynapses.[7]

Centralnervoussystem

[ edit ]

Aninsectssensory,motorandphysiologicalprocessesarecontrolledbythecentralnervoussystemalongwith
theendocrinesystem.[7]Beingtheprincipaldivisionofthenervoussystem,itconsistsofabrain,aventralnerve
cordandasubesophagealganglion.Thisisconnectedtothebrainbytwonerves,extendingaroundeachsideof
theoesophagus.
Thebrainhasthreelobes:
Protocerebrum,innervatingthecompoundeyesandtheocelli
Deutocerebrum,innervatingtheantennae
Tritocerebrum,innervatingtheforegutandthelabrum.[4][7]
Theventralnervecordextendsfromthesuboesophagealganglionposteriorly.[4]Alayerofconnectivetissue
calledtheneurolemmacoversthebrain,ganglia,majorperipheralnervesandventralnervecords.
Theheadcapsule(madeupofsixfusedsegments)hassixpairsofganglia.Thefirstthreepairsarefusedinto
thebrain,whilethethreefollowingpairsarefusedintothesubesophagealganglion.[7]Thethoracicsegments
haveonegangliononeachside,whichareconnectedintoapair,onepairpersegment.Thisarrangementisalso
seenintheabdomenbutonlyinthefirsteightsegments.Manyspeciesofinsectshavereducednumbersof
gangliaduetofusionorreduction.[8]Somecockroacheshavejustsixgangliaintheabdomen,whereasthe
waspVespacrabrohasonlytwointhethoraxandthreeintheabdomen.Andsome,likethehouseflyMusca
domestica,haveallthebodygangliafusedintoasinglelargethoracicganglion.Thegangliaofthecentral
nervoussystemactasthecoordinatingcentreswiththeirownspecificautonomywhereeachmaycoordinate
impulsesinspecifiedregionsoftheinsectsbody.[4]

Peripheralnervoussystem

[ edit ]

Thisconsistsofmotorneuronaxonsthatbranchouttothemusclesfromthegangliaofthecentralnervous
system,partsofthesympatheticnervoussystemandthesensoryneuronsofthecuticularsenseorgansthat
receivechemical,thermal,mechanicalorvisualstimulifromtheinsectsenvironment.[7]Thesympatheticnervous
systemincludesnervesandthegangliathatinnervatethegutbothposteriorlyandanteriorly,someendocrine
organs,thespiraclesofthetrachealsystemandthereproductiveorgans.[7]

Sensoryorgans

[ edit ]

Chemicalsensesincludetheuseofchemoreceptors,relatedtotasteandsmell,affectingmating,habitatselection,
feedingandparasitehostrelationships.Tasteisusuallylocatedonthemouthpartsoftheinsectbutinsome
insects,suchasbees,waspsandants,tasteorganscanalsobefoundontheantennae.Tasteorganscanalso
befoundonthetarsiofmoths,butterfliesandflies.Olfactorysensillaenableinsectstosmellandareusuallyfound
intheantennae.[2]Chemoreceptorsensitivityrelatedtosmellinsomesubstances,isveryhighandsomeinsects
candetectparticularodoursthatareatlowconcentrationsmilesfromtheiroriginalsource.[4]
Mechanicalsensesprovidetheinsectwithinformationthatmaydirectorientation,generalmovement,flightfrom
enemies,reproductionandfeedingandareelicitedfromthesenseorgansthataresensitivetomechanicalstimuli
suchaspressure,touchandvibration.[4]Hairs(setae)onthecuticleareresponsibleforthisastheyaresensitive
tovibrationtouchandsound.[2]
Hearingstructuresortympanalorgansarelocatedondifferentbodypartssuchas,wings,abdomen,legsand
antennae.Thesecanrespondtovariousfrequenciesrangingfrom100to240kHzdependingoninsect
species.[4]Manyofthejointsoftheinsecthavetactilesetaethatregistermovement.Hairbedsandgroupsof
smallhairlikesensilla,determineproprioreceptionorinformationaboutthepositionofalimb,andarefoundon
thecuticleatthejointsofsegmentsandlegs.Pressureonthebodywallorstraingaugesaredetectedbythe
campiniformsensillaandinternalstretchreceptorssensemuscledistensionanddigestivesystemstretching.[2][4]
Thecompoundeyeandtheocellisupplyinsectvision.Thecompoundeyeconsistsofindividuallightreceptive
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unitscalledommatidia.Someantsmayhaveonlyoneortwo,howeverdragonfliesmayhaveover10,000.The
moreommatidiathegreaterthevisualacuity.Theseunitshaveaclearlenssystemandlightsensitiveretinacells.
Byday,theimageflyinginsectsreceiveismadeupofamosaicofspecksofdifferinglightintensityfromallthe
differentommatidia.Atnightordusk,visualacuityissacrificedforlightsensitivity.[2]Theocelliareunabletoform
focussedimagesbutaresensitivemainly,todifferencesinlightintensity.[4]Colourvisionoccursinallordersof
insects.Generallyinsectsseebetterattheblueendofthespectrumthanattheredend.Insomeorders
sensitivityrangescanincludeultraviolet.[2]
Anumberofinsectshavetemperatureandhumiditysensors[2]andinsectsbeingsmall,coolmorequicklythan
largeranimals.Insectsaregenerallyconsideredcoldbloodedorectothermic,theirbodytemperaturerisingand
fallingwiththeenvironment.However,flyinginsectsraisetheirbodytemperaturethroughtheactionofflight,
aboveenvironmentaltemperatures.[4][6]
Thebodytemperatureofbutterfliesandgrasshoppersinflightmaybe5Cor10Caboveenvironmental
temperature,howevermothsandbumblebees,insulatedbyscalesandhair,duringflight,mayraiseflightmuscle
temperature2030Cabovetheenvironmenttemperature.Mostflyinginsectshavetomaintaintheirflight
musclesaboveacertaintemperaturetogainpowerenoughtofly.Shivering,orvibratingthewingmusclesallow
largerinsectstoactivelyincreasethetemperatureoftheirflightmuscles,enablingflight.[4]
Untilveryrecently,noonehadeverdocumentedthepresenceofnociceptors(thecellsthatdetectandtransmit
sensationsofpain)ininsects,[9]thoughrecentfindingsofnociceptioninlarvalfruitflieschallengesthis[10]and
raisesthepossibilitythatsomeinsectsmaybecapableoffeelingpain.

