Student Resource

Student Resource
Subject B1-11f:
Aeroplane Systems
(Instruments/Avionics)
Copyright 2011 Aviation Australia

All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, transferred, sold,
or otherwise disposed of, without the written permission of Aviation Australia.
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CONTENTS
Page
Definitions
Study Resources
Introduction
Instrument Systems Pitot Static (ATA-31)
11.5.1.1-1
Instrument Systems Gyroscope (ATA-31)
11.5.1.2-1
Instrument Systems Compasses (ATA 31)
11.5.1.3-1
Instrument Systems Other (ATA-31)
11.5.1.4-1
Avionic Systems Communications ATA-23)
11.5.2.1-1
Avionic Systems Navigation Systems (ATA-34)
11.5.2.2-1
Avionic Systems Autoflight (ATA-22)
11.5.2.3-1
On Board Maintenance Systems (ATA-45)
11.18-1
Integrated Modular Avionics (ATA 42)
11.19-1
Cabin Systems (ATA 44)
11.20-1
Information Systems (ATA 46)
11.21-1
Training Material Only

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B1-11f Aeroplane Systems

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DEFINITIONS
Define
To describe the nature or basic qualities of.
To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).
State
Specify in words or writing.
To set forth in words; declare.
Identify
To establish the identity of.
List
Itemise.
Describe
Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or

process.
To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.
Explain
Make known in detail.
Offer reason for cause and effect.

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STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen Sanderson Training Products:
Jeppesen General
Jeppesen Airframe
Jeppesen Powerplant
AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined Aircraft Inspection and Repair
Avionics Fundamentals
Avionic systems Operation and Maintenance, James W. Wasson

Aircraft Instruments & Integrated Systems EHJ Pallett 1992
Aircraft Instrument Systems EA-AIS, IAP Inc. Training Manual 1985
Aircraft Maintenance Text 3 Practical Science Part 2 Basic Electricity 1989
Aircraft Maintenance Text 4 Basic functional Devices and Systems 1989
Aircraft Maintenance Manual (Airbus A320/A330, Boeing B777 and Embraer E170/190)
B1-11f Student Handout

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INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this subject is to allow you to gain knowledge of basic aeroplane
instrument, communication, navigation,autopilot and avionics modular systems,
components and safety precautions associated with maintenance.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 11.5.1.1
Instrument Systems Pitot Static (ATA 31)
Identify the following pitot static instruments, state their purpose and
describe their operation:
Altimeter
Air speed indicator
Vertical speed indicator.
Describe precautions involved with pitot static systems and components.
Topic 11.5.1.2
Instrument Systems Gyroscopic (ATA 31)
Identify the following gyroscopic instruments, state their purpose and

describe their operation:
Artificial horizon
Attitude director
Direction indicator
Horizontal situation indicator
Turn and slip indicator
Turn coordinator.
Describe precautions involved with gyroscopic instruments/components.
Topic 11.5.1.3
Instrument Systems Compasses (ATA 31)
Identify the following compass instruments, state their purpose and describe
their operation:
Direct reading
Remote reading.
Describe precautions involved with compass systems and components.
Describe compass compensation and adjustment.
Topic 11.5.1.4
Instrument Systems Other (ATA 31)
State the purpose of the following systems / instruments and describe their
operation:
Angle of attack indication
Stall warning and stall avoidance systems
Temperature measurement
Cabin altitude indication
Accelerometer
Aircraft Clock.
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Topic 11.5.2.1
Avionic Systems Communications (ATA 23)
Define the fundamentals of aircraft communication systems and identify

typical components and system lay-out.
Topic 11.5.2.2
Avionic Systems Navigation Systems (ATA 34)
Fundamentals of operation of aircraft navigation systems and identify typical

components and system lay-out.
Topic 11.5.2.3
Avionic Systems Autoflight (ATA 22)
Define the fundamentals of operation of aircraft auto flight systems and

identify typical componentsand system lay-out.
Topic 11.18 On Board Maintenance Systems (ATA 45)
Describe the following on board maintenance systems and their operation:
Central maintenance computers
Data loading system
Electronic library system
Printing
Structural monitoring (Damage Tolerance Monitoring)
Topic 11.19 Integrated Modular Avionics (ATA 42)
Describe the function and operation of Integrated Modular Avionics systems
including:
Operation;
Components and
Interfaces
Topic 11.20 Cabin Intercommunication Data Systems (ATA 44)
Describe the function and operation of a typical Cabin Intercommunication
Data System including:
Operation;
Components and
Interfaces
Topic 11.21 Information System (ATA 46)
Describe the function and operation of the Cabin Network Service including:
Passenger data communication
In-Flight Entertainment system (Airshow) and
Passenger information network
Describe the function and operation of Information Management using data
communication in Network Server system including :
Cockpit information system and
Maintenance information system.

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B1-11.f Aeroplane Systems-Instruments
TOPIC 11.5.1.1: INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS- PITOT STATIC (ATA 31)

The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Standards
This table provides details of the gradual decrease in atmospheric pressure and temperature
with an increase in altitude. The standard atmosphere values are relevant around the world,
and although the tropical regions have a higher sea level temperature compared to the arctic
regions, when an aircraft is at about 20 000 feet, it is still extremely cold outside, and the
pressure is dramatically lower than that felt at sea level.
The amount of pressure change the pitot static instrument are required to measure is in the
region of only around 10 psi overall, so the detecting elements are very sensitive. That 10 psi
is the difference between sea level and approximately 40 000 feet, which translates to 40
revolutions of a 100 foot pointer on an altimeter, which again translates to about 4 revolutions
per 1 psi. Therefore if a sharp increase or decrease in pressure were applied to a pitot probe
or static vent, pitot static instruments would be severely damaged and rendered unusable.
At 10 000 feet atmospheric pressure is that of pressure at sea level (10.1 PSIA)
At 18000 feet atmospheric pressure is that of pressure at sea level (7.3 PSIA)
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The mercury barometer is the most accurate pressure measuring device. The pressure of the
atmosphere forces the mercury 29.92 inches up a sealed tube. The space above the mercury
is a vacuum. As atmospheric pressure increases, the pressure is felt around the surface of
the mercury in the bowl at the bottom and the increased pressure forces the mercury higher
up the tube. As atmospheric pressure decreases less force is applied to the mercury column
so it drops lower in the tube. By measuring how high the mercury is suspended in the tube
provides us with an indication of the atmospheric pressure.
Why is mercury used? Because it is extremely dense (very high mass) a mercury barometer
can be manufactured so its overall size is not excessive. If for example water were used in
place of mercury, the barometer would have to be much taller as the water would be pushed
much higher by the atmospheric pressure than 29.92 inches.
Either way a mercury barometer is not practical to mount in an aircraft so we need another
method to measure atmospheric pressure, hence providing an indication of altitude.
For pressure measurements in aircraft, it is obviously impracticable to equip the cockpit with
U-tube manometers and dead-weight testers. It is the practice, therefore, to use elastic
pressure-sensing elements, in which forces can be produced by applied pressures and made
to actuate mechanical and/or electrical indicating elements. The sensing elements commonly
used are Bourdon tubes, diaphragms, capsules and bellows.

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ANEROID CAPSULES
About 1645, an Italian mathematician named Torricelli discovered the principle of the
barometer by using a long glass tube closed at one end, which he put upside down in an
open container holding liquid
He found that the pressure of the air bearing down on the liquid in the container forced it up
the tube, and the measurement of the various lengths of the column of liquid was therefore a
means of expressing the changes in air pressure. In order to have a tube of manageable
length, the heaviest of all liquids, mercury, was later used
Today we have finely constructed mercurial barometers capable of giving very accurate
readings. They are costly and they need special care in handling
For general use an easier though less precise means of measurement has been devised
ANEROID BAROMETER (aneroid = without fluid)
In place of a mercury barometer we incorporate aneroid capsules in pitot/static instruments
An evacuated (vacuum) metal capsule prevented from collapsing by a strong leaf spring
which tends to pull the capsule open.
As pressure around (outside) the capsule increases it tends to compress against the spring
pressure.
As pressure decreases (with a rise in altitude for example) the capsules opposition to the
spring pressure lessens so it tends to expand.
Provide a capsule for students to inspect. Do not touch capsule, only the supporting frame.
Capsules often manufactured from beryllium copper which is carcinogenic.
The very small expansion and contraction is magnified and transformed into rotary motion by
levers and sector gears. These instruments are very accurate and are very susceptible to
inaccuracies caused by contamination or through mis-handling. The slightest amount of
contamination or corrosion can bind up the entire movement so the inside of these
instruments are spotlessly cleaned. They are repaired in laminar flow clean rooms where all
dust is filtered from the air to eliminate any form of contamination.

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The overall movement of the capsule is only a few fractions of an inch, but this small
movement is amplified to become up to 50 pointer revolutions (50 revs = 50 000 feet). The
capsule is the only force within the instrument and is the sole source of mechanical power to
drive the instrument movement, so even the slightest speck of dust will cause the pointer to
stick and skip. These instruments are very delicate and must be handled with extreme care at
all times.
Principle of operation
The household barometer is a simple aneroid barometer.
Changes in atmospheric pressure are detected by the aneroid capsule.
This instrument is calibrated in Millibars
Only a very limited range of measurement 980 to 1040. this instrument would be damaged if
transported by air because the capsules range of movement is limited by how far the pointer
can move.

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Low atmospheric pressure results in stormy conditions, eg tropical lows and cyclones. Think
about the weather man explaining highs and lows. High atmospheric pressure is great fishing
weather, low atmospheric pressure will be stormy.

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Aneroid Capsule
Aneroid Capsules used in Aircraft to measure atmospheric pressure Altitude, and parameters
with respect to a vacuum, or absolute pressure.
Aneroid Capsules are the basis of:
Barometers
Altimeters
Manifold pressure gauges
A stack of Aneroid Capsules increases sensitivity of the instrument, therefore improves

accuracy.
Capsules May be either evacuated (aneroid) or filled with a specific pressure of inert gas and
exposed to the pressure to be measured.

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES

Aneroid capsules measure very small changes in pressure with reference to a vacuum.
Maximum operating range from 0 PSIA or a vacuum up to about 17 PSIA.
Other pressure measuring devices:
Bellows
Diaphragm
Bourdon tubes
Principle of Operation
Similar to operation of an aneroid capsule except a bellows is generally not evacuated and is
manufactured from more rugged material.
An increase in pressure expands a bellows.
A bellows type of element can be considered as an extension of the corrugated diaphragm
principle, and in operation it bears some resemblance to a helical compression spring. It may
be used for high, low or differential pressure measurement, and in some applications a spring
may be employed (internally or externally) to increase what is termed the spring-rate and to
assist a bellows to return to its natural length when pressure is removed.
The element is made from a length of seamless metal tube with suitable end fittings for
connection to pressure sources or for hermetic sealing.
By connecting two bellows the centre point varies dependant upon pressure applied to each
bellows.
Works as a push, pull arrangement producing an output which is applied to linkages and
gears driving an instrument pointer.

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Bellows can be used to measure high, low and differential pressures

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Types Of Bellows
Differential
2 bellows fed from different sources movement at centre proportional to pressure difference
Sylphon
One bellows fed from a pressure source other is evacuated (aneroid bellows) resultant
differential pressure expressed as Absolute Pressure or PSIA differential pressure
referenced to a vacuum
This is where PSIA & PSID overlap. Also PSIG can be termed PSID, because the pressure
measured is the difference between atmospheric and the pressure under test. In reality,
consider what pressures are being monitored and what is used as a reference.
Manifold pressure gauge typical example of Sylphon type bellows evacuated bellows used
to reference measured pressure to vacuum.
Diaghram - Principles of Operation
Diaphragms are usually in the form of a corrugated metal disc and are usually employed to
measure low pressures. A pressure is supplied to each side of the disc and the resultant
mechanical output either drives a pointer or triggers a warning light contact.
Diaphragms in the form of corrugated circular metal discs, owing to their sensitivity, are
usually employed for the measurement of low pressures. They are always arranged so that
they are exposed at one side to the pressure to be measured, their deflections being
transmitted to pointer mechanisms, or to a warning-light contact assembly. The materials
used for their manufacture are generally the same as those used for Bourdon tubes. The
purpose of the corrugations is to permit larger deflections, for given thicknesses, than would
be obtained with a flat disc. Furthermore, their number and depth control the response and
sensitivity characteristics; the greater the number and depth the more nearly linear is its
deflection and the greater is its sensitivity.

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Bourdon Tube - Principle of Operation

The Bourdon tube is about the oldest of the pressure-sensing elements. It was developed
and patented in 1850 by a Parisian watchmaker (whose name it bears) and has been in
general use ever since, particularly in applications where the measurement of high pressure
is necessary.
The element is essentially a length of metal tube, specially extruded to give it an elliptical
cross-section, and shaped into the form of a letter C. The ratio between the major and minor
axes depends on the sensitivity required, a larger ratio providing greater sensitivity. The
material from which the tube is made may be either phosphor-bronze, beryllium-bronze or
beryllium-copper. One end of the tube, the free-end, is sealed, while the other end is left
open and fixed into a boss so that it may be connected to a source of pressure and form a
closed system.
Ratio between major and minor axes effects sensitivity. Larger ratio; more sensitive.
When pressure is applied to the interior of the tube there is a tendency for the tube to change
from an elliptical cross-section to a circular one, and also to straighten out as it becomes
more circular. In other words, it tends to assume its original shape. This is not such a simple
process as it might appear and many theories have been advanced to explain it. However, a
practical explanation sufficient for our purpose is as follows.
Firstly, a tube of elliptical cross section has a smaller volume than a circular one of the same
length and perimeter. This being the case, an elliptical tube when connected to a pressure
source is made to accommodate more of the liquid, or gas, than it can normally hold. In
consequence, forces are set up which change the shape and thereby increase the volume.
The second point concerns the straightening out of the tube as a result of its change in crosssection. Since the tube is formed in a C-shape then it can be considered as having an inner
wall and an outer wall, and under no pressure conditions they are each at a definite radius
from the centre of the C. When pressure is applied and the tube starts changing shape, the
inner wall is forced towards the centre, decreasing the radius, and the outer wall is forced
away from the centre thus increasing the radius.
Now, along any section of the curved tube the effects of the changing radii are to compress
the inner wall and to stretch the outer wall, but as the walls are joined as a common tube,
reactions are set up opposite to the compressive and stretching forces so that a complete
section is displaced from the centre of the C.
Since this takes place at all sections along the tube and increases towards the more flexible
portions, then the resultant of all the reactions will produce maximum displacement at the
free end. Within close limits the change in angle subtended at the centre by a tube is

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proportional to the change of internal pressure, and within the limit of proportionality of the
material employed, the displacement of the free end is proportional to the applied pressure.
The displacement of the free end is only small; therefore, in order to transmit this in terms of
pressure, a quadrant and magnifying system is employed as the coupling element between
tube and pointer.
Made of Phosphor Bronze, or Beryllium Bronze or Beryllium Copper.
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
Like all substances, instrument sensing elements are effected by temperature changes. In a
cold climate an aneroid capsule would not be as malleable, so would not expand and
contract as readily as in a hot climate, therefore the instrument readings will be influenced by
temperature, and not the pressure they are intended to measure.
Temperature errors can occur at sea level between hot and cold days, but will also be
induced by altitude. Instruments movements must be compensated for temperature changes.
Forms of compensation include:
Bi Metallic Strip
Thermo resistance method &
Thermo magnetic shunt method
Bi-Metallic Strips
Two metals of high (brass) and low (invar) temperature coefficients are bonded together. At
some datum temperature the strip is straight. If the strip is heated the brass expands more
than the invar to cause it to curl. If the strip is cooled the brass contracts more than the invar
to cause it to curl the opposite way.
Disc shaped bimetallic sensors are common in applications requiring a snap action. When
heated, a slightly domed bimetallic disc will suddenly snap across to being domed on the
opposite side.
Bimetallic temperature sensors are used in temperature, liquid level and position indicators
as temperature compensators or correctors in various instruments and mechanisms and to
operate switch contacts in circuit breakers, fire detectors, thermostats and timers.
Variations in temperature can cause errors in some instruments and mechanisms. Bimetallic
compensators may then be built into the mechanism to introduce corrections that are equal
and opposite to the errors. Temperatures above normal make the bellows more flexible, so it

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expands more than it should for a given pressure. This unwanted extra movement is
represented by the full arrows. If one of the links moved by the bellows is bimetallic, the same
high temperature would bend it in the direction (broken arrow) that corrects the output error.

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Temperature Compensating U Bracket

The pressure sensing element of an altimeter is compensated for changes in ambient
temperature by a bimetal U-shaped bracket, the open ends of which are connected to the
top capsule by push rods. The temperature coefficient of the instrument is chiefly due to the
change of elasticity of the capsule material with change of temperature; this, in turn, varying
the degree of deflection of the capsule in relation to the pressure acting external to it. For
example, if at sea-level the temperature should decrease, the elasticity of the capsule would
increase; in other words, and from the definition of elasticity, the capsule has a greater
tendency to return to its original size and so would expand and cause the altimeter to overread. At higher altitudes the same effects on elasticity will take place, but since the pressures
acting on the capsule will have decreased, then by comparison, the capsule expansion
becomes progressively greater.
The effect of a decrease in temperature on the U-shaped bracket is to cause the limbs to
bend inwards, and by virtue of the angular position of the pins, a corresponding downward
force is exerted on the capsule assembly to oppose the error-producing expansion. The
converse of the foregoing sequence will apply when an increase of ambient temperature
occurs.
The U bracket pictured works on the bi-metallic strip principle.
As temperature causes the stack of capsules to expand and contract the bi-metallic strip will
oppose this movement by transferring an opposing force through the angular position of the
pins connecting the U shaped bracket to the capsules, eg as capsules try to expand (due to
temperature change) the bi-metallic U bracket will be similarly effected by the temperature
change, but will oppose the expansion by applying more compressing force to the stack,
through the connecting pins.

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The capsule tends to expand when cooled because it tries to return to its original shape,
which is expanded, remember the vacuum within it is holding it flattened. This is the opposite
of a bellows which expands with increase in temperature, because it becomes more flexible,
so over expands with pressure applied. The capsule is the opposite, the pressure it is
measuring is from the outside, so you could look at as though the externally applied pressure
crushes the capsule more because it is now more flexible (like the bellows) but the crushing
action will cause an altimeter to under read.
Of course the bi-metallic strip will not be effected by pressure change, so will not oppose any
capsule movement produced by a change in pressure, but will simply act as a spring as
explained in the lesson segment on capsules.

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PITOT/STATIC SYSTEMS
The system of ports and tubing on the aircraft which supplies pitot and static pressure for the
instruments is called the pitot-static system. The pitot tube is an open tube which faces
forward into the relative wind in flight. It measures the ram pressure of the airstream.
The static ports are openings at right angles to the relative wind so that they will measure
static pressure and not be affected by the speed of the aircraft. The static ports are most
often located in pairs along the sides of the fuselage. On some aircraft, the static ports are
along the sides or top and bottom surfaces of the pitot tube so that both pressures are
measured with the same probe. A pitot/static tube typically includes static ports and electric
heaters to prevent Icing, this style of pitot probe will be covered later.
With the static ports in pairs on opposite sides of the fuselage, any errors caused by sideslip
will be eliminated. Aircraft that must operate in adverse weather conditions will require an
electrical heating system for the pitot tubes and static ports to prevent Icing. Air carrier jets
and similar types of aircraft usually employ multiple pitot tubes and static ports for safety.