Reproductivesystem

[ edit ]

Mainarticle:Insectreproductivesystem
Mostinsectshaveahighreproductiverate.Withashortgenerationtime,theyevolvefasterandcanadjustto
environmentalchangesmorerapidlythanotherslowerbreedinganimals.[2]Althoughtherearemanyformsof
reproductiveorgansininsects,thereremainsabasicdesignandfunctionforeachreproductivepart.These
individualpartsmayvaryinshape(gonads),position(accessoryglandattachment),andnumber
(testicularandovarianglands),withdifferentinsectgroups.[7]

Female

[ edit ]

Thefemaleinsectsmainreproductivefunctionistoproduceeggs,includingtheeggsprotectivecoating,andto
storethemalespermatozoauntileggfertilisationisready.Thefemalereproductiveorgansinclude,
pairedovarieswhichemptytheireggs(oocytes)viathecalycesintolateraloviducts,joiningtoformthecommon
oviduct.Theopening(gonopore)ofthecommonoviductisconcealedinacavitycalledthegenitalchamberand
thisservesasacopulatorypouch(bursacopulatrix)whenmating.[7]Theexternalopeningtothisisthevulva.
Oftenininsectsthevulvaisnarrowandthegenitalchamberbecomespouchortubelikeandiscalledthevagina.
Relatedtothevaginaisasaclikestructure,thespermatheca,wherespermatozoaarestoredreadyforegg
fertilisation.Asecretoryglandnourishesthecontainedspermatozoainthevagina.[4][4]
Eggdevelopmentismostlycompletedbytheinsectsadultstageandiscontrolledbyhormonesthatcontrolthe
initialstagesofoogenesisandyolkdeposition.[7]Mostinsectsareoviparous,wheretheyounghatchafterthe
eggshavebeenlaid.[4]
Insectsexualreproductionstartswithspermentrythatstimulatesoogenesis,meiosisoccursandtheeggmoves
downthegenitaltract.Accessoryglandsofthefemalesecreteanadhesivesubstancetoattacheggstoanobject
andtheyalsosupplymaterialthatprovidestheeggswithaprotectivecoating.Ovipositiontakesplaceviathe
femaleovipositor.[4][6]

Male

[ edit ]

Themalesmainreproductivefunctionistoproduceandstorespermatozoaandprovidetransporttothe
reproductivetractofthefemale.[7]Spermdevelopmentisusuallycompletedbythetimetheinsectreaches
adulthood.[4]Themalehastwotestes,whichcontainfolliclesinwhichthespermatozoaareproduced.These
openseparatelyintothespermductorvasdeferensandthisstoresthesperm.[7]Thevasdeferentiathenunite
posteriorallytoformacentralejaculatoryduct,thisopenstotheoutsideonanaedeagusorapenis.[4]Accessory
glandssecretefluidsthatcomprisethespermatophore.Thisbecomesapackagethatsurroundsandcarriesthe
spermatozoa,formingaspermcontainingcapsule.[4][7]
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Sexualandasexualreproduction

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Mostinsectsreproduceviasexualreproduction,i.e.theeggisproducedbythefemale,fertilisedbythemaleand
ovipositedbythefemale.Eggsareusuallydepositedinaprecisemicrohabitatonorneartherequired
food.[6]However,someadultfemalescanreproducewithoutmaleinput.Thisisknownasparthenogenesisandin
themostcommontypeofparthenogenesistheoffspringareessentiallyidenticaltothemother.Thisismostoften
seeninaphidsandscaleinsects.[6]

Lifecycle

[ edit ]

Aninsectslifecyclecanbedividedintothreetypes:
Ametabolous,nometamorphosis,theseinsectsareprimitivelywinglesswheretheonlydifferencebetween
adultandnymphissize,e.g.Order:Thysanura(Silverfish).[4]
Hemimetabolous,orincompletemetamorphosis.Theterrestrialyoungarecallednymphsandaquaticyoung
arecallednaiads.Insectyoungareusuallysimilartotheadult.Wingsappearasbudsonthenymphsorearly
instars.Whenthelastmoultiscompletedthewingsexpandtothefulladultsize,e.g.Order:Odonata
(Dragonflies).
Holometabolus,orcompletemetamorphosis.Theseinsectshaveadifferentformintheirimmatureandadult
stages,havedifferentbehavioursandliveindifferenthabitats.Theimmatureformiscalledlarvaeand
remainssimilarinformbutincreasesinsize.Theyusuallyhavechewingmouthpartseveniftheadultform
mouthpartssuck.Atthelastlarvalinstarphasetheinsectformsintoapupa,itdoesntfeedandisinactive,
andherewingdevelopmentisinitiated,andtheadultemergese.g.Order:Lepidoptera
(ButterfliesandMoths).[4]

Moulting

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Asaninsectgrowsitneedstoreplacetherigidexoskeletonregularly.[2][4]Moultingmayoccuruptothreeorfour
timesor,insomeinsects,fiftytimesormoreduringitslife.[2]Acomplexprocesscontrolledbyhormones,it
includesthecuticleofthebodywall,thecuticularliningofthetracheae,foregut,hindgutandendoskeletal
structures.[2][4]
Thestagesofmolting:
1.Apolysismoultinghormonesarereleasedintothehaemolymphandtheoldcuticleseparatesfromthe
underlyingepidermalcells.Theepidermisincreasesinsizeduetomitosisandthenthenewcuticleis
produced.Enzymessecretedbytheepidermalcellsdigesttheoldendocuticle,notaffectingtheold
sclerotisedexocuticle.
2.Ecdysisthisbeginswiththesplittingoftheoldcuticle,usuallystartinginthemidlineofthethoraxs
dorsalside.Therupturingforceismostlyfromhaemolymphpressurethathasbeenforcedintothoraxby
abdominalmusclecontractionscausedbytheinsectswallowingairorwater.Afterthistheinsectwriggles
outoftheoldcuticle.
3.Sclerotisationafteremergencethenewcuticleissoftandthisaparticularlyvulnerabletimeforthe
insectasitshardprotectivecoatingismissing.Afteranhourortwotheexocuticlehardensanddarkens.
Thewingsexpandbytheforceofhaemolymphintothewingveins.[2][4]

References

[ edit ]

1.^Nation,J.L.(2002)InsectPhysiologyandBiochemistry.CRCPress.
2.^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y zaa McGavin,GeorgeC(2001).EssentialEntomology:AnOrderbyOrder
Introduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780198500025.
3.^ a b"GeneralEntomologyDigestiveandExcretorysystem" .NCstateUniversity.Retrieved20090503.
4.^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y zaa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aqarTriplehorn,CharlesA
Johnson,NormanF(2005).BorrorandDeLong'sintroductiontothestudyofinsects.(7thed.).Australia:Thomson,
Brooks/Cole.ISBN9780030968358.
5.^Duncan,CarlD.(1939).AContributiontoTheBiologyofNorthAmericanVespineWasps(1ed.).Stanford:Stanford
UniversityPress.pp.2429.
6.^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n oElzinga,RichardJ.(2003).Fundamentalsofentomology(6thed.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:
PrenticeHall.ISBN9780130480309.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insect_physiology

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7/3/2016

InsectphysiologyWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
7.^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y zaa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aqarGullan,P.J.P.S.Cranston
(2005).TheInsects:AnOutlineofEntomology(3ed.).Oxford:BlackwellPublishing.pp.6165.ISBN1405111135.
8.^SCHNEIDERMAN,HOWARDA.(1960)."DISCONTINUOUSRESPIRATIONININSECTS:ROLEOFTHE
SPIRACLES" .Biol.Bull.(119):494528.doi:10.2307/1539265

9.^Eisemann,C.H.Jorgensen,W.K.Merritt,D.J.Rice,M.J.Cribb,B.W.Webb,P.D.Zalucki,M.P.(1984)."Do
insectsfeelpain?Abiologicalview".Experientia40(2):164.doi:10.1007/BF01963580

10.^Tracey,W.D.Wilson,R.I.Laurent,G.Benzer,S.(2003)."Painless,aDrosophilaGeneEssentialfor
Nociception".Cell113(2):261273.doi:10.1016/S00928674(03)002721

.PMID12705873

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