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Pitot Probe Construction

On small airplanes, the pitot tube is usually installed below the wing. On other aircraft, it is
installed on the nose section of the aircraft.
As far as airflow over the probe is concerned, we may consider the probe and the aircraft to
which it is fitted as being alike because some of the factors determining air flow are: shape,
size, speed and angle of attack. The shape and size of the probe are dictated by the speed at
which it is moved through the air; a large-diameter casing, for example, can present too great
a frontal area which at very high speeds can initiate the build-up of a shock wave which will
break down the flow over the probe. This shock wave can have an appreciable effect on the
static pressure, extending as it does for a distance equal to a given number of diameters from
the nose of the probe. One way of overcoming this is to decrease the casing diameter and
increase the distance of the static orifices from the nose. Further more, a number of orifices
may be provided along the length of the probe casing so spaced that some will always be in a
region of undisturbed airflow.
A long and small-diameter probe is an ideal one from an aero dynamic point of view, but it
may present certain practical difficulties; its stiffness may not be sufficient to prevent vibration
at high speed; and it may also be difficult to accommodate the high- power heater elements
required for anti-icing. Thus, in establishing the ultimate relative dimensions of a probe, a
certain amount of compromise must be accepted.
When a probe is at some angle of attack to the airflow, it causes air to flow into the static
orifices which creates a pressure above that of the prevailing static pressure, and a
corresponding error in static pressure measurement. The pressures developed at varying
angles of attack depend on the axial location of the orifices along the casing, their positions
around the circumference, their size, and whether the orifices are in the form of holes or slots.
For aircraft whose operating ranges are confined to speeds below that of sound some typical
locations of pressure heads are ahead of a wing tip, ahead of a vertical stabilizer, or at the
side of a fuselage nose section. At speeds above that of sound, a pressure head located
ahead of the fuselage nose is, in general, the most desirable location.
Basically explain each of the points listed, with particular reference to inaccuracies which will
result if pitot probes are damaged, blocked or bent. Explain the reason for heating pitot
probes and state how probes can be very hot shortly after flight, or after the system has been
tested. Avoid touching pitot probes, you will never know when they may be hot.

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Internals of a pitot probe.

This probe also incorporates static vents flush mounted.
The static vents are mounted so that they are not effected by impact air, so they sense
atmospheric pressure. The pitot inlet senses impact pressure so faces directly forward into
the oncoming airstream.
Pitot or impact pressure represents how fast the aircraft is moving through the air and will be
covered in more detail shortly.

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Static Vents
From the foregoing, it would appear that, if all these problems are created by pressure effects
only at static orifices, they might as well be separated from the pressure head and positioned
elsewhere on the aircraft. This is one solution and is, in fact, put into practice on many types
of aircraft by using a pressure head incorporating a pitot tube only, and a static vent in the
side of the fuselage. In some light air craft the vent may simply be a hole drilled in the
fuselage skin, while for more complex aircraft systems specially contoured metal vent plates
are fitted to the skin. A typical pitot probe and a static vent are shown in the figure.
Independent static vents, when fitted, are always located in the skin of a fuselage, one on
each side and interconnected so as to minimize dynamic pressure effects due to yawing or
sideslip of the aircraft.
The actual PE due to a chosen location is determined for the appropriate aircraft type during
the initial flight-handling trials of a prototype, and is finally presented in tabular or graphical
form thus enabling a pilot to apply corrections for various operating conditions. In most cases
however, corrections are performed automatically and in a variety of ways. One method is to
employ aerodynamically- compensated pitot-static probes, i.e. probes which are so
contoured as to create a local pressure field which is equal and opposite to that of the
aircraft, so that the resultant PE is close to zero. Other methods more commonly adopted
utilize correction devices within separate transducers described below, or within central air
data computers.
Construction - Static Vent
Construction of a flush mounted static port.
Positioned by the manufacturer to give sensed pressure free from errors when aircraft yaws
or at different angles of attack.
Left and right side of aircraft static ports are connected across each other by the use of a T
fitting so as to provide an average reading to minimise errors.

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INTRODUCTION TO ALTIMETERS
Altimeters provide an indication of aircraft height by measuring atmospheric pressure
Most of the principles of operation were cover in pressure measuring devices. Review
capsule operation. Emphasise aneroid capsules are evacuated capsules, whereas a
pressure measuring device termed just as a capsule is likely not aneroid (vacuum) and
more probably will be measuring differential pressure, eg as in an ASI.
Altimeter Construction
1.
Detecting
Static vent or static chambers on a pitot/static probe
2.
Measuring
Aneroid Capsule or stack of aneroid capsules
3.
Coupling
Lever system
4.
Indicating
Sector gears, magnification gearing, pointer and dial

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Non-Sensitive Altimeter
A non-sensitive altimeter only has one pointer which makes 1 complete revolution for each
10 000 ft in altitude. If the pointer where on 8 it could represent 8000ft or 18 000 ft. Nonsensitive altimeters are typically only used in small simple aircraft that dont operate at high
altitudes. IFR aircraft must have a sensitive altimeter fitted as opposed to a non-sensitive
one.
Sensitive Altimeter
A sensitive altimeter is more sensitive and easier to read than the non-sensitive type. A
sensitive altimeter may have three separate pointers or a single pointer and a drum readout.
On an altimeter with three pointers, the longest pointer makes one revolution for each 1,000
ft., the second pointer makes one revolution for each 10,000 ft., and the shortest pointer
makes one revolution for each 100,000 ft. The three pointer sensitive altimeter has a major
problem in that the smallest pointer can be covered up by one of the other two pointers which
makes it easy to misread the altimeter and has caused many accidents.

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The newer kind of three pointer altimeter has been modified to make it easier to read. The
pointer that makes one revolution in 100,000 ft. has been extended to the outside of the face
with a small triangle on the end so It cannot be covered up. In addition, a small window
shows a striped pattern below about 15,000 ft. (at higher altitudes the striped symbol
disappears).
Barometric Adjustment Knob
The standard atmosphere table gives the standard pressure at sea level as 29.92 In. Hg, but
the actual atmosphere pressure in any given location seldom matches the values in the table.
Weather systems with higher or lower pressure are constantly moving across the surface of
the earth.
It is due to these variations in pressure that the knob on the front of the altimeter must be
adjusted to the current barometric pressure set ting for the area in which It is operating. There
is a small window on the altimeter which displays the current barometric pressure setting. It is
commonly called the Kollsman window. If for example a pilot received an altimeter setting of
30.01 from an air traffic controller, that number would be set into the Kollsman window of the
altimeter. When the pilot sets the altimeter to the correct setting before takeoff, the indication
on the altimeter will show the height of that airport above sea level. Outside the United Sates,
a different unit of measurement is often used for barometric pressure settings. This unit of
measurement is millibars (MB) and the altimeters found in many modern aircraft have two
Kollsman windows: one for inches of mercury and one for millibars.

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Altimeter Mechanism
The internal mechanism of the altimeter consists of three diaphragms in series. This creates
an altimeter which is sensitive to very small changes in pressure and which has a large
enough range of measurement to read altitudes of 35,000 to 50,000 ft. or more.
Inside the case of the altimeter is a bimetallic device which gives automatic compensation for
temperature changes to ensure accurate readings. There is a knob on the front of the
altimeter which operates a mechanism that compensates for non standard atmospheric
pressure.
Altimeter Operation
The diaphragms of an altimeter are sealed at the factory. The case of the altimeter is
connected to the static ports on the aircraft. The static pressure outside the airplane is
conducted to the instrument case by tubing and hose. If the airplane climbs, the reduced
pressure in the case causes the diaphragms to expand and move the pointers to indicate a
higher altitude.
The altimeter uses three diaphragms in series to increase the range of measurement. The
mechanism uses very delicate gearing which is designed in such a way that a very small
movement of the diaphragm causes a large motion of the pointer or pointers. Under certain
circumstances It has a tendency to stick and some aircraft have a vibrator on the instrument
panel or in the altimeter to pre vent this sticking.

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AIRSPEED INDICATORS
Airspeed indicators provide an indication of an aircrafts velocity through the surrounding air,
and are crucial for the pilot to maintain control of the aircraft. Too slow and the aircraft will
stall, too fast and structural damage will result.
Aircraft with maximum speed limited by structural considerations have their never exceed line
marked by a red radial line on the ASI.
If maximum speed is limited by critical Mach for aircraft which fly much faster and at high
altitude they will have a Maximum Allowable airspeed indicator. Because the maximum
speed varies so much at different altitude the maximum allowable pointer is repositioned by
an altimeter type mechanism to indicate critical Mach number limitation.
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
Indicated airspeed is not a value which is measured to facilitate navigation, or to calculate
estimated time of arrival at a destination.
Indicated airspeed is the only true indication a pilot has of how well his aeroplane is actually
hanging in the air. If airspeed is too slow the aircraft is going to fall out of the sky. If airspeed
is too fast structural damage will result.
An aircraft could be flying with a tailwind of 70 knots, and have an airspeed of 100 knots. This
means the aircraft effectively has a groundspeed of around 170 knots.
Now if this were a light aircraft with an airspeed limit of say 150 knots, would this aircraft be
susceptable to structural damage at this speed ? No. The aircrafts speed through the
surrounding atmosphere is only 100 kts so it is well below its maximum airspeed.
Conversely, if an aircraft was flying into a 70 kt headwind doing 100 kts, its ground speed
would effectively be only 30 kts. Would the aircraft be nearing stalling speed ? No. It is still
flying with 100 kts indicated airspeed and so would therefore be handling with the same
characteristics as the first example. Although time taken to reach a destination would vary
greatly in the two above examples, the aircrafts aerodynamic loading or flying characteristics
would be the same for both examples.

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How do we determine this aerodynamic loading ? We compare static air pressure to pitot air
pressure to provide an indication of how quickly the aircraft is moving through the local
atmosphere, which therefore equates to the aerodynamic loading of the aircraft.

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ASI Construction & Operation

As Pitot pressure increases, capsule expands, pointer moves clockwise (just like previous
altimeter lesson). As aircraft increases in altitude static pressure decreases, therefore less
pitot pressure is required to expand capsule, than would be required at sea-level so
instrument readout is referenced to atmospheric pressure providing an indication of
differential pressure between pitot and static.
So an ASI can be made to read on the ground by either apply positive pressure to the pitot
system, thus inflating the capsule; or by applying a suction to the static system, which will
also cause the capsule to inflate.
An ASI is constructed in this way so that pitot pressure is compared to the local static
pressure. So with an increase in altitude, where the air is thinner not as much pitot pressure
is required to inflate the capsule.
If the ASI case were sealed and the aircraft increased in altitude but remained at the same
speed, the airspeed indication would slow down because the pressurised air going into the
pitot system would be losing pressure the higher the aircraft went. This slowing down
indication would be as a result of the sealed case pressure would not be dropping to match
the falling pitot pressure. By opening the case to atmospheric pressure the case pressure will
be referenced to outside air pressure so if an aircraft then increased in altitude but remained
at the same speed, the ASI would continue to indicate a constant speed because pitot and
static pressures would be decreasing proportionally with the increase in altitude.
Altimeter Construction
1.
Detecting
Pitot probe & Static vents
2.
Measuring
Differential Capsule or stack of differential capsules
3.
Coupling
Lever system
4.
Indicating
Sector gears, magnification gearing, pointer & dial

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ASI Construction and Operation

Construction similar to altimeter except capsule supplied with pitot pressure not aneroid
capsule
Increasing airspeed increases impact pressure expanding capsule which drives pointer
clockwise
Case provided with static pressure & is sealed air tight
Pointer movement is indication of differential pressure between impact (pitot) & atmospheric
(static) pressures
Airspeed Indicator Markings

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Critical Mach Number

This is the speed where portions of the airflow over an aircraft reach the speed of sound. The
critical mach number represents the maximum allowable airspeed of the aircraft, above which
the supersonic airflow will damage the aircraft and likely reduce controllability.
Critical Mach number is utilised for higher altitude, higher speed aircraft.
Small light aircraft are speed limited by structural considerations, that is if they go too fast
parts of the aeroplane may be ripped off by the airflow. The ASI for small light aircraft is the
standard looking ASI indicator with the coloured arcs indicating normal operating areas and
caution and no-go speeds.
Aircraft capable of flying at high altitude and at high speed do not have a standard ASI fitted.
These aircraft are the business jets and Lear jets. Because the major restriction applied to
maximum speed these aircraft is the speed of sound, they have a Maximum allowable
Airspeed indicator fitted. This works on the same principle as a standard ASI
Speed of sound changes with temperature variations and decreases with an increase in
altitude. Because outside air temperature is a little difficult to measure compared to altitude, a
standard table of OAT for altitude is used and for any given altitude a specific temperature
will be assumed.
Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicators
Utilised in aircraft capable of high altitude, high speed flight biz jets, commercial passenger
aircraft, etc
Regular ASI not capable of indicating critical mach number Maximum Allowable Airspeed
Indicator performs this function
The Maximum Allowable Airspeed pointer is positioned with respect to altitude and is based
on limitations due to the aircraft reaching critical Mach. As the aircraft goes up in altitude the
Maximum Allowable Airspeed pointer will rotate to lower speeds as a function of Mach.

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VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

Vertical Speed Indicators provide the pilot with an indication of the aircrafts rate of climb or
dive.
Pointer indicates 9 oclock position at rest and moves clockwise for ascent and CCW for
descent.
Construction
Detecting element (static Port),
Measuring element (diaphragm measuring static pressure with respect to instrument case
pressure)
Coupling element (gear and lever assembly)
Indicating element (sector gear and pointer)
Pointer indicates 9 oclock position at rest and moves clockwise for ascent and CCW for
decent.

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In a climb the diaphragm becomes more evacuated (pressure is lowered) than the case so it
compresses providing a readout. When the aircraft levels off the capsule stops contracting,
but because the case is also open to static pressure through a restricted (calibrated) leak the
case pressure will eventually equal the capsule pressure so the instrument pointer will return
to zero.
The vertical speed indicator has two separate functions. First, it operates as a trend
instrument because it shows deviations from level flight before the altimeter registers any
signs. There is no lag in this function. Second, it serves as a rate indicator. The calibrated
leak prevents the pressure differential between the case and the bellows from equalizing
immediately, causing an inherent lag. When the aircraft starts a climb or descent, it takes a
few seconds for a pressure differential to develop between the same areas and indicate a
rate of movement. The same is true when leveling off.
In summary, when the aircraft begins a climb or descent, the instrument immediately displays
the change in pitch; however, the pilot must wait for six to nine seconds for an accurate
indication of the rate of climb or descent. Nonetheless, the vertical speed indicator is valuable
in sensing deviations from a selected altitude or establishing a constant rate of climb or
descent.
Displacements of the capsule in response to differential pressure changes are transmitted to
the pointer via a link and rocking-shaft magnifying system, and a quadrant and pinion. The
magnifying system and indicating element are balanced by means of an adjustable weight
attached to the rocking shaft. The flange of the metering unit connects with the static
pressure connection of the indicator case, and it also acts as a junction for the capillary tube.
Range setting of the instrument during initial and subsequent calibrations is achieved by two
calibration springs which bear on a stem connected to the centre-piece of the capsule. The
purpose of these springs is to exert forces on the capsule and so achieve the correct
relationship between the capsules pressure/deflection characteristics and the pointer
position at all points of the scale. The forces are controlled by two rows of screws, located in
a calibration bracket, which vary the effective length of their respective springs. The upper
row of screws and the upper spring control the rate of descent calibration, while the lower row
of screws and lower spring control the rate of climb.
A feature which meets a common requirement for all types of vertical speed indicator is
adjustment of the pointer to the zero graduation. The form taken by the adjustment device
depends on the instrument design, but in the mechanism we have been considering, it
consists of an eccentric shaft coupled by a gearwheel to a pinion on a second shaft which
extends to the bottom centre of the bezel. The exposed end of the shaft is provided with a
screw driver slot. When the shaft is rotated the eccentric shaft is driven round to displace a
plate bearing against the eccentric. The plate is also in contact with the underside of the
capsule, and as a result the capsule is moved up or down, the movement being transferred to
the pointer via the magnifying system and pointer gearing. The range of pointer adjustment
around zero depends on the climb and descent range of the instrument but 200 and 400
ft/mm are typical values.

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IVSI Construction and Operation

Normal VSIs have a great deal of lag, i.e. it takes several seconds for them to adjust to
changes in climb or descent rate. This causes a problem for a helicopter because the
descent rate is constantly changing on approach, and if the lag is too long the gauge is
essentially useless because it is displaying information that is out of date.
An instantaneous VSI has extra mechanical linkages to sense a change in the rate of altitude
change, and it moves the indicator in response to that change. The result is a faster
indication that the pilot has changed his rate of climb or descent.
These indicators consist of the same basic elements as conventional VSIs, but in addition
they employ an accelerometer unit which is designed to create a more rapid differential
pressure effect, specifically at the initiation of a climb or descent.
The accelerometer comprises two small cylinders or dash- pots, containing pistons held in
balance by springs and their own mass. The cylinders are connected in the capillary tube
leading to the capsule, and are thus open directly to the static pressure source. When a
change in vertical speed occurs initially, the pistons are displaced under the influence of a
vertical acceleration force, and this creates an immediate pressure change inside the
capsule, and an instantaneous indication by the indicator pointer. The accelerometer
response decays after a few seconds, but by this time the change in actual static pressure
becomes effective, so that a pressure differential is produced by the metering unit in the
conventional manner.

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BLOCKAGE OF PORTS
When pitot-static lines or ports become blocked by ice or other factors, it can cause the
instruments to give improper readings. If the static pressure is blocked, the altimeter will
remain at the current indication and the VSI will continue to read zero even when the aircraft
climbs or descends. This problem would usually be noticed by the pilot. The airspeed
indicator uses both pitot and static pressure and a blockage inflight could be more difficult to
detect.
Lets use the example of an airplane that is flying at 10,000 ft. when the static ports become
blocked. The pressure In the static system will be sealed in and wont change when the
aircraft climbs or descends. if the airplane climbs at a constant speed, the airspeed indicator
will show a decreasing airspeed. If the airplane descends, the airspeed indicator will indicate
a higher than actual airspeed. Just the opposite would happen if the pitot tube Iced over or
was blocked in some other way inflight. A climb would cause the airspeed indicator to read
higher than it should and a descent would cause it to read lower than actual airspeed.

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The lines and connections In a pitot-static system should be maintained in good condition.
Even though they dont have to handle high pressures, the Instruments are very sensitive to
small changes in pressure so that even very small leaks can cause errors in the instruments.

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The tubing and hoses that are used are not very strong and should be inspected carefully for
damage. The fittings and connections should be installed with care and torqued to specified
values.
Must ensure no moisture in lines, cover all probes and vents when aircraft on the ground to
prevent insects building nests. Moisture will freeze at altitude and cause blockages, ensure
no moisture enters a pitot or static system
Pitot & static leaks & blockages will also have an adverse effect on other aircraft systems,
including those receiving ADC (Air Data Computer) outputs, or flight control gain scheduling
of signals. Pitot static system problems can have major effect on aircraft operations. In
computerised INS aircraft the pitot/static system is often relegated to backup status with most
parameters sensed by inertial navigation systems. But pitot/statics will always be used for
gain scheduling of flight controls (eg IAS) and will always provide barometric altitude &
indicated airspeed data to pilot regardless of computerised sensors
Protective Covers
Protective covers have two purposes:
To stop insects from entering or building nests
To soften the blow when you walk into them
Fit covers whenever aircraft are on the ground

Ensure covers have large obvious remove before flight flags so they wont be overlooked

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Pitot Heaters
Only ever test for the presence of heat with the back of your hand. If you grab a probe or
touch it with you finger tips severe burns could result. Probes get hot enough to melt plastic
on contact and if you were to grab a hot probe your skin would stick to it like an egg to the
bottom of an ungreased pan. Pulling your hand back off the probe would leave you with a
severe burn and a large portion of your palm would remain on the probe. There are many
aircraft around with lumps of ground safety covers adhered to the probes because heaters
have been erroneously energised when the covers have still been fitted. By placing the back
of your hand near the probe you will more readily detect the presence of heat (back of hand
more sensitive to temperature) and if you react to the heat by clenching your fist or pulling
your hand away you will not cause more injury. Alternatively if you use the fingertips or palm
of your hand you will more likely grasp the probe as an immediate reaction thereby further
increasing the severity of the burn.
Only operate pitot heaters on ground if absolutely necessary, & then only for sufficient time to
confirm their serviceability. Heaters can burn out if not cooled by ram air flowing over them,
and when heated they become a personnel hazard. Only operate for sufficient time to test for
the presence of heat then turn them off.
Do not allow them to remain on for lengthy periods.

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Precautions in Testing Pitot-Static System

Perform all maintenance and inspections before leak testing.
Use a system diagram.
Check the test unit for leaks before beginning the test.
Run full range tests only if you are thoroughly familiar with both the aircraft and the test
equipment.
Pressure in the pitot system must always be equal to or greater than the pressure in the static
system.
The rate of change of pressure during testing should not exceed the limits for any installed
instrument.
After testing make sure that the system Is returned to flying condition, such as removing tape
from ports and drain holes
If tape is used during leak isolation use brightly coloured highly visible tape to minimise
chance of it being overlooked
Never perform any maintenance on a pressurised pitot/static system release all pressure
before attempting to tighten a coupling or drain trap
Never overtighten unions particularly plastic unions always torque as directed by
maintenance manual
Eg tighten by hand then rotate turn using a spanner dont tighten any further or plumbing
will be damaged, remember the system is only handling pressures of up to 10 psi at a
maximum..
- End of this Topic -

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TOPIC 11.5.1.2: INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS- GYROSCOPIC (ATA 31)

Introduction
During flight with limited visibility, pilots cannot rely on body senses to provide them with
accurate information about their bodys attitude with respect to the earth. If you have ever
been to a fun park and gone on one of the rides which takes you through a series of rapid
spinning manoeuvres, you will realise that you are very quickly disorientated. When the
horizon cannot be seen, acceleration forces can cause even more misleading impressions,
which affect the pilots ability to sense the direction of gravity. Put simply, pilots cannot be
sure which way is up or down, turning or flying in a straight line. Since they cannot rely on
their natural senses during these flying manoeuvres, it is necessary to provide them with
flight instruments which will tell them the aircrafts:
pitch
roll
heading
rate of turn.
Because aircraft are capable of continuous movement through all axes, a device is needed
which will maintain its position at all times, regardless of aircraft movement. Such a device
can be used as a stable attitude reference point for attitude indicators.
The gyroscope forms the heart of the system used to provide this stable reference necessary
for pitch, roll and heading indicators to work properly. The word gyroscope was derived from
the Greek gyros (to turn) and skopien (to view). Therefore the literal meaning of the word
gyroscope is to view the turning.
The gyroscope consists of a perfectly symmetrical rotor spinning rapidly about its (spin) axis.
The spin axis is free to rotate about one or more perpendicular axes. Freedom of movement
about one axis is achieved by mounting the rotor in a frame called a gimbal. Complete
freedom is achieved by using two gimbals which are mounted at right angles to each other.
Throughout this lesson we will build up a gyro from the spinning mass to a complete three
frame device capable of giving us a stable reference.
B1-11.5.1.2: Instrument Systems- Gyroscopic (ATA 31)

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Gyro Properties
Newtons 1st Law of motion
Inertia
An object in motion will remain in motion and an object at rest will remain at rest unless acted
on by an unbalanced force. This means that if there were no friction, eg space, you could
throw/push something and it will continue at that same speed forevermore. In reality in the
atmosphere of the earth we have plenty of friction from air and gravity which provides the
additional force to oppose the initial motion imparted by you. But the concept is that a moving
mass will continue to move in the same direction unless some other force acts upon it.
When a rotor is made to spin at high speed the device becomes a gyroscope possessing two
important fundamental properties:
gyroscopic rigidity or gyroscopic inertia:

caused by the inertia of the mass, keeping the axis rigid or pointing in the same
direction.
gyroscopic precession:
describes the application of a force to the gyro and the effect of the angular
displacement.
Both these properties depend on the principle of conservation of angular momentum, which
means that the angular momentum of a body about a given point remains constant unless
some force is applied to change it. Angular momentum is the product of the moment of inertia
(I) and angular velocity (w) of a body referred to a given pointthe centre of gravity in the
case of a gyroscope.
These rather intriguing properties can be exhibited by any system in which a rotating mass is
involved. Although it was left for man to develop gyroscopes and associated devices, it is true
to say that gyroscopic properties are as old as the earth itself: it too rotates at high speed and
so possesses rigidity, and although it has no gimbal system or frame on which external forces
can act, it can, and does, precess. There are, however, many mechanical examples around
us every day and one of them, the bicycle, affords a very simple means of demonstration. If
we lift the front wheel off the ground, spin it at high speed, and then turn the handlebars, we
feel rigidity resisting us and we feel precession trying to twist the handlebars out of our grasp.
The flywheel of a motor-car engine is another example. Its spin axis is in the direction of
motion of the car, but when turning a corner its rigidity resists the turning forces set up, and
as this resistance always results in precession, there is a tendency for the front of the car to
move up or down depending on the direction of the turn. Other familiar examples are aircraft
propellers, compressor and turbine assemblies of jet engines; gyroscopic properties are
exhibited by all of them.

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Gyro Properties
As a mechanical device a gyroscope may be defined as a system containing a heavy metal
wheel, or rotor, universally mounted so that it has three degrees of freedom:
Spinning freedom about an axis perpendicular through its centre (axis of spin XX 1 )
{this means the line from X to X 1 }
Tilting freedom about a horizontal axis at right angles to the spin axis (axis of tilt YY 1 )
Veering freedom about a vertical axis perpendicular to both the spin and tilt axes (axis
of veer ZZ 1 ).
Axes of freedom
Engineers have used many and various ways of describing the mounting and axis references
of the gyroscope. A three frame gyro was said to have three degrees of freedom which were
namely:
spinning freedom, which enabled a gyroscopes rotor to spin.
tilting freedom, where the gyro case or inner gimbal was free to rotate about the
horizontal plane, at right angles to the spin axis.
veering freedom, where the outer gimbal was free to rotate about the vertical plane,
which is perpendicular to both the spin and tilt axes.
The outer gimbal is supported in the frame or case of the gyro system. The modern technical
terminology used to express the degrees of freedom of gyroscopes tends towards accepting
as fact, that a gyro must spin to show the gyroscopic properties. Therefore, a two frame
gyroscope has only one degree of freedom, while the three frame gyroscope has two
degrees of freedom.
The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two concentrically
pivoted rings, called inner and outer gimbal rings. The whole assembly is known as the
gimbal system of a free or space gyroscope. The gimbal system is mounted in a frame, so
that in its normal operating position, all the axes are mutually at right angles to one another
and intersect at the centre of gravity of the rotor.

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Elements of the gyroscope

Lets build up a simple gyroscope. You can probably remember what a toy spinning top was
like. Well, the rotor of our gyroscope is really only a complicated version of that. The rotor is a
perfectly balanced mass, mounted on a central shaft.
Gyro rotor construction
The gyro wheel or rotor unit must be perfectly symmetrical and circular about the spin axis.
Any other shape would cause an imbalance during rotation. To gain higher momentum and
therefore stability, the weight is normally concentrated on the rim. Too much weight causes
excessive bearing friction and consequently drift, so a compromise must be made between
momentum and friction. Because inertia depends upon the square of the radius, the rotors
are made as large as possible with the greatest mass concentrated at the rim.
Gyroscopic balance
The gyroscope must be perfectly balanced to reduce the vibration felt during the high speeds
at which they are rotated. Therefore they are both statically and dynamically balanced.
Static Balance: to be statically balanced, the centre of gravity must be acting upon the
spin axis.
Dynamic Balance: to be dynamically balanced, the plane of spin must be acting at

right angles to the axis of spin.
Construction of the rotor will directly effect the rigidity of the gyro. The heavier the rotor is and
the closer to the outside rim that the weight can be distributed will contribute to the gyros
rigidity.
We add a frame with bearings and we have created the first axis of spin. This frame will soon
become our inner gimbal but unto it is pivoted itself we only have a single axis of spin.
Gimbals
The gyro must be universally mounted or in gimbals so as to maintain the two degrees of
freedom required, that is vertical and horizontal (in this explanation the spin axis of freedom
is ignored although the text refers to two degrees of freedom, it means full freedom of spin,
tilt & veer). The construction of the gyro determines the shape and form of the gimbals which
in turn depends on how the gyro will be used and in which plane it will be required to sense
movement.
Gimbals permit the gyro frame (or an aircraft) to move around the gyro while it maintains its
original attitude and direction of spin axis.
Plane of spin does not require a gimbal as this plane is simply the freedom of the rotor to spin
on its axis. A gyro cannot detect movement about its plane of spin, eg a DG cannot detect
pitch and an AH cannot detect yaw.
Each other gyro axis requires a gimbal to provide it with freedom.
Only 1 gimbal only permits freedom in only 1 axis (in addition to plane of rotation explained
above). A second gimbal is required to provide freedom in both axiss of tilt and veer.
We can limit the gimbals to our advantage in measuring things, eg a rate gyro only has 1
gimbal, but that will be covered in depth later.

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Gyroscopic inertia or rigidity

Rigidity. The property which resists any force tending to change the plane of rotation of its
rotor. This property is dependent on three factors:
Mass of the rotor,
Speed of rotation,
Distance at which the mass acts from the centre, i.e. the radius of gyration & distribution of
mass at the perimeter.
The property of rigidity of the gyroscope is its ability to resist any force which tends to change
the plane of rotation of its rotor. This means that if a force is applied to try and move the
gyroscope to another position, the rotors axis of spin will try and remain in the constant
direction in space. This property is the result of its high angular velocity, and the kinetic
energy possessed in the rotor. The gyroscopic inertia or rigidity can be increased by:
increasing the mass of the rotor
increasing the rotor speed
concentrating more mass near the rim of the rotor. This is called increasing the radius
of gyration
Precession
The angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under the influence of an applied
force. The change in direction takes place, not in line with the applied force, but always at a
point 90 away in the direction of rotation.
The rate of precession also depends on three factors:
Strength and direction of the applied force
Moment of inertia of the rotor (rigidity of rotor - weight)
Angular velocity of the rotor (Rigidity of rotor speed)

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The greater the force, the greater is the rate of precession, while the greater the moment of
inertia and the greater the angular velocity, the smaller is the rate of precession. (greater
rigidity smaller rate of precession for equal amount of applied force)
Precession of a rotor will continue, while the force is applied, until the plane of rotation is in
line with the plane of the applied force and until the directions of rotation and applied force
are coincident. At this point, since the applied force will no longer tend to disturb the plane of
rotation, there will be no further resistance to the force and precession will cease. gyro will
eventually gimbal lock or topple if unrestrained a rate gyro functions on the basis of
precession, but the gyro rotor is restrained by springs so does not gimbal lock rotor
continues to precess against spring pressure whilst turning force is detected by gyro rotor
more on rate gyros later.
The axis about which a torque is applied is termed the input axis, and the one about which
precession takes place in termed the output axis.
Gimbal lock
When the spin axis of the rotor becomes aligned with the axis of the outer gimbal, that is, the
inner and outer gimbals are aligned, the gimbals become locked. This condition, due to
precession, tries to force the inner gimbal to rotate at the same speed as that of the rotor. To
prevent gimbal lock, mechanical stops are fitted to the inner gimbal which prevents the inner
and outer gimbals becoming aligned.
Gimbal lock is normally prevented by limiting the movement of the inner gimbal with
mechanical stops as shown on the figure. A mechanical stop applied to prevent gimbal
locking. This physically prevents the inner gimbal and the outer gimbal from becoming
aligned. If the gimbals do reach these stops, the forces acting on the gimbal system cause
the system to precess randomly and topple.
Toppling
Out-of-control precession is commonly called toppling. Toppling should always be avoided
because of the possibility of damaging the rotor and gimbal bearings. A gyro which is toppling
is subject to enormous forces and can jump off a work bench unless it is securely bolted
down.
When fitted to an aircraft, it can cause severe damage to the mounting base during this time
which could cause misalignment of the gyro or other structural damage.
Unavoidable precession is caused by aircraft maneuvering and by the internal friction of
attitude and directional gyros. This causes slow "drifting" and thus erroneous readings. When
deflective forces are too strong or are applied very rapidly, most older gyro rotors topple over,
rather than merely precess. This is called "tumbling" or "spilling" the gyro and should be

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avoided because it damages bearings and renders the instrument useless until the gyro is
erected again.
Some of the older gyros have caging devices to hold the gimbals in place. Even though
caging causes greater than normal wear, older gyros should be caged during aerobatic
maneuvers to avoid damage to the instrument. The gyro may be erected or reset by a caging
knob.
Many gyro instruments manufactured today have higher attitude limitations than the older
types. These instruments do not "tumble" when the gyro limits are exceeded, but, however,
do not reflect pitch attitude beyond 85 degrees nose up or nose down from level flight.
Beyond these limits the newer gyros give incorrect readings. These gyros have a selferecting mechanism that eliminates the need for caging.
Gyroscope Applications in Aircraft
For use in aircraft, gyroscopes must establish two essential reference datums:
Reference against which pitch and roll attitude changes may be detected
Directional reference against which changes about the vertical axis may be detected
These references are established by gyroscopes having their spin axes arranged vertically
and horizontally respectively.
Both types of gyroscope utilise the fundamental properties in the following manner:
Rigidity establishes a stabilised reference unaffected by movement of the supporting

body
Precession controls the effects of apparent and real drift thus maintaining stabilised
reference datums (erection systems to reference to earth).
Displacement Gyros
It will also be noted that the pitch, roll, and directional attitudes of the aircraft are determined
by its displacement with respect to each appropriate gyroscope. For this reason, therefore,
the gyroscopes are referred to as displacement type gyroscopes. Each one has the three
degrees of freedom, and consequently three mutual axes, but for the purpose of attitude
sensing, the spin axis of the gyro is discounted since no useful attitude reference is provided
when displacements take place about the spin axis alone (displacement around axis of spin
is not detected). Thus, in the practical case, vertical-axis and horizontal-axis gyro scopes are
further classified as two-axis displacement gyroscopes.
Aircraft in flight are still very much a part of the earth, i.e. all references must be with respect
to the earths surface. The free or space gyroscope we have been referring to in presenting
gyro theory would serve no useful purpose in an aircraft and would have to be corrected for

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drift with respect to the earths rotation, called apparent drift, and for wander as a result of
transporting the gyroscope from one point on the earth to another, called transport wander.

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Free or space gyros

An unrestricted, un referenced displacement gyro is called a space gyro. These are gyros
that have complete freedom about three axis which are all acting at right angles to each other
(spin, tilt, and veer). This enables the gyro to maintain its position relative to some point in
space for an indefinite time assuming that there are no bearing imperfections or external
forces such as magnetic fields or gravity.
Typical gyro training aids and gyro toys are space gyros. They are not referenced to
anything, not even gravity. If you were to sit and watch a perfectly balanced and frictionless
space gyro, it will appear to rotate or drift away from the perpendicular, but in reality the rotor
is remaining rigidly fixed in space, and as the earth rotates, the frame rotates around the
rotor, appearing to the viewer on earth as though the gyro is rotating.
Obviously an un-referenced space gyro is of no use in an aircraft. For a start if the aircraft
were sitting still on the ground the gyro would be drifting off at a rate of 15 per hour due to
the earths rotation. A gyro in an aircraft must be referenced to the horizon, or the earth. So a
space gyro must be controlled to remain rigid, but with respect to the centre of the earth, this
is usually achieved by using gravity as a reference to maintain the gyro erect & referenced to
the centre of the earth.
Free or space gyros
To compensate a space gyro to eliminate earth rate, at the equator we could precess it at 15
per hour, so that it will completely rotate every 24 hours (same as the earths rotation) thus
appearing to remain erect with respect to earth. If the gyro is not at the equator, the
precession value can still be easily calculated because apparent drift equals 15 sin (where
equals angle of latitude). Can be achieved by electrical torquing signals, or by unbalancing
gimbals to cause gyro to drift at desired rate.
Control of drift which, relates only to horizontal-axis gyroscopes and can be achieved either
by:
calculating corrections using the earth-rate formula given in the preceding table and
applying them as appropriate; e.g. to the readings of a direction indicator:
applying fixed torques which unbalance the gyroscope and cause it to precess at a
rate equal and opposite to the earth rate we,
applying torques having a similar effect to that stated in above, but which can be
varied according to the latitude.

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A gyro corrected for earth rate or apparent drift will maintains its attitude with reference to the
earth, it will continue to point to the centre of the earth even as the earth rotates.
This is the name given to the apparent drift which becomes evident in the directional
gyroscope due to the earths rotation. It is a combination of both apparent tilt and apparent
veer. Apparent precession occurs at a rate of 15 degrees per hour x sine of the latitude in
which the gyro is operating. Apparent drift compensation is carried out by causing the
gyroscope to be precessed in the opposite direction to the earths rotation. This is achieved
by placing weights in the spin axis of the gyro rotor to put the unit out of balance so that the
weight force causes the gyro to precess. The rate of precession is determined by the latitude
in which the gyro is being operated.
Transport Rate
Assume now that the gyroscope is transported from one point on the planet to another, with
its spin axis aligned with the local vertical component of gravity. It will have appeared to an
observer on the earth that the spin axis of the gyro scope has tilted this is transport wander
The control of transport wander is normally achieved by using gravity-sensing devices to
automatically detect tilting of the gyro scopes spin axis, and to apply the appropriate
corrective torques. Examples of these devices are later described.
Earth Gyro
Before a free gyroscope can be of practical use as an attitude reference in aircraft flight
instruments and other associated navigational equipment, drift and transport wander must be
controlled so that the gyroscopes plane of spin is maintained relative to the earth; in other
words, it requires conversion to what is termed an earth gyroscope.
A Space Gyro referenced to earth is then termed an Earth gyro. Any Space gyro referenced
to a parameter is referred to as a tied gyro, so an Earth Gyro (tied to centre of the earth) is a
form of Tied gyro.
For use in aircraft, gyroscopes must establish two essential reference datums:
a reference against which pitch and roll attitude changes may be detected, and
a directional reference against which changes about the vertical axis may be
detected.
These references are established by gyroscopes having their spin axes arranged vertically
and horizontally respectively.
Both types of gyroscope utilize the fundamental properties in the following manner: rigidity
establishes a stabilized reference unaffected by movement of the supporting body, and

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precession controls the effects of apparent and real drift thus maintaining stabilised reference
datums.

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Aircraft Gyro Vacuum Systems

Aircraft gyro instruments can be powered by vacuum (air) or electricity. Electric gyros can run
off AC or DC power, dependant upon what they were designed for of course.
Air driven gyros can run on positive pressure, or vacuum pressure. Air pressure is provided
by an engine driven vacuum pump, and the vacuum (more predominantly) is then plumbed
through the gyro instruments to run up the gyro rotors. In vacuum gyro systems the filters are
very important items as any contamination entering the gyro will dramatically shorten its
serviceable life. Filters must be regularly serviced
An aircraft vacuum source can be either from a vacuum pump which is engine driven or from
a venturi which is located in the propwash, external to the aircraft. The vacuum supply in both
cases is a source of low pressure.
Pressurised air ported over cups in gyro rotor, or vacuum air sucked across cups. Spins gyro
rotor up to speed and is also used for gyro erection system reference gyro to earth to
eliminate transport rate. Only ever low pressure air used. Only likely to be incorporated in
light aircraft.
At high altitudes vacuum-driven gyroscopic instruments suffer from the effects of a decrease
in vacuum due to the lower atmospheric pressure; the resulting reduction in rotor speeds
affecting gyroscopic stability. Other disadvantages of vacuum operation are weight due to
pipelines, special arrangements to control the vacuum in pressurized cabin aircraft, and,
since air must pass through bearings, the possibility of contamination by corrosion and dirt
particles

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Vacuum-Driven Gyro Horizon

The rotor is pivoted in ball bearings within a case forming the inner ring, which in turn is
pivoted in a rectangular-shaped outer ring.
In the rear end cover of the instrument case, a connection is provided for the coupling of the
vacuum supply. With the vacuum system in operation, the surrounding atmosphere enters
the filtered inlet and passes through the channels to the jets. The air issuing from the jets
impinges on the rotor buckets, thus imparting even driving forces to spin the rotor at
approximately 15,000 RPM. After spinning the rotor, the air passes through a pendulous
vane unit attached to the underside of the rotor casing, and is finally drawn off by the vacuum
source.
Disadvantages Of Air Driven Gyro Systems
Dirt and dust are a major problem with air driven instruments and therefore instrument filters
and system filters must be checked, cleaned or changed at regular intervals.
When cigarette smoking was allowed on aircraft, the residue from the smoke was a
major problem for gyroscopic air driven instruments.
Engine driven vacuum pumps must be regularly checked for correct operation.
Incorporation of mechanical pumps adds an additional piece of equipment requiring

servicing, in addition to the aircrafts alternator/generator.

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Electrically Driven Gyros

To overcome the disadvantages of the air driven gyroscopic instruments in high performance
aircraft, gyroscopic instruments were designed for operation on electrical power derived from
the aircraft power supplies. This power is generally 115V 400Hz three phase alternating
current as supplied from the aircraft alternators or inverters or 28V direct current, the latter
being required for the operation of some turn and bank indicators. The alternating current
application has been used for the later types of turn and bank, gyro horizon indicators and the
remotely located attitude and directional gyros associated with flight control systems and
remote-indicating compass systems.
Electrical gyros only need a small amount of power from the existing aircraft power supply
hence an additional engine driven component (the vacuum pump) is no longer necessary.
AC electrically powered gyros can run much faster than air driven gyros so provide a more
rigid gyroscopic reference.
Electrically driven gyros incorporate more solid state components and therefore require less
maintenance effort compared to pneumatically driven gyros.
A particular limitation of air driven gyros over most electrically driven gyros is that the gyro
should never be removed from the aircraft until at least 30 minutes have passed from the
time the vacuum source was disconnected, or rotor has ceased spinning, as the inertia
contained within the rotor, and the relative absence of friction within the bearings, may allow
the rotor to spin for up to this length of time. Electrically driven gyros often incorporate a form
of electrical or dynamic braking which will slow the gyro rotor very quickly once power is
removed.

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Electric Gyro Horizon Construction

Made up of the same basic elements as the vacuum-driven type, with the exception that the
vertical gyroscope is a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor (consisting of a rotor and a
stator).
One of the essential requirements of any gyroscope is to have the mass of the rotor
concentrated as near to the periphery as possible, thus ensuring maximum inertia. This
presents no difficulty where solid metal rotors are concerned, but when adopting electric
motors as gyroscopes some rearrangement of their basic design is necessary in order to
achieve the desired effect. An induction motor normally has its rotor revolving inside the
stator, but to make one small enough to be accommodated within the space available would
mean too small a rotor mass and inertia. However, by designing the rotor and its bearings so
that it rotates on the outside of the stator, then for the same required size of motor the mass
of the rotor is concentrated further from the centre, so that the radius of gyration and inertia
are increased. This is the method adopted not only in gyro horizons but in all instruments and
systems employing electric gyroscopes.
The motor assembly is carried in a housing which forms the inner gimbal ring supported in
bearings in the outer gimbal ring, which is in turn supported on a bearing pivot in the front
cover glass and in the rear casting.
The 115 V 400 Hz 3-phase supply is fed to the gyro stator via slip rings, brushes and finger
contact assemblies.
When power is switched on a rotating magnetic field is set up in the gyro stator which cuts
the bars forming the squirrel-cage in the rotor, and induces a current in them. The effect of
this current is to produce magnetic fields around the bars which interact with the stators
rotating field causing the rotor to turn at a speed of approximately 20,00023,000 rev./min.
Failure of the power supply is indicated by a flag marked OFF and actuated by a solenoid.

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Advantages and disadvantages of drive methods

Direct current
The advantages are:
rugged light weight instrument
simple operation
low cost
simple damping system.
The disadvantages of the DC method include:
a maximum rotor speed of approximately 4,200 RPM, which is tolerable in a turn and
bank indicator, but does not give sufficient inertia (rigidity) for an artificial horizon or
directional gyro
commutator wear from brushes with the associated arcing and sparking
noise (interference)
higher current.
Alternating current
The advantages are:
higher speed giving greater inertia and rigidity
lower current consumption
less noise
greater accuracy.
The disadvantages of the AC method include:
more complex construction and operation
reliance on DC supply from static inverter for AC supply
higher cost.

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Introduction to Artificial Horizons

An Artificial Horizon provides the pilot with an indication of the aircrafts attitude, or pitch and
roll information.
The gyro horizon, or artificial horizon as it is sometimes called, indicates the pitch and bank
attitude of an aircraft relative to the vertical, and for this purpose employs a displacement
gyroscope whose spin axis is maintained vertical by a gravity-sensing device, so that
effectively it serves the same purpose as a pendulum but with the advantage that aircraft
attitude changes do not cause it to oscillate.
Indications of pitch and bank attitude are presented by the relative positions of two elements,
one symbolizing the aircraft itself, and the other in the form of a bar or sphere stabilised by
the gyroscope and symbolising the natural horizon. Supplementary indications of bank are
presented by the position of a pointer, also gyro-stabilised, and a fixed bank angle scale.
Operation
In order to measure a movement, you need a reference, and in this instance the gyro
becomes the reference or stable point. The amount of movement or deflections made by the
aircraft around this stable point are measured and displayed on the cockpit instruments.
Gyro Spin axis is vertical, so plane of spin is horizontal. This permits rigidity in lateral and
longitudinal axis and the displacement of the gimbals from the stable reference is what
provides the roll and pitch readout.
The operation of the instrument is basically controlled by the principle of gyroscopic inertia or
rigidity. The gyro spin axis is maintained in a vertical position relative to the earth. As the

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aircraft rolls and pitches in flight, the indication is given on a two colour dial, the top half
representing the sky and the bottom half which is darker, represents the ground.
The horizontal gyro spins about the vertical axis and therefore it can sense rotation about the
roll and pitch attitude of the aircraft. Movement of the aircraft about the stable gyro reference
causes the inner and outer gimbals to displace (because the gyro rotor remains fixed with
vertical spin axis) causing the A/H to display pitch and roll information.
The gyro is a tied gyro referenced to the earths gravity to maintain the vertical spin axis
should imperfections or errors cause the gyro to drift. The erection system will re-align the
gyro with respect to gravity.
Most gyro horizons have a pull to cage knob to re-align the gyro in straight and level flight if it
is noted to be drifting off, or if it tumbles or suffers gimbal lock.
The outer ring has complete freedom through 360 about the roll axis. A resilient stop limiting
the 85 pitch movement is fitted on the top of the rotor casing.
The figure demonstrates the way the gyro horizon actually provides a display of pitch and roll.
The dial is fixed and once upon a time would only have had a horizon line drawn across the
middle. In more recent time gyro horizons have been coloured with a light colour above,
typically blue, to represent the sky and a darker colour below to represent the ground.
When the horizon pointer is up and in the blue it means the aircraft is climbing, and when
down in the green it is diving. The horizon bar is restricted in pitch movement up to 85
otherwise gimbal lock will occur, whereas the rolling action is unrestricted.
Artificial horizons can have a fixed back or sky plate, and a moveable horizon bar, which
deflects with respect to the fixed aircraft symbol to provide an indication of aircraft attitude.In
place of the more conventional stabilised horizon bar method of displaying pitch and roll
attitude, a stabilised spherical element is adopted as the reference against an aircraft symbol.
The upper half of the element is coloured blue to display climb attitudes, while the lower half
is black to display descending attitudes. The dividing line between the two halves is engraved
with a circle at the centre of the line and represents the true horizon. Each half is graduated
in ten degree increments up to 80 climb, and 60 descent. Bank angle is indicated by a
pointer and scale in the normal manner In both cases the aircraft symbol remains fixed, and
the horizon moves behind it to provide the pilot with a trailing view of the aircraft as if
he/she was following it & viewing the attitude with respect to the horizon.

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Pitch is restricted to 85 to avoid gimbal lock. If a loop were performed the indicator would
show a climb up to 85 (when the aircraft nose is almost vertical, not when its at the top of
the loop) then the entire gyro assembly would roll 180. As the aircraft pulls up past the
vertical and is at the top of the loop, the horizon pointer will indicate straight and level
inverted flight corresponding with the aircraft being upside down at the top of the loop. As the
aircraft comes down to complete the loop the horizon bar again shows the aircraft heading for
the ground until it is pointing almost straight at the earth (85 nose down) when it will again
spin 180. This means the aircraft symbol will continue pointing at the earth (indicating a
dive). As the aircraft recovers to straight and level flight again at the bottom of the loop the
whole assembly will be back in its original attitude with the horizon bar again showing straight
and level flight.
This has the same visual effect as the ball rotating fully through the 90 but because this will
induce gimbal lock, the entire assembly must be rotated to then wind back down the other
side of the sphere. This is not a concern in the roll axis, as an AH has full 360 movement in
the roll axis. The display can therefore indicate unrestricted full barrel rolls.

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Standby Attitude Indicators

Many aircraft currently in service employ integrated flight systems or flight director systems
which comprise indicators that can display, not only pitch and roll attitude data from remotelylocated vertical gyroscope units, but also associated signal data from radio navigation
systems. Thus, it could be stated that there is no longer a need for a gyro horizon. There is,
however, an airworthiness requirement to meet the case of possible failure of the circuits
controlling the display of aircraft attitude, and so the gyro horizon still finds a place on the
instrument panel, but in the role of a secondary or standby attitude indicator.
Standby AH is typically of the electrically-operated type and powered by 115 V, 3-phase AC

supplied by a static inverter which, in turn, is powered by 28 VDC from the battery.
Indicators typically have a pitch trim adjustment and a fast-erection facility, typically both
being controlled by a knob in the corner of the indicator bezel. When the knob is rotated in its
normally in position, the aircraft symbol may be positioned through 50 thereby establishing
a variable pitch trim reference. Pulling the knob out and holding it energizes a fast-erection
circuit, or cages the instrument. As with any facility of this nature, time limitations are
imposed on its operation.
Gyro Erection Systems
These systems are provided for the purpose of erecting the gyroscope to its vertical position,
and to maintain it in that position during operation. The systems adopted depend on the
particular design of gyro horizon, but they are all of the gravity-sensing type and in general
fall into two main categories: mechanical and electrical. The erection system counters
transport rate and real drift (drift as a result of bearing friction & imbalance unable to be
removed at manufacture).

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Attitude Directors
The need for integrating the functions and indications of certain flight and navigation
instruments resulted in the main from the increasing number of specialised radio aids linking
aircraft with ground stations. These were developed to meet the demands of safe en-route
navigation and to cope with increasing traffic congestion in the air space around the worlds
major airports.
The required information is processed by a multiplicity of black boxes which can be stowed
in electrical compartments and radio racks, but in order that the necessary precision flying
may be executed, information must still be presented to the pilot. This requires more
instruments and more instruments could mean more panel space. The method of easing the
problem was to combine related instruments in the same case and to compound their
indications so that a large proportion of intermediate mental processing on the part of the
pilot could be bypassed and the indications more easily assimilated.
During that phase of a flight involving the approach to an airport runway, it is essential for a
pilot to know, among other things, that he is maintaining the correct approach attitude. Such
information can be obtained from the gyro horizon and from a special ILS indicator which
responds to vertical and horizontal beam signals radiated by the transmitters of an Instrument
Landing System located at the airport. It was therefore a logical step in the development of
integration techniques in what are termed Flight Director Systems, to include the information
from both the gyro horizon and ILS indicator.
The methods adopted for the integration of such information, and the manner in which it is
presented vary between systems. A complete system normally comprises two indicators:
flight director, attitude flight director or an approach horizon
course deviation indicator (CDI) or a horizontal situation indicator (HSI).
The flight director indicator has the appearance of a conventional gyro horizon, but unlike this
instrument the pitch and roll indicating elements are electrically controlled from a remotely
located vertical gyro unit.
The approach attitude of an aircraft with respect to its ILS signals is indicated by independent
pointers monitored by the relevant ILS receiver channels. Displacement of the aircraft to the
left or right of the localiser beam is indicated by deflections of the localiser pointer. Glideslope
pointer functions in similar fashion.

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Graphical representation of an attitude director indicator functioning.

In the left figure the aircraft is flying straight and level and there are no attitude commands
present.
In the middle figure a command is displayed but has not yet been satisfied by the pilot
In the right hand figure the aircraft is now in a nose up attitude to satisfy the attitude director
command
To minimise instrument panel congestion & complexity the result was to combine related
instruments in the same case and to compound their indications so that a large proportion of
intermediate mental processing on the part of the pilot could be bypassed and the indications
more easily assimilated.
Flight director indicator (FDI)
This instrument may be known as an attitude director indicator (ADI) or an attitude reference
indicator (ARI). They all have slightly different displays, but they all operate in the same way.
The basic function of the FDI is to supply the pilot with the aircrafts attitude and steering
information. This represents a view from behind the aircraft looking forward. Steering
command and aircraft attitude are displayed around a fixed aircraft symbol.

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Attitude sphere
The sphere is free to move 360 in roll and depending on type, 90 or 360 in pitch. Gimbal
lock limitation minimised or eliminated
Bank pointer
This displays the bank angle of the aircraft, and is read against a scale on the case of the
instrument.
Command bars
There are two command bars, one for pitch, and one for roll. They are called command bars
because they command the pilot to fly the aircraft symbol towards the command bars. The
commands are supplied from the flight director computer, which can receive reference
signals from a range of navigation aid receivers or INS
Glideslope pointer
This is located on the left side of the FDI and is used when the aircraft has captured the
runway glideslope beams, when landing. The aircrafts vertical position within the beams is
shown by the pointer. When the pointer is on the centre line, the aircraft is in the centre of the
glideslope. When the pointer is on the dot closest to the centre line, the pitch command bar
comes into view, and the pilot flies towards it. Figure 3.13 shows the glideslope pointer.
Localiser deviation indicator
Localiser pointer shows the aircrafts position in relation to the localiser beams. When the
pointer is in the centre of the scale the aircraft is positioned in the centre of the beams.

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ATTITUDE DIRECTORS OPERATION

The flight director indicator has the appearance of a conventional gyro horizon, but unlike this
instrument the pitch and roll indicating elements are electrically controlled from a remotely
located vertical gyro unit.
Electrical interconnection of the flight director indicator components primarily concerned with
pitch and roll attitude information is shown on the figure. Whenever a change of aircraft
attitude occurs, signals flow from pitch and roll synchros to the corresponding synchros within
the indicator. Error signals are therefore induced in the rotors and after amplification are fed
to the servomotors, which rotate to position the pitch bar and horizon disc (or Sphere, or
cylinder) to indicate the changing attitude of the aircraft. At the same time, the servomotors
drive the synchro rotors to the null position.
The right hand circuit shows the interconnection of the glide slope and localiser pointer with
the ILS. During an ILS approach the receiver on board the aircraft detects the signals
beamed from ground transmitters in vertical and horizontal planes. If the aircraft is above the
glide path, signals are fed to the meter controlling the glide slope pointer causing it to be
deflected downwards against the scale, thus directing the pilot to bring the aircraft down on to
the glide path. An upward deflection of the pointer indicates flight below the glide path and
therefore directs that the aircraft be brought up to the glide path. The pointer is also
referenced against the pitch bar to indicate any pitch correction required to capture and hold
the glide path. When this has been accomplished, the glide slope pointer and pitch bar are
matched at the horizontal centre position.
If, during the approach, the aircraft is to the left of the localiser beam and runway centre-line,
the localiser pointer is deflected to the right directing that the aircraft be banked to the right.
Flight to the right of the localizer beam causes pointer deflection to the left, directing that the
aircraft be banked to the left. When either of these directions has been satisfied, the pointer is
positioned vertically through the centre position of the horizon disc.

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Flight director indicator houses a number of servo/synchro devices. Aircraft pitch & roll
information from twin gyro platform positions horizon disc & pitch bar. Additional
servo/synchro devices to drive command bars driven by signals from flight director computer.
Typical remote indicator housing servo/synchro systems to repeat information
sensed/processed by a remote equipment rack mounted black box.

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Flight Director Computer

The flight director computer processes and outputs all signals to drive the attitude director
command bars. The artificial horizon portion of the flight director indicator is controlled by
outputs from the twin gyro platform, & these signals would typically be interfaced to the FDI
indicator from the Flight Director Computer (FDC), because the FDC also needs this
information to process command bar signals, eg the FDC needs to know current attitude in
order to produce command signals it needs to know the aircrafts current attitude as a form
of starting point to reference the command signals too. Additionally, when the pilot steers the
aircraft to the commanded attitude, the current attitude signals will oppose & cancel the initial
command signals, thus satisfying the original commands.
The flight data computer receives inputs from all sensors & navigation systems capable of
controlling the command bars on the FDI, as well as mode selection and any pilot set inputs,
eg altitude or heading selections. The flight director computer processes all signals producing
the resultant command bar signals to satisfy any reference chosen by the pilot to navigate the
aircraft by.

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DIRECTION INDICATOR
The directional gyroscope gives the pilot directional information without the errors inherent in
magnetic compasses, ie lagging, magnetic dip, acceleration errors, etc. It uses a gyro rotor
with a horizontal spin axis, mounted in two gimbals.
DGs are a much better reference to use when turning onto a heading because the heading
change is displayed dynamically, whereas the magnetic compass will only indicate the new
heading after it has realigned with the earths magnetic field which can take several seconds
which makes it difficult to turn onto desired headings with a magnetic compass alone.
The vacuum operated directional gyro (DG) is used to provide stabilised directional reference
to assist the pilot in maintaining a desired course and when you have to turn accurately on to
a new heading. The gyroscope when used for heading reference has several advantages
over a magnetic compass:
not subject to the turn or acceleration errors
always dead beat in its indication, which means that the indication moves to the new
position without over swing or under swing oscillations
The directional gyroscope does not take the place of a stand-by compass, but rather is of
assistance to it. In the higher latitudes its indications are more reliable than the compass,
because the compass is under the influence of a greater vertical component of the earths
magnetic field, which makes it try to tilt.
On older style directional gyros, because of earth rate and real drift this needs to be done at
regular intervals during flight to ensure that the correct alignment is maintained. When the
aircraft is straight and level and the compass is reading correctly the pilot simply re-aligns the
DG to the correct heading.

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The Directional Gyroscope

Air driven DG spins at approx 12 000 to 15 000 RPM. Align DG with standby compass to set
it up.
Gyro maintained erect with respect to the case by utilising an unequal air reaction.
Outer gimbal has full unrestricted 360 of movement. The compass card will provide the pilot
with an indication of aircraft heading.
Heading Indicators
The directional gyro illustrated shows a typical horizontal display. The vertical display DG,
uses a bevel gear to display the compass information and is more appropriately named a
Horizontal Indicator.
You can easily spot the difference between the horizontal display and the modern vertically
orientated display.
The DG output is modified for display on a vertically orientated compass card, instead of the
heading readout on the lubber line of the older style of DG. Heading indicators are more
commonly in use in because they provide more intuitive heading indications by use of the
vertical compass card. The aircraft nose points straight up representing straight ahead. As
the aircraft performs a turn the dial rotates. The readout is opposite to that of the DG readout.
The DG readout was effectively the opposite way a pilot would normally visualise a change in
heading. On the DG window readout the 330 is displayed to the right of North, whereas if
you wanted to turn onto 330 (which is more west of a northerly heading) you would have to
turn left, not right. The heading indicator removed this confusing from the display. Using
similar headings which are visible on this indicator youll notice 330 is to the left of North

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The type of display card, that is, either a horizontal or vertical display, will determine the
internal gearing arrangement needed to transmit the gyro heading reference to the card.
The vertical dial method uses a bevel gear mounted on the outer gimbal to drive the dial
which is indexed against an aircraft outline on the instrument glass and a lubber mark on the
inner side of the instrument bezel ring. The gyro wheel may be air driven or electrically
A caging button on the front of the instrument allows the two gimbals to be locked together
and turned so that the needle can be aligned with the compass heading.

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Remote Indicating Compass System

Where the attitude director had the gyro assembly removed, and the attitude sphere was
positioned by signals from a remotely mounted twin gyro platform, the HSI functions on a
similar principle. Where the basic DG incorporated a horizontal axis gyro, in the HSI a remote
gyro outputs signals to drive the compass card of the HSI. Where the DG required periodic
updating with reference to a magnetic compass to counter drift, in a gyro stabilised heading
system, the magnetic detecting element output maintains the gyro aligned to the magnetic
heading reference by applying signals to torque motors to precess the gyro back to its
appropriate reference if any drift is detected.
The magnetic heading signal maintains the gyro heading reference (corrects for gyro drift and
performs the same function as a pilot manually updating the DG). It does this by applying a
currents to the gimbal torque motors to counter any gyro drift away from the detected
magnetic heading, eg if the gyro were to drift and its electrical output no longer matched the
magnetic heading signal, an electrical signal is applied to the gimbal torque motor to return
the gyro to the correct heading
In their basic form remote-indicating compasses currently in use are systems in which a
magnetic detecting element monitors a gyroscopic indicating element. This virtual
combination of the functions of both magnetic compass and directional gyroscope was a
logical step in the development of instrumentation for heading indication.
Again, where the attitude indicator became the foundation for an integrated attitude director
incorporating command bars, the HSI, with the gyro stabilised magnetic compass card as its
primary indicator, also had command & deviation indicators incorporated.

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Horizontal Situation Indicators

The HSI is an example of a modern integrated instrument. It has a gyro stabilized compass
card like a DG that indicates the aircrafts magnetic heading. Unlike the DG however, this
compass card is slaved to a remote compass so It does not have to be reset every 15 to 20
minutes.
The HSI is called an integrated instrument because it combines several different types of
displays which would normally be found In separate instruments.
The HSI provides a plan picture of the aircrafts navigational situation. The aircraft is
pictorially represented by a small fixed symbol at the centre of the instrument. The lubber line
at the top of the instrument represents the nose of the aircraft and the azimuth card displays
aircraft heading. The course pointer indicates the selected bearing to the station or waypoint
and the course bar provides indication of the offset distance from the selected track.
The HSI may receive inputs from various sources including radio navigation systems, air data
systems and heading reference systems. Obviously, the pilot must have some means of
selecting the data to be displayed on the instruments. In the introduction to this section we
mentioned that avionics configurations vary enormously between aircraft. Modern, complex
airline or executive aircraft will probably have fully integrated Flight Guidance Systems
employing Flight Management Computers (FMC). Data from the Inertial Navigation Unit (INU)
can be displayed on a HSI and ADI (or their electronic equivalents).
The HSI is a remote indicating instrument and the source of the display can be selected from
a variety of systems for example:
Raw magnetic heading from a flux valve,
Directional Gyro heading from a stand alone twin gyro platform,
Gyro stabilised magnetic heading,
Inertial heading from an inertial navigation unit,
GPS heading.
In the display on the right point out how the pointers can be selected to display bearing to
ground navigational aids or waypoints. The lubber line indicates the pilots heading but he can
select a VOR station and the HSI pointer will point in the direction of the VOR station so the
pilot then only needs to fly onto the new heading.

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The display of magnetic heading, radio bearing and localiser information is referenced
against an aircraft reference symbol fixed at the centre of the indicator to provide a plan view
of the aircrafts position. The interconnection of the various elements comprising an indicator
is shown schematically on the figure.
The compass card is monitored by signals from the directional gyro unit of a remoteindicating compass system and indicates magnetic heading against a lubber line. The
localiser and glide slope indicating elements are actuated in a similar manner to those in a
flight director indicator, but as will be noted, the localiser or lateral deviation bar as it is
generally called, can also rotate with the compass card as changes in aircraft heading take
place. Indication of flight either to or from a VOR station is indicated by an arrow-type
element which is positioned by a meter. The course select and heading knobs permit the
selection of a desired localiser or VOR radial, and desired magnetic heading respectively.

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Electronic HSI
The modern EHSI is modelled after the older electromechanical version and displays much of
the same information. The EHSI is capable of displaying full-time and part-time information
depending on the current mode of information. The primary mode of an EHSI is to display
navigational information. The flight crew can select various modes using the controller
buttons and knobs on the display, or located on a remote control panel.
Many modern EHSIs offer a moving map display with superimposed weather Radar
information, in addition to the standard compass rose and associated pointers and indicators.
Information displayed on the EHSI includes:
Magnetic Heading and/or True Heading
Groundspeed
Selectable Navigation References (VOR, ADF, GPS, etc)
Distance to selected ground station
Steering Commands for VOR and INS
Course
DME Radio Data
Weather Radar Data

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turn and slip indicators

Turn indicators provide the pilot with an indication of the rate of turn of the aircraft.
Slip indicators provide the pilot with an indication of aircraft slip or skid to enable the pilot to
correctly coordinate aircraft turns
Rate Gyros
The difference between a displacement gyro, and that provided by a rate gyro: where a
displacement gyro utilises a gyros property of rigidity in space and measure displacement
around it, a rate gyro relies on a gyro being subjected to precessive forces against spring
pressure to determine rate of movement. The higher the rate of movement the greater the
inertial force applied to the gyro resulting in precession. The higher the rate of turn, the
greater the precessive force, the greater the movement against spring pressure.

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The rate gyros spin axis is horizontal and corresponds with the aircrafts lateral axis, that
means the plane of spin is through the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The rate gyro only has
one gimbal mounted within the frame or case of the instrument so it is only permitted one
degree of freedom which is in tilt. The pivot point for the gimbal is fore and aft of the gyro
rotor so it is pivoted in the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
The gyro senses movement about the yawing axis of the aircraft. It is effectively mounted like
a DG, but does not have the freedom of a DG. When the aircraft yaws the gyro wants to
remain in its current attitude and alignment, but cannot because there is no gimbal to permit
veer. Because the gyro cannot remain pointing in the same direction the turning motion of the
aircraft has the same effect as if someone applied a precessive force to the front and rear of
the gyro rotor, trying to change its heading. This force is felt 90 in direction of rotation, so
will precess the gyro so it will tilt over. If the gyro was not restrained by springs it would
continue to precess in the tilt axis while ever the yawing motion was felt.
Because the gyro is held in place by springs, while ever the yawing motion (or rate of turn)
remains constant the gyro precession force will remain constant against spring pressure
providing a constant indication of the rate of turn. If the rate of turn is increased the
precession force increases tilting the gyro further against spring pressure. When the turning
motion ends the precession force is removed so the gyro will return to the original attitude, ie
spinning in the vertical plane corresponding with the aircrafts longitudinal axis.
Rotor axis parallel to aircrafts lateral axis
yawing motion sensed & due to precession rotor tries to lie over against spring
pressure
Lie over angle proportional to rate of turn & is opposed/restricted by calibrated spring
tension
2 Minute and 4 Minute Turns
Gyro doesnt begin to lay over until after the turn has begun, ie when the heading begins to
change. This statement will be referred back to when covering Turn Coordinators

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The mechanism of a typical direct-current operated turn-and-bank indicator.
Direct current is fed to the brushes and commutator via a radio interference suppressor and
flexible springs which permit movement of the inner ring.
The rotor speed is controlled by two identical symmetrically opposed centrifugal cut-outs.
Each cut-out consists of a pair of platinum-tipped governor contacts, one fixed and one
movable, which are normally held closed by a governor adjusting spring. Each cut-out has a
resistor across its contacts, which are in series with half of the rotor winding. When the
maximum rotor speed is attained, centrifugal force acting on the contacts overcomes the
spring restraint causing the contacts to open. The armature current therefore passes through
the resistors, thus being reduced and reducing the rotor speed. Both cut-outs operate at the
same critical speed.
Angular movement of the gimbal ring is transmitted to the pointer through a gear train, and
damping is accomplished by an eddy-current drag system mounted at the rear of the gyro
assembly. The system consists of a drag cup, which is rotated by the gimbal ring, between a
field magnet and a field ring.
A power-failure warning flag is actuated by a stirrup arm pivoted on the gimbal ring. When the
rotor is stationary, the stirrup arm is drawn forward by the attraction between a magnet
mounted on it and an extension (flux diverter) of the permanent-magnet stator. In this
condition the flag, which is spring-loaded in the retracted position, is depressed by the stirrup
arm so that the OFF reading appears through an aperture in the dial. As rotor speed
increases, eddy currents are induced in the rotor rim by the stirrup magnet, and at a
predetermined speed, reaction between the magnet and induced current causes the stirrup
arm to lift and the OFF reading to disappear from view.

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Interpretation of Rate of turn indications

When the needle is deflected by only one needle width on a two minute turn indicator the
aircraft is executing a 2 minute turn, or 180 per minute or 3 per second which is a rate 1
turn.
On a four minute turn indicator the pointer must be aligned with a doghouse to execute a two
minute turn. On a 4 minute turn indicator if the needle is only displaced by one needle width
the aircraft is executing a 4 minute turn, or 90 per minute or 1.5 per second or a turning rate
of a rate.
Turn indicator
Rate 1: 180 per minute
Rate 4: 720 per minute.
A 2 minute turn is 180 per minute which is a rate 1 turn.

A 4 minute turn is 90 per minute which is a rate 0.5 turn.

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Turn an Slip Indicators

The turn and bank indicator or turn and slip indicator as it is most often called, is one of the
first instruments developed for instrument flying. The instrument actually combines a turn
indicator and a slip indicator in the one instrument. In early days of flying the turn-and-bank,
when used in conjunction with the aircraft compass made a valuable contribution to the art of
IFR flying. It was thus considered the primary blind flying instrument. With developments in
aircraft instrument technology the turn-and-bank has been replaced as the primary IFR
instrument by the AH, although in some light aircraft the turn-and-bank is still considered a
primary flight instrument. In larger aircraft the turn-and-bank has become a secondary
instrument or is done away with in its entirety.
The inclinometer or slip and skid indicator is a simple mechanical instrument that consists of
a ball in a liquid filled glass tube. This tube is curved and the ball reacts to gravity and
centrifugal force. It is used by the pilot to coordinate turns by use of aileron and rudder
control. If the pilot keeps the ball centred the aircraft is being flown in a coordinated manner,
that is he is not turning too quickly for the amount of bank, which will result in the aircraft
skidding out on the turn, and he does not have too much bank for his turning speed which
would caused the aircraft to slip inwards and loose altitude. The ball indicates these
conditions like so:
When the aircraft is turning to fast for the bank angle it will be skidding outwards on the turn
just like a speeding car, and the centrifugal or inertial forces will cause the ball to move to the
outside of the index marks corresponding to the direction the aircraft is skidding in. If the
angle of bank is too high, the ball will drop below the index marks due to the force of gravity,
again corresponding to the direction in which the aircraft is slipping or dropping.

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Steep turn to the left, slipping to the inside of the left turn.
Here the arm is towards the left hand side beyond the left marker, indicating a steep, left turn.
The center bubble is also to the left indicating that the plane is slipping to the left as well.
Since the direction of slip is the same as the direction of turn, we say the plane is slipping to
the inside of the turn.
Standard rate turn to right, slipping to the outside.

As the indicator arm is to the right hand side to the first marker, the plane is making a
standard rate turn to the right. Since the bubble is to the left of the white lines, this indicates
the plane is slipping to the left. Because the direction of slip is opposite to the direction of
turn, we say that the plane is slipping to the outside of the turn.
Standard rate coordinated turn to the left.

As the center bubble is in between the lines, the plane is not slipping. Since the indicator
arm is towards left hand side to the first marker, the plane is making a standard coordinated
turn to the left.

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TURN COORDINATOR
A Turn and Slip indicator will not respond to an aircraft bank, it will only indicate a turn if a
yawing motion is sensed. To make the turn and slip more responsive, that is to get it to
indicate when the bank is entered rather than waiting for the yawing motion to register on the
gyro. The effect of indicating sooner also coordinates the turn indicator more closely with the
AH so the pilots instruments complement each other during turns.
A turn coordinator:
Indicates rate of turn, but responds to turn more quickly than rate of turn indicator
Rear view of a small aircraft as an indicator
When wings aligned with horizontal index marks aircraft wings are level
When wings are aligned to the turn indicator marks it indicates a 2 minute turn (2
minutes to turn 360 )
Indicates a turn as soon as the aircraft is banked
More closely responds to the artificial horizons indication of a bank/roll
Operation
To achieve the aims listed, the gyro gimbal is canted nose down about 30. This has the
effect of creating a precessive force when the aircraft displaces in roll, causing the indicator
pointer to offset as soon as the aircraft is banked. As heading then changes with the yawing
motion the turn coordinator then operates on the same principle as the turn indicator.
Turn coordinator gimbal canted nose down about 30 and senses roll and yaw
Quicker response to a turning motion
More closely respond to the artificial horizons indication of a bank/roll
A turn coordinator is an interesting development of the turn and bank indicators just
described, and is adopted in lieu of such instruments in a number of small types of general
aviation aircraft. The primary difference, other than the display presentation, is in the setting
of the precession axis of the rate gyroscope. The gyroscope is spring-restrained and is
mounted so that the axis is at about 30 with respect to the aircrafts longitudinal axis, thus
making the gyroscope sensitive to banking of the aircraft as well as to turning.

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Since a turn is normally initiated by banking an aircraft, then the gyroscope will precess, and
thereby move the aircraft symbol to indicate the direction of the bank and enable the pilot to
anticipate the resulting turn. The pilot then controls the turn to the required rate as indicated
by the alignment of the aircraft symbol with the graduations on the outer scale. Co-ordination
of the turn is indicated by the ball-type indicating element remaining centred in the normal
way.
The gyroscope is a DC motor operating at approximately 6,000 rev./min. In some types of
turn coordinator the gyroscope may be an AC brushless motor operating at constant
frequency, and supplied from a solid-state inverter housed within the instrument case.
The annotation no pitch information on the indicator scale is given to avoid confusion in pitch
control which might result from the similarity of the presentation to a gyro horizon
Turn Coordinator Display
Compare the turn coordinator display with the AH display. Using the turn coordinator with the
30 canted gimbal it will indicate a turn in unison with the AH whereas the turn indicator
would not begin to indicate a turn until aircraft heading begins to change, ie aircraft starts
yawing.
The two instruments look to have opposite displays but in fact are indicating the same thing.
Notice written on the bottom of the turn coordinator the words NO PITCH INFORMATION
DISPLAYED, this is to remind pilots that this instrument is supplying turn information only.

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Gyro handling
Gyroscopes are extremely delicate items and the smallest amount of mishandling can cause
damage which will make them either inaccurate or unserviceable.
A good motto for the safe handling gyros is:
handle them like rotten eggs (break one and therell be a big stink)
Gyros must always be handled in a delicate manner. The gyro should never be removed from
the aircraft until at least 30 minutes have passed from the time the vacuum source was
disconnected, or rotor has ceased spinning, as the inertia contained within the rotor, and the
relative absence of friction within the bearings, may allow the rotor to spin for up to this length
of time.
This time varies with different manufacturers. Some aircraft gyros have dynamic braking, and
can run down in a very short space of time, eg within 1 minute, therefore you should make
yourself familiar with the time requirements of each particular type of gyroscope you are
working with.
A gyro should never be removed while it is spinning or running down. The instrument
normally operates at high RPM and may take 10 minutes or longer to run down. If it is
removed while running and tilted more than 20 degrees, the gyro can develop a gimbal lock.
The gimbal will tumble and start to spin. If gimbal lock occurs while the rotor is turning, the
gimbal may spin fast enough to damage the gimbal bearings, requiring overhaul.
Dirt and dust are a major problem with air driven instruments and therefore instrument filters
and system filters must be checked, cleaned or changed at regular intervals. When cigarette
smoking was allowed on aircraft, the residue from the smoke was a major problem for
gyroscopic air driven instruments. Engine driven vacuum pumps must be checked for correct
operation.
When caging a gyro, for example, setting a DG to align with a magnetic reference, or setting
an artificial horizon as part of a pre-flight check, the gyro is caged, or the gimbals are made to
align at 90 to each other. This manual re-alignment must be carried out carefully and with a
single steady action.
If bench testing of a gyro is required, never move an operating instrument in a violent or jerky
fashion.
A high gyroscope failure rate can be directly related to rough or improper handling. Gyros are
delicate and cannot withstand the shock of being dropped, jarred, or struck by pieces of
equipment. Do not place gyros on any hard surface. If you have to pack a gyroscope to ship it
to a repairer, always make sure there is at least 100 mm of foam rubber between the
gyroscope and the shipping containers outer shell.
To prevent damage to a gyro, the instrument should be transported to and from the aircraft in
its original shipping container. If this is impractical, the gyro should be hand-carried carefully
in an upright position.
A malfunctioning gyro should be handled with the same care given a new instrument. Most
malfunctioning instruments can be repaired and returned to service. Using proper handling
procedures during removal prevents additional damage and helps ensure possible reuse. All
gyroscopes, whether serviceable or not, are to be handled as though they are serviceable.

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TOPIC 11.5.1.3: INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS- COMPASSES (ATA 31)

Introduction
The direct reading compass was the first of many airborne flight and navigational instruments
to be fitted to aircraft. The prime function of the compass was (and still is) to display the
direction in which the aircraft is heading in respect to the earths magnetic meridians. In many
of the modern aircraft, the other navigational aids serve as a sub-division of this function,
employing radio waves or inertial gyro techniques to provide directional reference. Most light
aircraft use the magnetic compass as the primary heading reference. In aircraft that employ a
remote indicating compass system and radio navigational aids, it plays the role of a standby
compass, used as a backup heading reference if the primary navigation systems fail.
The operating principle of these compasses, and indeed of the other more complex remote
indicating compass systems is based on the established fundamentals of magnetism and on
the reaction between the earths magnetic field on a suspended permanent magnet. Firstly we
must cover the fundamentals and describe some terms.
Magnetic Poles
The principle on which the magnetic compass operates is very basic. The earth itself is a very
large magnet having lines of force surrounding it. These lines emerge from the poles and the
lines form what are known as magnetic lines or meridians.
A suitably suspended permanent magnet, such as a compass card will align itself to these
meridians to indicate the direction of the field. The north end of this magnet points towards
the northern magnetic region of the earth. This point which actually has a southern magnetic
polarity (because the north end of a magnet is attracted to it in our compass) being known as
the earths North Pole. Likewise a similar but opposite situation occurs in the southern
magnetic region.
The earths magnetic poles are not located on but are close to the spin axis which is referred
to as the geographic poles. It should also be noted that the magnetic poles are continually
changing position with time, therefore their positional difference to the geographic poles is
never constant. This slight variation in the earths field occurs over approximately 960 years
B1-11.5.1.3: Instrument Systems- Compasses (ATA 31)

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moving in a circular motion east to west as a cycle. Every few years this will effect charts and
they must be updated and re-distributed.

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Direct Reading Compass

Direct-reading magnetic compasses were the first of the many airborne flight and
navigational aids ever to be introduced in aircraft, their primary function being to show the
direction in which an air craft is heading with respect to the earths magnetic meridian.
As far as present-day aircraft and navigational aids are concerned, however, such a
directional reference is more accurately provided by remote-reading compass systems, and
flight director systems and so direct-reading compasses are relegated to a standby role.
The operating principle of these compasses, and indeed of the systems just referred to, is
based on established fundamentals of magnetism, and on the reaction between the magnetic
field of a suitably suspended magnetic element, and the field surrounding the earth.
Compasses have the following common principal features: a magnet system housed in a
bowl; liquid damping; and liquid expansion compensation. The majority of compasses in use
today are of the card type.
Compass Construction
Direct reading compasses have the following common features:
A magnet system housed in a bowl
Pivot point
Magnet deviation compensator
Liquid damping
Liquid expansion compensation
Lighting

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These are the most common type of aircraft compass in regular use on todays aircraft. On
the modern jet they serve as the standby compass whilst on the light aircraft they act as the
primary heading reference. There are two main versions of this type of compass:
vertical mounted panel compass which is of American design
suspended mounting type which is of British design.
Both of these compasses have similar construction details, but differ in size and shape.
The compass consists of a non-magnetic metal or plastic case which houses the magnet
system. This is a lightweight alloy or plastic azimuth card or dial that is mounted upon the
float assembly and cobalt magnet. The British type uses an annular magnet whilst the
American type uses small parallel bar magnets. The card is graduated in 5 or 10 degree
increments, identified every 30 degrees and having the four main cardinal points identified by
the letters N,S,E,W, for north, south, east and west.
The card is viewed against a lubber line through the front face of the compass which is either
glass or plastic. In some models, it is moulded to produce a magnifying effect. The card and
magnet assembly is supported by means of an iridium tipped pivot and sapphire cup or
bearing. The bearing frame is sometimes of special design to prevent the pivot jumping out of
the bearing, or it is mounted in such a way that the case gives insufficient clearance for this to
happen. This is necessary should the compass become inverted.

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An expansion chamber is built into the rear of the case to provide for expansion and
contraction of the liquid caused by altitude or temperature changes. The liquid as explained
in the earlier notes gives the card system buoyancy and provides bearing lubrication and
damping to the card movement. Lighting is provided by either a panel mounted light or by a
small low voltage internal light. The cabling to this light is usually a twisted pair to reduce the
magnetic interference.
The compass magnet system and its supporting wires must be free to tilt within the compass
bowl so as to allow the system to rotate following the magnetic meridian as the aircraft rolls
and pitches in flight. This tilting freedom is usually about 15. The compass which we will
discuss in this lesson will be the card type or panel mount which is the most commonly used
type to be found in todays aircraft.
The majority of compasses today are of the card type.
Magnet systems
Magnet system consists solely of a single annular cobalt-steel magnet, to which is attached a
compass card. The suspension consists of an iridium-tipped pivot secured to the centre of the
magnet system and resting in a sapphire cup supported in a holder or stem. The use of
iridium and sapphire in combination provides hard-wearing properties and reduces pivot
friction to a minimum. The card is referenced against a lubber line fixed to the interior of the
bowl and lying on or parallel to the longitudinal axis when the compass is installed in an
aircraft.
Magnetic dip
The earths lines of force behave in a manner similar to those of any magnet, in that they
leave by the north magnetic pole and enter at the south magnetic pole. Since these lines of
force form great arcs around the surface of the earth they will only be horizontal to the
surface at the place known as the magnetic equator. The lines become more vertical as they
approach the magnetic poles.
The earths lines of force behave in a manner similar to those of any magnet, in that they
leave by the north magnetic pole and enter at the south magnetic pole. Since these lines of
force form great arcs around the surface of the earth they will only be horizontal to the
surface at the place known as the magnetic equator. The lines become more vertical as they
approach the magnetic poles.

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The magnet system is mounted pendulously, that is the pivot point is above the centre of
gravity. Mounting the magnet below the point of suspension counters the dip, and allows
gravity acting on the magnet assembly to pull it into a smaller angle. This method reduces the
apparent dip angle in aircraft compasses so that it is limited to approximately 3 degrees
between the latitudes 60 north and south.
Mounting the compass pendulously minimises the magnetic dip. It is also normal practice for
aircraft compasses to be counterbalanced for the region in which the compass is operated.
Direct reading compasses from higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere would be virtually
unreadable in Southern Australian states because the counterbalance weight would in fact be
amplifying the dip angle. Always check that a new compass from overseas is marked as
having been calibrated for southern field before use on Australian aircraft.
Compass Fluid
Direct reading compasses
The magnet system of any compass must be designed so as to be as dead beat in its
operation as possible, which means that it must be able to return to the equilibrium position in
the minimum of time without oscillating.
Aperiodic compass
This is a term often used in respect to aircraft compasses. It does not refer to a type of
compass but rather to the precision of operation. It means a compass that will return to its
original position after disturbance with the minimum of over swing. The magnet system of any
compass must be designed so as to be as dead beat in its operation as possible, which
means that it must be able to return to the equilibrium position in the minimum of time without
oscillating. This is achieved by using damping devices such as filaments or wires, (often
referred to as the spider) and liquid. Movement of the magnet system and its spider does not
cause swirling in the liquid as a whole but rather, it sets up small eddies which are quickly
dissipated.

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Liquid damping
The primary reason for filling compasses with a liquid is to make them aperiodic as explained
above. The other reasons are that the liquid will steady the magnet system and give it
buoyancy, thus reducing the weight on the pivot and lowering the effects of friction and wear.
The liquids are normally mineral or alcohol, however some special silicone liquids are now
being used. In all cases the liquid must have:
low freezing point
low viscosity
high resistance to corrosion
freedom from discolouration.
Liquid expansion compensation

Compass liquids are subject to expansion and contraction with changes in temperature, and
the resulting changes in their volume can have undesirable effects. For example, with
reduction of temperature the liquid would contract and so leave an air space in the bowl thus
reducing the damping effect. Conversely, expansion would take place under high
temperature conditions tending to force the liquid out and resulting in leaks around bowl
seals. It is therefore necessary to incorporate a device within the bowl to take up the
volumetric changes and thus compensate for their effects.

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The compensator takes the form of a flexible element such as a bellows or a corrugated
diaphragm which forms the rear part of the bowl. When the bowl is filled the flexible element
is compressed by a specified amount by means of a special tool, the effect of this
compression being to increase the volume of the bowl. If now, the compensated bowl is
subjected to a low temperature the liquid will contract, but at the same time the flexible
element will respond to the decrease in volume by expanding and filling up with liquid any air
space that may form. With an increase of temperature, the liquid volume is further increased
by expansion and so the flexible element will be further compressed to take up the increase
in volume.
Compass illumination
In order to be useable for night flying or flying in low light situations, the direct reading
compass will be illuminated by a small bulb. Because the passage of an electric current
causes a magnetic field which will affect the accuracy of the compass, very low power
lighting is used. Power to supply this is usually fed through either screened cable or what is
called a twisted pair. (A two wire system, twisted to minimise magnetic field effect.)
Magnetic compass compensation

In order to determine by what amount compass readings are affected by hard and soft-iron
magnetism, a special calibration procedure known as swinging is carried out so that
adjustment can be made and the deviation compensated.
These devices fall into two distinct groups,
mechanical and
electro magnetic,
The former being employed with simple direct-reading compasses and detector elements of
certain remote-indicating compasses, and the latter being designed solely for use with
detector elements of remote-indicating compasses.
In both cases, the function is the same, i.e. to neutralize the effects of the components of an
aircrafts hard- and soft-iron magnetism by setting up opposing magnetic fields.

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Mechanical Compensation Devices

One of the earliest mechanical devices is the micro-adjuster. It consists of two pairs of
magnets (a feature common to all types of mechanical compensator), each pair being fitted in
bevel gears made of a non-magnetic material. The gears are mounted one above the other
so that, in the neutral condition, one pair of magnets lies longitudinally for the correction of
coefficient C, and the other pair lies laterally for the correction of coefficient B.
Production of magnetic fields required for correction is obtained by rotating small bevel
pinions which mesh with the gears, causing them to rotate in opposite directions. As can be
seen, the magnets are thus made to open up in the manner of a pair of scissors, the fields
being produced between the poles and in a direction dependent on that in which the
operating head is rotated.
In-flight errors
Earlier in this section we saw how the magnetic dip causes the compass card to tilt towards
the magnetic pole. This causes the centre of gravity (C of G) to move away from the point of
card suspension. This displaced C of G will cause errors during flight. These are known as:
turning errors
speed and acceleration errors.

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Turning error
When an aircraft, operating in the southern hemisphere, is turning from either a northerly or
southerly heading, turning or centrifugal forces act on the C of G of the compass card, to
produce a turning error. When an aircraft turns from a northerly heading towards the east, the
C of G of the compass card is placed north of the point of suspension. (Dip angle of the
magnetic field causes the compass magnets to tilt towards the south) and the turning forces
cause the magnet system to rotate more rapidly in the opposite direction to the turn being
made. Because you view the compass card from the rear side, it shows a turn in the correct
sense, but at a greater rate than is actually carried out.
The card tends to run ahead of the aircraft, reaching the required heading first. The pilot has
to anticipate this turn rate and recover to straight and level flight a few degrees after
(overshoot) the required heading. When the aircraft turns west from a southerly heading, the
C of G of the compass card is now behind the compass card suspension point, applying a
force on the card in the direction of the turn, slowing the card movement down and making
the aircraft appear to be turning at a slower rate than it actually is. This gives the card a
tendency to undershoot, requiring the pilot to undershoot the required heading by a few
degrees. In high bank angles, the compass card movement can even make the pilot think
that he is turning in the other direction.

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Speed error (acceleration-deceleration)

In the southern hemisphere, when the aircraft flies on the east/west headings, any speed
change will allow the inertia of the card to cause it to swing in a direction governed by the
speed change.
If an aircraft on an easterly heading increases its speed, the acceleration forces causes the
magnet system to be displaced and rotate in a counter-clockwise direction, indicating an
apparent turn towards the south.
When the aircraft decelerates, the reverse action takes place and the effect is for the magnet
system to rotate in a clockwise direction, giving an apparent turn to the north.
As with the northerly errors, the dip angle displaces the C of G away from the centre of
suspension allowing the acceleration forces to rotate the compass card.

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Remote Compasses
An instrument panel usually has a concentration of magnetic fields around it due to the
location of electrical wiring looms in the vicinity of the cockpit. So the instrument panel is not
the ideal place to install a direct reading compass. To eliminate the problem of the interfering
magnetic fields it is much better to mount the magnetic compass sensing element in a wing
tip or at the top of the vertical fin, as far as possible from the influence of soft and hard iron
magnetism, and electrical interference as possible.
This is the basis of a remote indicating compass system. The magnetic sensing element is
located well away from the cockpit, so an electrical interface is then necessary to transmit the
heading signal to a Horizontal position indicator mounted on the instrument panel. A pure
remote indicating compass system consists solely of a magnetic field detector and a heading
indicator. This simple system still suffers many inherent problems, and because electronics
and gyro systems have developed significantly since remote indicating compass systems
were first conceived it is now standard for remote indicating compass systems to incorporate
a gyro to provide gyro stabilised magnetic heading to the horizontal situation indicator.
In its early form in world war 2 the distant reading compass or magnesyn compass suffered
the errors associated with both direct reading compasses and DGs, there were also some
practical difficulties associated with the synchronisation methods adopted. To overcome
these problems new methods and techniques were adopted. The most notable was the
changeover from the permanent magnet type of detector element to one which utilises
electromagnetic induction to to detect magnetic meridians. Additionally improved electronics
and gyro precession control methods have contributed to the make-up of the remote
indicating compass systems in widespread use today.

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Slaved Gyro
Remember a gyro can be precessed to align to any attitude. The magnetic heading output is
used to control the torque motor to keep the gyro aligned to a heading reference. This
effectively slaves the gyro to the magnetic heading and is commonly called a slaved gyro
compass.
Provide as much description as necessary to ensure students comprehend how the electrical
magnetic heading output from the flux valve (and amplified) is used to stop the gyro from
drifting.
Gyro will maintain its attitude in space and the aircraft will rotate around it in exactly the
same manner as was explained during the phase on DGs, the magnetic heading signal will
only have an effect if the gyro drifts off the magnetic heading. For a perfectly weighted gyro
with no drift, the torque motor will never need to precess the gyro to the correct heading
because it will never drift out of alignment. Refer this system to the pilot updating his DG, but
this is done automatically.
Initially pilots had to rely on just the direct reading compass as their primary heading
information source. The direct reading compass suffered disadvantages due to magnetic dip,
turning and acceleration errors and was not a reliable reference when turning onto new
headings because the magnetic compass was unable to synchronise with the aircraft
heading change so overshooting a new was a common problem because the direct reading
compass could not display the new heading until after the pilot had returned to straight and
level flight and allowed sufficient time for the direct reading compass to catch up to the new
heading.
The advent of the DG eliminated many of these errors, but the pilot had to update the DG by
caging it and aligning the magnetic heading every 10 minutes or so to counter gyro drift.
The remote indicating compass system united these two heading references and provided a
standalone, reliable and accurate heading reference that did not require continual pilot
interaction to keep up to date.

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Remote Compass Indicators

Horizontal Situation Indicators and derivatives of this concept have already been covered. If
any revision is required refer back to the relevant topic.
HSIs, are simply remote indicating instruments with a dial and pointers electrically driven by
remote sensing elements.
HSI compass card is rotated by a servo motor within the HSI case. The servo motor is
controlled by the output of a remotely located directional gyro (which is slaved to magnetic
heading).
Flux Valves
The flux valve magnetic detector unit is used in conjunction with a directional gyroscope to
provide magnetic stability to compensate for the apparent precession, due to the earths
rotation.
Electromagnetic induction, use the earths lines of magnetic flux to modify the output of a
transformer.

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Unlike the detector element of a simple magnetic compass the element used in all remote
indicating compasses is of the fixed type (meaning it doesnt try to align itself with a magnetic
meridian) which detects the earths magnetic field as an electromagnetically induced voltage.
In other words the flux valve acts as an alternating current type synchro transmitter and
therefore is just another special application of the transformer principle.
The flux valve takes the form of a three spoked metal wheel consisting of 3 sensing arms, set
120 apart around a centre point or hub.
The flux valve takes the form of a three spoked metal wheel consisting of 3 sensing arms, set
120 apart around a centre point or hub. The sensing arms act as 3 individual flux collectors.
Around the hub of the wheel is a coil corresponding to the primary winding of a transformer
while the three coils on the spokes are effectively secondary windings. The amount of voltage
induced into the spoke or secondary windings is equal when the flux valve is not subjected to
any external magnetic interference.
The sensing arms or spokes are manufactured from permalloy which is specially chosen
because of its characteristic property of becoming easily magnetised but losing all its
magnetism once the external force is removed. So it is a soft iron magnet, remind students of
soft and hard iron magnetism.
The voltage induced into the secondary coils is therefore made up of the voltage induced
from the primary coils lines of flux, and the voltage induced by the earths lines of flux.
Depending on the angle at which the flux valve is with respect to the earths magnetic field,
the voltages in the secondary coils will vary, on one heading the earths magnetic field will
assist the primary coils induction into one or two secondary coils, while it will oppose the
induction into the 3rd coil, on any other heading the combined outputs from the secondary
coils will always be dependant upon the flux valves alignment with respect to the earths
magnetic field. This change in voltage output from the secondary coils is very small, but has
the effect of producing an output indicative of the aircrafts heading which then works on the
same principle as an AC synchro output. The output of the flux valve is an electrical indication
of magnetic heading, and once amplified can be distributed to all aircraft systems dependant
upon magnetic heading information, eg Autopilot, Navigation, Flight Director and Flight Data
Recorder systems.

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The whole array is suspended from a central point of the case by a universal joint known as a
Hookes joint. This allows the arms to move in the pitch and roll axes up to about 25. So as
the aircraft flies around the flux valve will remain parallel to the earths lines of magnetic flux in
all but the most aerobatic of manoeuvres (of course near the magnetic poles this will not be
absolutely true, but navigating in this region is always difficult when relying on a magnetic
heading reference).
The whole sensing element is enclosed in a sealed bowl and immersed in a damping oil to
minimise pendulous jarring caused by rapid attitude changes
Flux Valve Location

As previously stated flux valves are typically positioned well away from any magnetic
influences. This is usually in the wing-tips or at the top of the tail fin. Aircraft designers will
select the most appropriate place for flux valve positioning. There are two flux valves fitted to
provide for redundancy and both are selectable, although one usually supplies the heading
reference for the pilots HSI and the other flux valve for the co-pilots HSI. Smaller aircraft will
only have one flux valve fitted.
In more recent times the flux valve heading reference has been superseded by Inertial
Navigation Systems, Satellite Nav, GPS and many more radio navigation systems and
networks. All aircraft still have flux valves and remote indicating compass systems fitted

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though as secondary navigation systems for redundancy in the event of a failure of the
primary navigation systems.

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Remote Indicating Compass System

The magnetic heading signal maintains the gyro heading reference (corrects for gyro drift and
performs the same function as a pilot manually updating the DG). It does this by applying a
currents to the gimbal torque motors to counter any gyro drift away from the detected
magnetic heading, eg if the gyro were to drift and its electrical output no longer matched the
magnetic heading signal, an electrical signal is applied to the gimbal torque motor to return
the gyro to the correct heading.
The system illustrated more closely mirrors an actual remote indicating compass system.
Begin by introducing the components already covered, flux valve, DG and HSI.
The flux valve magnetic compensation assembly doesnt perform the compensation task by
positioning magnets, it is done electronically..
The slaving system is to detect any mismatch with the gyro heading output to generate a
signal to precess the gyro back to the correct heading.
The gyro erection system is the same as was covered during gyro theory and is incorporated
to tie the gyro to earth, it is referenced to gravity and utilises the mercury switches and torque
motors.
The HSI compass card servo system is just a straight forward servo loop. A signal sent out by
the gyro to rotate the compass card coincident with heading changes is applied to a servo
motor and drives the card. A feedback signal is sent back to the gyro to null the original error
signal.

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Compass Controller
On more complex systems a separate compass control panel may be incorporated. This has
the advantage of decluttering the instrument bezel/display.
Selections available are same as those previously covered.
Synchronising indicator
Mode selector DG, Slaved or Synchronise (used in conjunction with a

synchronisation adjustment knob)
Warning Light when not synchronised
Course/heading set knob controls heading bug on indicator
Latitude setting knob as described in overcoming problems associated with navigation

in polar regions

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Electromagnetic Compensation Devices

The design & construction of electromagnetic compensation devices varies depending on the
type of remote indicating compass, but in general they comprise two variable potentiometers
which are electrically connected to the coils of the flux detector. The potentiometers
correspond to the co-efficient B & C magnets of the mechanical compensator & when they
are rotated with respect to calibrated dials, they inject very small DC signals into the flux
detector coils. The fields produced by the signals are sufficient to oppose those causing
deviations, & they accordingly modify the detector output, which via the synchronous
transmission link, will drive the compass indicator to the corrected readings.
Magnetic variation (Mag Var)

Magnetic variation (Mag Var) is mapped throughout the world
Mag Var maps are updated every few years to take into consideration and movement of the
earths magnetic poles
To calculate the direction to true North using magnetic North read your compass and add the
magnetic Variation correction if it is an easterly variation or subtract it if it is a westerly
variation.
Compass reads a heading of 79, mag var for your region is 11 East, so add 11 to 79 and
the aircraft is heading 90 or east with respect to True North.
If mag var was 7 west for the same headings referred to above, the true heading would be
72.

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Compass Deviation
The permanent magnet in a compass does not differentiate between the earths magnetic
field and magnetic fields either induced or resident in the aircraft structure. Ferrous metal
parts and wires carrying electrical current have a tendancy to attract the compass magnet
and induce deviation. To minimise the error a compass calibration (or swing) is performed.
Large errors are minimised by the use of compensating magnets incorporated into the
compass.
Errors which cannot be eliminated are recorded on a compass correction card. The compass
correction card provides the pilot with information so he can apply corrections to aircraft
heading to ensure he is flying the actual magnetic heading he wishes. Eg on the correction
card above, if the pilot wants to fly directly magnetic South he would need to maintain a
heading of 183. The Mag Var correction to then calculate true heading is applied to the 180,
not to the 183, which is an erroneous reading attributable to inaccuracy of that particular
compass.
Aircraft Magnetism And Its Effect On Compasses
A fact which has always been a challenge to designers of aircraft compasses is that all
aircraft are themselves in possession of magnetism in varying amounts. Such magnetism is
of course a potential source of error in the indications of compasses installed in any type of
aircraft and is unavoidable. However, it can be analysed and, for any aircraft can be divided
into two main types and also resolved into components acting in different directions, so that
steps can be taken to minimise errors, or deviations as they are properly called, resulting
from such components.
The two types of aircraft magnetism can be divided in the same way that magnetic materials
are classified according to their ability to be magnetised, namely hard iron and soft iron.
Hard and Soft are terms used to qualify varieties of magnetic materials according to the
ease with which they can be magnetised. Metals such as cobalt and tungsten steels are of
the hard type since they retain the property for a considerable length of time, hence the term
permanent magnetism. Metals which are easy to magnetise (silicon iron for example) and
generally lose their magnetic state once the magnetising force is removed are classified as
soft.

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Hard Iron
Hard iron magnetism can be described as the resident permanent magnetic fields present
within the aircraft. Iron and steel parts of the aircraft structure become magnetised due to the
earths magnetic field building itself into the ferrous parts during construction or when the
aircraft is left on one heading for lengthy periods. The strength of these components will not
vary with heading or change of latitude but may vary with time due to a weakening of he
magnetism in the aircraft.
Hard iron magnetism can be described as the resident permanent magnetic fields present
within the aircraft and affecting components P, Q and R as shown in illustration. The strength
of these components will not vary with heading or change of latitude but may vary with time
due to a weakening of he magnetism in the aircraft. Earths magnetic field builds itself into
aircrafts ferrous parts whilst lying for long periods on one heading.
Hard iron magnetism can cause deviations of the compass reading as a one (1) cycle error..
For hard iron magnetism (permanent magnets) When an aircraft is heading North, the
equivalent hard iron magnet will be in alignment with the aircrafts longitudinal axis and the
earths magnetic field, so will not induce any heading error. The same will occur on southerly
headings, although the hard iron magnetism will oppose the earths magnetic field, it will only
weaken it, but it will not induce errors. The error induced will be at the maximum and
minimum on easterly and westerly headings, and the errors induced will be of opposite
polarity
Magnetic Component R is an imaginary magnet lying vertically through the aircraft. Its effects
are small and usually disregarded when compensating the compass. It would have an effect
on vehicles travelling vertically, eg rockets & spaceshuttle, but is not normally compensated
for in a conventional aircraft. However, whenever during flight the aircraft leaves the level
flight condition, its effects combine with the other components to produce temporary errors.

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Soft Iron
Metals which are easy to magnetise (silicon iron for example) and generally lose their
magnetic state once the magnetising force is removed are classified as soft.
Soft iron magnetism is of a temporary nature and is caused by metallic parts of the aircraft
which are magnetically soft becoming magnetised due to induction by the earths magnetic
field. The effect of this type of magnetism is dependant on aircraft heading and attitude in its
geographical position. Must be compensated for during the compass swing process.
The soft iron magnetism errors are induced by the earths magnetic field inducing a magnetic
field into aircraft components. An aircraft is effectively a cross of wings and the fuselage. So
when the aircraft is heading North or South the earths magnetic field runs directly down
through the fuselage and doesnt induce any errors because it is aligned with the earths
magnetic field. The same occurs on East and West headings, but in this case the earths
magnetic field runs directly down through the wings, again not inducing any error in the
compass reading.
The greatest soft iron magnetism errors are induced on NE, SE, SW and NW headings when
the earths magnetic field is distorted with lines of flux bending to run through the fuselage and
wings, inducing errors into the compass. This error is represented by the two cycle error sine
wave with 0 error on each of the cardinal headings and maximum error on the intercardinal
headings
These resident magnetic fields are compensated (neutralised) for by the use of
compensation magnets in direct reading compasses (& some old flux valves) or
Electromagnetically in remote reading compasses.

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Introduction to compass compensation and adjustment

In order to determine by what amount compass readings are effected by hard and soft iron
magnetism, a special calibration procedure known as swinging is carried out so errors can be
identified, adjustment can be made and deviation compensated.
Magnetic compass compensation
We can determine the accuracy of a magnetic compass which is fitted to an aircraft by
comparing the indication shown by the compass to the actual heading of the aircraft as found
by a master compass located outside the aircraft, for a range of headings. A list of these
headings and the deviations between them is used during a compass swing to calculate what
is called coefficient A, B and C. The coefficient A is called the installation error and we correct
for it by moving the compass about in its mounting base. Coefficients B and C are related to
errors caused by magnetic influences within the aircraft causing errors in compass headings.
To correct for these errors, we must slightly distort the earths magnetic field around the
compass with an external magnetic field known as a compensator field.

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Methods Of Compass Swinging

There are three possible methods of carrying out a compass swing, using as a reference:
a datum or hand-held master compass
an electronic compass calibrator
the comparison method.
Datum compass
The datum compass or land compass as it is sometimes called, is a tripod mounted master
compass. There is a hand-held master reference compass which could also be used. Both
types are used to sight the reference points on the aircraft, so that we can compare the
reading on the aircraft compass to the master compass.
Electronic compass calibrator
Complex aircraft operated by large organisations may have access to an electronic compass
calibrator system. The use of this system is beyond the scope of course and so will not be
covered, suffice to say that it is basically an electrically controlled device which will alter the
alignment of a magnetic field around a flux valve so it can be checked on all headings without
the need to physically reposition the aircraft.
Comparison method
In the comparison method, the compass being swung is usually a backup compass to a
higher level system. For example a standby compass is a backup to a remote reading
compass system, or a remote reading compass is a backup to an inertial navigation system.
In this case, the compass is swung and compared to the higher level system.

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Compass Calibration
This procedure is performed whenever the compass systems has reason to be suspected of
inaccuracies. If a full compass swing is necessary, this check should not be performed as it
will simply add additional time to the whole process. This procedure is performed to
determine if a compass needs to be calibrated or not. Compass calibration will be explained
shortly, but first an explanation of how to test the accuracy of a compass system.
Tow the aircraft to the compass swing area and position it on headings at 30
intervals and record the headings and deviations on a chart.
Note The aircraft must be positioned within 5 of each reference heading.
Determine the deviation at each heading and perform adjustments as necessary to

compensate for any errors.
Perform a confidence check following adjustment by checking aircraft compass

headings at 30 intervals.

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Compass Tolerances
Determine the deviation at each heading. At each cardinal heading check whether a change
in deviation occurs when engine(s) electrical or radio equipment is operated. Repeat these
checks at each 30 if a change in deviation does occur. Compare the results of the calibration
with the previous calibration.
Compasses shall be compensated when the result of the compass calibration discloses
(Refer to applicable maintenance manual & airworthiness regulations to determine applicable
tolerances)
a deviation which differs by 3 or more from that anticipated by virtue of a previous

calibration: or
a deviation in excess of the limits specified below on any heading.
The deviation at any heading shall not exceed:
2 degrees for a remote indicating compass (stabilised);
5 for a remote indicating compass (non-stabilised);
5 for a direct reading compass used as the primary compass
10 for a standby compass.
Any practical combination of aircraft systems, that are positioned, operated or loaded within
their operating limits shall not vary the compass deviations in excess of:
2 for a remote indicating compass (stabilised);
4 for a remote indicating compass (non-stabilised);
5 for a direct reading compass used as the primary compass; and
8 for a standby compass except that in specific circumstances,
Magnetic interference to a standby compass may exceed 8 provided that details of these
circumstances are stated in the operations or flight manuals and placarded adjacent to the
compass. Magnetic interference that occurs only occasionally and for short periods may be
ignored.
Coefficient A
We can now calculate the coefficient A error by taking the cardinal deviations as follows:
With the aircraft standing on East, correct for A error by adding the correction factor to the
compass reading and moving it on its mounting. This corrects for apparent A.
With the aircraft on any cardinal magnetic heading add coefficient A algebraically to the
compass reading. Rotate the compass or magnetic sensing element until the compass reads
the corrected heading.

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Coefficient B
The aircraft fuselage soft and hard iron magnetism produces deviation due to an imaginary
magnet lying along the fore and aft axis of the aircraft
When flying on north or south headings, this has no effect on the compass reading.
When flying east or west, the earths field is distorted by some value.
Because earths lines of flux travel North-South, when the aircraft is heading North or South,
the fuselage magnetism will not modify the magnetic meridian, it will only strengthen or
weaken it because all the magnetic flux (earths and aircrafts) are in alignment. So the
magnetism in the fuselage which is termed coefficient B error effects compass accuracy
predominantly on East-West headings, and has no effect on North-South headings.
One pair of magnets are located in the lateral axis across the aircraft and when rotated will
correct for coefficient B.
While the aircraft is still on East calculate and correct for coefficient B:
On an Easterly heading we add coefficient B algebraically to the compass reading (Be sure to
observe the algebraic signs). Adjust the (EW) corrector magnet to make the compass read
the corrected reading. If the aircraft were facing West we would subtract the deviation (this
means change the sign from plus to minus or vice versa).
Remember You must use a brass or aluminium screwdriver when making adjustments.
Coefficient C
Magnetic component Q produces a deviation due to an imaginary magnet lying across the
aircraft (lateral axis) which adds to or subtracts from the earths field. When flying east or
west, this has no effect on the compass, but when flying on the north or south headings, the
earths field is distorted through the aircraft by some value.
Because earths lines of flux travel North-South, when the aircraft is heading East-West, the
lateral or wingspan magnetism will not modify the magnetic meridian, it will only strengthen or
weaken it because all the magnetic flux (earths and aircrafts) are in alignment.
So the magnetism in the wingspan which is termed coefficient C error effects compass
accuracy predominantly on North-South headings, and has no effect on East-West headings.
Because earths lines of flux travel North-South, when the aircraft is heading East-West, the
lateral or wingspan magnetism will not modify the magnetic meridian, it will only strengthen or
weaken it because all the magnetic flux (earths and aircrafts) are in alignment.
So the magnetism in the wingspan which is termed coefficient C error effects compass
accuracy predominantly on North-South headings, and has no effect on East-West headings.
To correct for coefficient C, with the aircraft on a Northerly or Southerly heading, we add the
coefficient C error (if on Northerly heading, subtract if on Southerly) to the compass reading.
(Make the aircraft compass read 1 degree more than the present reading). As before, be sure
to observe the algebraic signs. Move the coefficient C (NS) corrector magnet, to make the
compass read the new heading.
Now that you have completed the initial corrections, you must now check the entire compass
range by carrying out a check swing. Remove any items such as tools and any unnecessary
equipment from the area which could give any magnetic interference.11

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Compass Calibration Proforma

Use this proforma as it simplifies compass compensation process.
Also now that the compensation process is complete the compass must be calibrated, that is
all residual deviations must be identified and recorded on a compass calibration card.

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Compass swing precautions

An aircraft compass needs to be swung in an area which is free from all unusual magnetic
influences other than those derived from the aircraft.
The area should not be near any hangars or other buildings, electronic transmitting devices,
underground or above-ground power cabling, piping or plumbing, or any other metal objects
including concrete reinforcing, which will cause distortion of the earths magnetic field. The
area needs to be large enough to allow the aircraft to be manoeuvred around and have the
datum compass approximately 50 metres away. The aircraft should be prepared in the
normal in-flight condition; that is, all equipment in the correct stowage position. Some aircraft
require a final check to be carried out with the engine running. If this is the case an
authorised engine runner should be available. Use only non-magnetic tools for adjusting the
correctors.
Usually there will be a surveyed compass swing site established at major airfields and
compass swings should only be performed at this appropriate site.

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TOPIC 11.5.1.4: INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS- OTHER (ATA 31)

Introduction to Angle of Attack Indication
Many pilots believe that the speed of the aircraft is the only factor which determines the point
at which a stall occurs. This is not true. Many a pilot, both experienced and inexperienced,
has come unstuck from a high speed pull-up from a diving turn, indicating that the wing
stalled at a speed far higher than the recognised stall speed. The problem is that during the
manoeuvre, the angle attack of at least one wing exceeded the stall angle. What exactly is
the stall angle? It is an angle of attack at which the airflow over the wing is no longer even,
but instead, starts to break away and create a turbulent flow, destroying the lift. For most
wing configurations there is a set angle at which this occurs. Pilots need to know the attitude
they are flying at, so they can fly safely at high angles of attack without the risk of stalling. To
sense these angles, a system of angle of attack sensors has been incorporated into aircraft
design.
Chord Line
Angle of Attack is the angle between the chord line of the aerofoil and the direction of the
relative wind. It is important in the production of lift. As Angle of Attack increases, lift also
increases. Lift acts perpendicular to the relative wind regardless of the angle of attack.
Pilots have direct control over Angle of Attack (AOA). During flight at normal operating
speeds, if a pilot increases the angle of attack, lift increases. The AOA is changed any time
the control column is moved forward or aft during flight and the coefficient of lift is changed at
the same time.
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Angle of Attack
Every aircraft has an AOA where maximum lift occurs.
Higher AOAs produce more lift, up to the critical AOA where all lift is lost and the aerofoil will
stall. This occurs at the same AOA regardless of aircraft speed and loading.
As AOA increases, lift increases. This continues to a point where lift peaks (CL max). In this
example this point of maximum lift is at about 17 (typically between 12 & 18). If the
maximum lift angle is exceeded, lift decreases rapidly and the wing stalls.
For a given airplane, a stall always occurs at the same angle of attack regardless of airspeed,
flight attitude or weight. This is the stalling or critical angle of attack. It is important to
remember that an aircraft can stall at any airspeed, in any flight attitude, or at any weight.
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Stall
Any aircraft wing will produce lift when air passes over it. The value of the lift is directly
related to:
density of the air
size and shape of the aerofoil
angle of attack.
Speed and loading effects the aircraft stall in that at lower speed, a higher AOA must be
maintained to provide sufficient lift to keep the aircraft at a constant altitude. If the aircraft is
very heavy, again a higher AOA (or higher airspeed {to produce more lift} to compensate for
the additional weight is required) must be maintained to produce sufficient lift to counter the
additional weight. So more weight or slower airspeeds mean an aircraft is at a higher AOA
and is therefore closer to the critical AOA and more susceptible to breeching the critical AOA
and stalling. But it is the AOA which causes the stall, not the weight or airspeed.
When AOA reaches the point of stalling the air is separating from the leading edge, and the
wing is producing no lift. This angle is termed the stalling or critical angle of attack.
Note also that the wing begins to stall as the separation moves forward (nearing critical
AOA). The wing is only fully stalled at the critical AOA.
To recover from a stall smooth airflow must be restored. The only way to do this is to
decrease the angle of attack to a point below the stalling or critical angle of attack.
ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATION

As we have discussed it is the AOA that determines when an aircraft will stall, not airspeed,
attitude or aircraft weight. Although all of these parameters effect the AOA, it is still the critical
AOA where the aircraft will stall.
The manner in which an aircraft responds as it approaches and reaches a stalled condition
depends on many other factors, such as wing configuration, i.e. high, low, swept-back, and
also on whether the horizontal stabilizer is in the T-tail configuration.
An aircraft will, in its own characteristic manner, provide warning of a stalled condition, e.g.
by buffeting, gentle or severe pitch-down attitude change, and/or wing drop, and although
recoverable, in a situation such as an approach when an aircraft is running out of airspace
beneath itself, these inherent warnings could come too late! It is, therefore, necessary to
provide a means whereby Alpha Angle can be sensed directly, and at some value just below
that at which a stalled condition can occur it can provide an early warning of its onset.
One of the methods utilised by pilots to monitor their aircrafts flying characteristics is to
provide them with an indication of AOA. This is achieved by measuring the angle between
the aircrafts chord line and the surrounding airflow. The AOA detecting element must
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therefore be able to detect and measure the angle at which the aircraft is cutting through the
air.
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Angle-of-Attack Sensors
The most common angle of attack sensor or probe, is the air pressure chamber type. On
larger aircraft, the vane or air flow type transmitters are used, sharing the output with the stall
warning and windshear systems. The sensors/probes are located on the side of the fuselage,
normally below the cockpit floor level, and mounted from the inside. The cockpit indicators
are driven by a potentiometer or transmitter in the sensor/ probe.
On large aircraft, a vane type sensor will be found on either side of the fuselage. This is to
compensate for asymmetric airflows during turns or large crosswinds.
The electrical output is used to drive a pointer in the AOA indicator.
The type of AOA sensor normally used for stall warning & stall avoidance systems consists of
a precision counter-balanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor of a synchro. The
vane is protected against ice formation by an internal heater element. The complete unit is
accurately aligned by means of index pins at the side of the front fuselage section of an
aircraft
The AOA Probe Type Sensor
The AOA probe type sensor shown is installed so that it senses the airflow, relative to the
fuselage datum line. When equal airflow pressure is passing into the two equal sized slots in
the leading edge of the probe, the air pressure on either side of the vane is equal and the
vane takes up a null position. When the aircraft takes up another attitude, the airflow in the
two slots becomes unequal and the vane will be pushed away by increased air pressure from
its null position. Attached at the end of the vane pivot shaft is a potentiometer, so any rotation
of the shaft will produce a changed electrical output. The potentiometer output is fed to the
cockpit indicator and the pointer will take up a corresponding attitude position.
The vane will always be pointing directly at the oncoming airflow because the vane will move
to balance the pressure in both sides of the chamber. So the AOA probe will always point
directly into the airflow, and the aircraft will rotate around the probe. The electrical output is
proportional to the amount of offset between the aircraft and the AOA probe.
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The AOA Airflow Type Sensor

In the airflow type sensor shown the airflow passes over a wedge shaped vane attached to a
pivot arm. When the airflow is equal on either side of the vane, the vane will be stationary. As
the airflow changes, the aircraft takes up another attitude. The vane will rotate on its pivot
and move a position transmitter that is attached to its shaft. The new position signal is fed to
a cockpit indicator. On large aircraft, a vane type sensor will be found on either side of the
fuselage. This is to compensate for asymmetric airflows during turns or large crosswinds.
High Speed Aircraft Indication

The high speed aircraft AOA indicator shown is mounted on the instrument panel and has a
scale from 0 to the max nose up angle. The pilot can move a bug around the indicator bezel
to set up the optimum attitude or pitch angle. The attitude angles change for cruise, descent,
climb and landing. The indicator pointer will take up a position equal to the exterior airflow. A
course scale may be found on the exterior housing near the vane arm pivot point.
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AOA Cockpit Indexer

In military aircraft especially naval carrier based aircraft, an AOA indexer such as a chevron
and doughnut light assembly, as shown is mounted on the instrument panel coaming or
integrated in a headup display (HUD). The chevron or doughnut lights will illuminate at
different aircraft attitudes. If the upper chevron is lit, the nose is too high. If the lower chevron
is lit, the nose is too low. When the doughnut is lit, the optimum attitude is being flown. A test
function tests the operation of the lights only.
Indicators
There is no standard requirement for angle of attack indicators to be installed in aircraft, with
the result that the adoption of any one available type is left as an option on the part of an
aircraft manufacturer and/or operator. When selected for installation, however, they must not
be used as the only means of providing stall warning, but as a supplement to an appropriate
type of stick-shake and stick-push system.
Indicators are connected to the AOA sensors of a stall warning system, and display the
relevant data in a variety of ways, depending on their design. In some cases a conventional
pointer and scale type of display is used, while in aircraft having electronic flight instrument
display systems, the data can be programmed into computers such that it is displayed
against a vertical scale, usually located adjacent to that indicating vertical speed, on the
attitude director indicator. Another type of indicator currently in use has a pointer which is
referenced against horizontal yellow, green and red bands; a dividing line between the yellow
and green bands signifies the angle at which the stick-shaker operates.
Angle Of Attack Probe Precautions
In both types, the AOA sensors/probes/transmitters incorporate a heater element to prevent
inflight freezing. In some cases the heater element is switched to half power when the AOA
system senses the wheels are on the ground. This prevents overheating and the burning out
of the element. Inflight excess heat is removed by the airflow.
CAUTION
Severe burning to your hands can occur if you come in contact with the heated sensor/probe.
Note
Care must be taken when handling the probe not to damage the calibrated slots. When
moving the vane type sensor, care must be taken not to damage the fine movement of the
transmitter shaft.
Note
When installing, ensure datum points/lines and direction arrows are observed. The AOA
probe must be aligned and located correctly when being installed.
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Stall Warning Systems

Stall warning systems are required in all modern aircraft. They all rely on an AOA measuring
system to activate the stall warning system. Modern high performance aircraft use an AOA
probe as previously described which is connected to a stall warning circuit. These aircraft
usually have several other sensors connected to the stall warning circuit or computer.
Sensors for flap and slat position are used to give an accurate stall warning for any flight
condition.
Light, low speed aircraft do not have complex AOA measuring systems. Low speed general
aviation type aircraft use various types of sensors:
Vibrating reed in older style aircraft and
Vane operated switches
On later small aircraft a vane operated switch is located on the wing leading edge and this
switch is closed by upward movement of the vane at high AOA. The vane, sometimes called
a lift transducer, is mounted to sense the angle at which the air flows over the wing. With the
wing flying normally, the vane is held down, but when the wing approaches its critical angle
the airflow lifts the vane up, activating an electrically operated stall warning device such as a:
horn
light
stick shaker.
These devices warn the pilot of the impending stall condition.

Stall Warning Systems Operation
On light aircraft both types of stall warning systems function on the some principle, this is that
as AOA increases the stagnation point (where the air separates to go either above or below
the wing) gradually moves down the leading edge of the wing.
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Vibrating Reed Operation

The vibrating reed system requires no outside power source. A small hole in the leading edge
of the wing is connected by tubing to e reed and horn near the cockpit. At high AOA close to
a stall a low pressure or suction is produced at the opening of the leading edge and this pulls
air through the reed to make it vibrate and produce a noise.
Uses a reed like that found in a harmonica or a saxophone which produces a sound when the
air is sucked through it. The inlet is located on the leading edge of the wing near the
stagnation point. With an increase in angle of attack, the low pressure region over the wing
moves into the area where the reed inlet is located, causing it to produce a sound to warn
the pilot of an impending stall.
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Vane Type Operation

The simplest form of system, and one which is adopted in several types of small aircraft,
consists of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the leading edge of a wing so that the
vane protrudes into the airstream. In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains
the vane in a parallel position. If the aircrafts attitude changes such that AOA increases,
then, by definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so
cause the vane to be deflected. When AOA reaches that at which the warning unit has been
preset, the vane activates a switch to complete a circuit to an aural warning unit in the
cockpit.
An electrically operated stall warning system uses a small vane mounted near the stagnation
point in the leading edge of the wing. When flying with AOA well below critical AOA, the
airflow over the vane is downward which in turn holds the vane down, this holds the internal
electrical switch in the vane open. At higher angles of attack the stagnation point moves
downward, until the airflow over the vane is upward. This point would be just below critical
AOA, thereby warning the pilot of the impending stall condition before the wing actually stalls.
The vane is blown upward thus closing the switch which in turn illuminates a warning light
and/or warning horn.
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STALL WARNING & STALL AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS

In larger types of aircraft, stall warning systems are designed to perform a more active
function, in that they are either of the stick- shaker or stick push or nudger type; for some
aircraft configurations they are used in combination.
Although aircraft can have stall warning horns and lights, more complex aircraft have more
complex stall warning systems. The stick shaker system is really just an extension of the
warning lights and horns as it is an indicating system. As a stall is neared the pilots control
column will be shaken by an out of balance electrical motor. This form of warning is simply
more demanding than a light or audible warning. The stick shaker system is designed to
provide the pilot with a feeling of buffeting of the separating air, indicating his immediate
attention is required. A stick shaker system is still termed a Stall Warning system, because all
it does is warn the pilot that some action is required.
The type of AOA sensor normally used for these systems consists of a precision counterbalanced aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor of a synchro. The complete unit is
accurately aligned by means of index pins at the side of the front fuselage section of an
aircraft. Stick-shaking is accomplished by a motor which is secured to a control column and
drives a weighted ring that is deliberately unbalanced to set up vibrations of the column, to
simulate the natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition.
In most cases, two AOA detecting systems are installed in an aircraft, so that a sensor is
located on each side of the front fuselage section, and a stick-shaker motor on each pilots
control column.
In certain types of aircraft the sensor signals are transmitted to an air data computer, which
then supplies an output, corresponding to actual AOA (or Alpha Angle), to a comparator
circuit within an electronic module of the stall warning system. The comparator is also
supplied with signals from a central processor unit (also within the module) which processes
a program to determine maximum alpha angles based on the relationship between flap
position and three positions of the leading edge slats. The positions are: retracted, partially
extended and fully extended, and so signals corresponding to three different computed
angles are processed for comparison with an actual a angle signal. If the latter is higher than
a computed maximum, the circuit to the stick-shaker motor is completed.
A stick pusher system on the other hand, is a stall avoidance system. Where a stick shaker
simply warns the pilot, the stick pusher actually forces the stick forward to lower the AOA and
avoid entering a stall.
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Stick Shaker
The time between imminent stall and actual stall in the modern high performance aircraft is
very small and most modern aircraft use what is called a stick shaker to simulate the
buffeting of the separating air. It employs a motor that drives an unbalanced weight ring.
The motor can be energised by the output of a vane type stall warning detector, although the
light aircraft which incorporate this type of stall warning system would more likely just have
lights and horns, not stick shaker motors.
More likely the motor would be energised by a stall warning computer when it detects that the
aircraft is nearing a stall condition. Angle of attack will be fed to the AOA indicator, and to a
stall warning computer. The stall warning computer will also have inputs of flap configuration,
airspeed and power setting and will energise the stick shaker whenever conditions are met
whereby the aircraft is nearing a stall. The sensors for flap, airspeed and power settings used
to provide an accurate stall warning indication for any flight condition. Most jet aircraft have a
stick shaker as part of their stall warning system
The system is energised at all times that the aircraft is airborne, and is deactivated on the
ground by a squat switch or WOW switch.
If fitted, a warning Horn and/or warning lights will also sound in the event of a stall warning.
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Operation
Since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is also changed by the extension of its flaps, the sensor
synchro is also interconnected with a synchro within the transmitter of the flap position
indicating system, in order to modify the a signal output as a function of flap position.
When the aircraft is on the ground & electrical power is on, the contacts of the landing gear
microswitches complete a DC circuit to a sensing relay K which, on being energised, supplies
an AC voltage (in this case 11.8 V) to the circuit module amplifier. The output is then supplied
to a demodulator whose circuit is designed to bias off the AC voltage from the contacts of K
so that the solid-state switch SS1 remains open to isolate the stick-shaker motor from its DC
supply. The vane heater element circuit is also isolated from its AC supply by the opening of
the second set of contacts of K The sensor synchro is supplied directly from the ac power
source.
During take-off, and when the nose gear lifts off, the microswitches operate to de-energise
relay K and with the system control switch at NORMAL, the system is fully activated. The
only signal now supplied to the amplifier and demodulator is the modified a signal.
In normal flight, the signal produced and supplied as input to the amplifier is less than a
nominal value of 20 mV, and in phase with the AC voltage supplied as a reference to the
demodulator. If the aircrafts attitude should approach that of a stalled condition, the signal
will exceed 20 mV and become out-of-phase. The demodulator then produces a resultant
voltage which triggers the switch SS1 to connect a 28 V dc supply direct to the stick-shaker
motor, which then starts vibrating the control column.
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Stick-pushers
In some types of aircraft, particularly those with rear-mounted engines and a T-tail
configuration, it is possible for what is termed a deep or super stall situation to develop.
When such aircraft first get into a stalled condition then, as in all cases, the air flowing from
the wings is of a turbulent nature, and if the a angle is such that the engines are subjected to
this airflow, loss of power will occur as a result of surging and possible flame-out. If, then,
the stall develops still further, the horizontal stabiliser will also be subjected to the turbulent
airflow with a resultant loss of pitch control. The aircraft then sinks rapidly in the deep stalled
attitude, from which recovery is difficult, if not impossible. This was a lesson that was learned,
with tragic results, during the flight testing of two of the earliest types of commercial aircraft
configured as mentioned, namely, the BAC 111 and HS Trident.
In order to prevent the development of a deep stall situation, warning systems are installed
which, in addition to stick-shaking, utilise the a sensor signals to cause a forward push on the
control columns and downward deflection of the elevators. The manner in which this is
accomplished varies; in some aircraft, the signals are transmitted to a linear actuator which is
mechanically connected to the artificial feel and centering unit of the elevator control system.
In aircraft having computerised flight control systems, a sensor signals are transmitted to the
elevator control channel of the flight control computer.
Mechanically and pneumatically driven the system comprises a low pressure air reservoir
which is kept constantly charged at 40 PSI by bleed air. Air from the reservoir is fed to the
pneumatic stick force ram through solenoid operated pneumatic valves.
In the de-energized state the valves open the ram chamber to atmosphere, both control
columns can operate freely without restraint.
Both AOA stall condition and low airspeed (<180 kts) must be present to activate the stick
pusher system at maximum. When conditions are met, the air pressure will be applied to the
stick pusher and will apply a force to the control column to drive the aircraft nose down to a
lower AOA.
The stick pusher system would only function with a stall warning computer system to control it
(i.e. a vane type switch would never be incorporated to energise a stick pusher).
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As can be seen larger modern aircraft routinely incorporate a stick shaker and a stick pusher.
The stick shaker is a stall warning device, a stick pusher is a stall avoidance device.
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AFCS Stall Avoidance System

Fly By Wire (FBW) aircraft can have stall warning and stall prevention included in the
software. Stall prevention can take the form of an electrical signal sent from the flight control
computer to drive a hydraulic actuator connected to the control surfaces to drop the AOA.
This method differs from a stick pusher system in that a force does not need to be applied to
the control column, the Flight control computer simply sends and electrical signal to the
control surfaces to move them, dropping AOA and avoiding the stall. A stick pusher system is
not necessary in modern FBW flight control systems.
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TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEMS

In most forms of temperature measurement, the variation of some property of a substance
with temperature is utilised. These variations may be summarised as follows:
Most substances expand as their temperature rises; thus, a measure of temperature

is obtainable by taking equal amounts of expansion to indicate equal increments of
temperature.
Many liquids, when subjected to a temperature rise, experience such motion of their
molecules that there is a change of state from liquid to vapour. Equal increments of
temperature may therefore be indicated by measuring equal increments of the
pressure of the vapour.
Substances change their electrical resistance when subjected to varying

temperatures, so that a measure of temperatures is obtainable by taking equal
increments of resistance to indicate equal increments of temperature.
Dissimilar metals when joined at their ends produce an electro motive force (thermo
EMF ) dependent on the difference in temperature between the junctions. Since equal
increments of temperature are only required at one junction, a measure of the electro
motive force produced will be a measure of the junction temperature.
The radiation emitted by any body at any wavelength is a function of the temperature
of the body, and what is termed its emissivity. If, therefore, the radiation is measured
and the emissivity is known, the temperature of the body can be determined; such a
measuring technique is known as radiation pyrometry.
The utilisation of these various methods provides us with a very convenient means of
classifying temperature-measuring instruments:
expansion type (liquid or solid),
vapour-pressure type,
electrical type (resistance or thermo-electric) and
radiation type.
The majority of instruments currently in use are, however, of the resistance and
thermoelectric type and are applied to the measurement of the temperature of such liquids
and gases as fuel, engine lubricating oil, outside air, carburetor air, and turbine exhaust gas.
In certain types of turbojet engine, the radiation pyrometry technique is also applied to the
measurement of actual turbine blade temperature.
Expansion Type Temperature Measuring Devices
Most substances expand as their temperature rises; thus, a measure of temperature is
obtainable by taking equal amounts of expansion to indicate equal increments of
temperature.
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Mechanical types
This type of indicator is normally found on aircraft that fly at or below 150 knots. Above that
speed, their location out in the slipstream interrupts the airflow and causes unnecessary
drag.
You will find this type of temperature indicator mostly on light aircraft, protruding from the
cabin or cockpit wall into the airflow. The element is made up of two metals having different
temperature coefficients of linear expansion, welded together to form a spiral. The metals
most commonly used are brass and invar which has a very low expansion coefficient.
One end of the spiral is fixed to the end of the indicator tube, whilst the other supports the
pointer through the other end of the tube at the bezel and dial assembly. As the temperature
varies, the spiral winds or unwinds, causing the pointer to move over the scale indicating the
value of temperature.
Static Air Temperature Measurement
The simplest type, and one which is used in a few types of small private aircraft for indicating
SAT, is a direct-reading thermometer which operates on the principle of expansion and
contraction of a bimetallic element when subjected to temperature changes. The element is
in the form of a helix anchored at one end of a metal sheath or probe; the free end of the helix
is attached to the spindle of a pointer. As the helix expands or contracts, the helix winds or
unwinds causing the pointer to rotate against the scale of a dial fixed to the sheath opposite
to the fixed end of the helix. The thermometer is secured through a fixing hole on one of the
side windows of the cockpit, or in the wrap-around portion of a windscreen, so that the probe
protrudes into the airstream.
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Bimetallic Switches
The figure illustrates the action of strip and disc types of bimetallic temperature sensors.
Two metals of high (brass) and low (invar) temperature coefficients are bonded together. At
some datum temperature the strip is straight. If the strip is heated the brass expands more
than the invar to cause it to curl.
If the strip is cooled the brass contracts more than the invar to cause it to curl the opposite
way.
Disc shaped bimetallic sensors are common in applications requiring a snap action. When
heated, a slightly domed bimetallic disc will suddenly snap across to being domed on the
opposite side.
Bimetallic temperature sensors are used in temperature, liquid level and position indicators
as temperature compensators or correctors in various instruments and mechanisms and to
operate switch contacts in circuit breakers, fire detectors, thermostats and timers.
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Vapour pressure Type

The system consists of a Bourdon tube indicator that is actuated by the pressure rise of the
vapour given off by a volatile liquid such as methyl chloride and the capillary tube that
connects the gauge to the sensing tube that contains the liquid.
The system is sealed off making the assembly a single unit that must be changed as one.
The operation of the system is such that as the tube is heated, the liquid vaporises. The
pressure acts upon the Bourdon tube causing it to expand or open out to carry the pointer up
the scale which is graduated in degrees of temperature. The capillary tube is usually made of
annealed copper and is lightly bound with a copper wire as a protective cover. Care must be
taken to prevent tight bends as the tube may crack, causing a leak and rendering the unit
inoperable.
The type of temperature sensor at 3-5 is more robust than the common glass type. They are
suited to aircraft applications because the sensing bulb can be remotely located from the
indicator. They are used as engine oil temperature indicators on many light aircraft.
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Electrical Type Temperature Measuring Devices

Resistance and Temperature
The resistance of a conductor is dependent on temperature, the effect of which is to change
the dimensions by thermal expansion and to change the resistivity. The first effect is
comparatively small, the main changes of resistance being due to changes of resistivity. In
the case of pure metallic conductors, resistance increases with increase in temperature, and
this is the basis of temperature measurement in resistance thermometry.
The two metals most commonly used in aircraft resistance thermometry are nickel and
platinum, both of which are manufactured to a high degree of purity and reproducibility of
resistance characteristics. Platinum is a precious metal with a very stable and near linear
resistance versus temperature function.
Temperature coefficients of nickel and platinum can only be regarded as constant over the
temperature range 0-1000 C. beyond these temperatures, requires more complex algebraic
formulas to determine temperature with respect to resistance.
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Wheatstone Bridge
The most common method of measuring resistance is by means of the well-known
Wheatstone bridge network
The circuit is made up of four resistances arms, R1 , R2 , R3 and Rx. A moving-coil or
moving-spot galvanometer is connected across points B and D, and a source of low voltage
is connected across points A and C. Current flows in the directions indicated by the arrows,
dividing at point A and flowing through R3 and Rx at strengths which we may designate
respectively as 1 and 2. At point C the currents reunite and flow back to the voltage source.
Let us assume that the resistance of the four arms of the bridge are so adjusted that B and D
are at the same potential; then no current will flow through the galvanometer and so it will
read zero. Under these conditions the bridge is said to be balanced.
Hence, an unknown resistance can be calculated by adjusting the values of the three others
until no current flows through the galvanometer, as indicated by no movement of its pointer or
spot.
It will be apparent that, if the resistor Rx is subjected to varying temperatures and its
corresponding resistances are determined, then it is feasible for the network to serve as a
simple electrical-resistance thermometer system.
The unknown resistance Rx forms the temperature-sensing element and is contained within a
metal protective sheath, the assembly being called a bulb. The three other resistances
instead of being adjustable, are fixed and are contained within the case of a moving-coil
indicating element calibrated in units of temperature. Both components are suitably
interconnected and supplied with direct current.
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When the bulb is subjected to temperature variations, the resistance will vary, thus varying
the current flow through the meter movement which is calibrated to indicate temperature
proportional to the resistance of the temperature bulb.
By suitably arranging the resistors, the bridge circuit may be balanced to give no current flow
through the indicator at any predetermined temperature. This is known as the null point of the
indication and is identified by a V triangle on the scale. The null point is usually selected to
correspond to the critical temperature being measured since at this balanced condition, the
bridge is independent of any supply voltage change.
On all other points of the scale, the out-of-balance current will depend not only on the
resistance value of the bulb, but also on the supply voltage. Therefore, errors are evident
whenever the supply voltage varies from the value at which the indicator was calibrated.
It should also be noted that it is at the balance point that the pointer comes to rest when
power is turned off or if it failed during flight. Therefore the operator must be careful to
monitor the indicator operation.
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Ratiometer
This type of indicating system measures the ratio of two currents. The instrument is a two
coil, moving coil type instrument. The moving coils rotate in an uneven magnetic field,
created by having an air gap which is not uniform.
The theoretical circuit of the ratiometer system shows that the moving coil assembly
comprises two coils mounted on a common former and connected in a manner so that the
torques produced by the coils are in opposition.
With this condition the coils, because they are on a common former, will position themselves
in the magnetic field in such a way that the torque developed by both is equal and opposite.
When this occurs, the moving coil system will be in a state of balance and the pointer will
come to rest.
The two coils being powered from the same DC source through a suitable current limiting
resistance will always maintain the same ratio of current through them. The circuit shown on
the figure is such that one coil, known as the constant current coil, is in series with a
resistance located within the instrument case.
This resistance is made from manganin which has a very low temperature coefficient of
resistance and therefore does not change in resistance greatly as the temperature at the
case varies.
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The other coil known as the variable current coil, is in series with the temperature bulb which
is located in the area of the temperature to be measured. Any change in the resistance of the
bulb caused by a change in temperature causes a change in the current in the variable
current coil.
The variable current coil, is in series with the temperature bulb which is located in the area of
the temperature to be measured. Any change in the resistance of the bulb caused by a
change in temperature causes a change in the current in the variable current coil.
This will alter the ratio of currents between the two coils and the meter movement will move
to a position where a new balance of torques will take place. The system is again in a state of
balance and the pointer position represents the new temperature.
Because of the way the coils are connected, there is no effect from voltage variation. The
ligaments (current-carrying hairsprings) which carry the current into and out of the coils,
produce a slight torque which is used to carry the pointer off scale in the event of a power
supply failure. However, this effect is negligible under normal power supply and does not
effect the accuracy of the meter.
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Temperature-Sensing Elements
The resistance coil is wound on an insulated former and the ends of the coil are connected to
a two-pin socket via contact strips. The bulb, which serves to protect and seal the element,
may either be a brass or stainless-steel tube closed at one end and soldered to a union nut at
the other. The union nut is used for securing the complete element in the pipeline or
component of the system whose liquid temperature is required. The two-pin socket is made a
tight fit inside the male portion of the union nut, the receptacle of which ensures correct
location of the sockets mating plug.
It will be noted from the diagram that the coil is wound at the bottom end of its former and not
along the full length. This ensures that the coil is well immersed in the hottest part of the
liquid, thus minimizing errors due to radiation and conduction losses in the bulb.
A calibrating or balancing coil is normally provided so that a standard constant
temperature/resistance characteristic can be obtained, thus permitting interchangeability of
sensing elements. In addition the coil compensates for any slight change in the physical
characteristics of the element.
As the characteristics of nickel are not truly linear, it is necessary to include a calibrating
resistor in series with the nickel sense element to provide a standard temperature/resistance
characteristic curve. This wire wound resistor is made of either:
manganin (which is a copper manganese alloy)
eureka (which is a copper nickel alloy)
wound into a small coil and placed in the upper end of the bulb.
Both manganin and eureka have low temperature coefficients of resistance and are used to
compensate for any slight changes in the characteristics that can occur in the nickel wire.
This is done so as to achieve interchangeability of temperature bulbs. The calibrating coil is
adjusted by the manufacturer during initial calibration.
These types of temperature measuring systems are used in aircraft to measure values
relating to carburetor air, oil, fuel and air temperatures. The principle parts of the indicating
systems are the indicator and the temperature sensitive element (bulb) along with the
connecting wiring and connectors.
Oil temperature indicators have a range from -70C to +150C.
Carburetor air temperature indicators & many outside air temperature indicators range from 50C to +50C
The typical temperature bulb on the figure has about 98 ohms of resistance at 20C.
+ve co-efficient temp up: resistance up
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-ve co-efficient temp up: resistance down
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Engine oil temperature

The temperature bulbs are always placed near the point of oil entry to the engine and never
the outlet. This is because the outlet oil goes to the oil cooler and it is therefore not important
to know the temperature of the oil leaving the engine.
Air Temperature Sensors
Air temperature is one of the basic parameters used to establish data vital to the performance
monitoring of aircraft and engines, e.g. true airspeed measurement, temperature control,
thrust settings, fuel/air ratio settings, etc. of turbine engines, and it is therefore necessary to
provide a means of in-flight measurement.
The temperature which overall would be the most ideal is that of air under pure static
conditions at the various flight levels compatible with the operating range of the particular
aircraft concerned. The measurement of static air temperature (SAT) by direct means is,
however, not possible for all types of aircraft or, in many instances, for one type of aircraft, for
the reason that measurements can be affected by the adiabatic compression of air resulting
from increases in air speed.
In general, the boundary layer at the outside surfaces of an aircraft flying at speeds below 0.2
Mach number is very close to the SAT. However, at higher Mach numbers the boundary layer
can be slowed down or stopped relative to the aircraft, and thereby produce adiabatic
compression which will raise the air temperature to a value appreciably higher than SAT.
Friction of high speed flow along the aircraft surfaces will also raise the air temperature. This
increase is commonly referred to as ram rise, and the temperature indicated under such
conditions is known as ram air temperature (RAT) i.e. SAT plus the ram rise.
The ram rise due to full adiabatic compression is always pre calculated mathematically as a
function of Mach number, and for each type of aircraft values are presented in either tabular
or graphical form in the operating manual or the flight manual for the type. Thus, for air
temperature sensors subjected to ram rise, the RAT readings of the associated indicators can
always be corrected to obtain SAT, either by direct subtraction of tabulated ram rise values,
conversion charts, or in the case of air data computers by the automatic application of a
correction signal. The proportion of ram rise is dependent on the ability of the sensor to sense
or recover the temperature rise, the sensitivity in this case being expressed as a percentage
and termed the recovery factor. If, for example, a sensor has a recovery factor of 0.80, it will
measure SAT plus 80% of the ram rise.
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Various types of air temperature sensors may be adopted dependent on whether indications
of SAT or RAT are required. The simplest type, and one which is used in a few types of small
private aircraft for indicating SAT, is a direct-reading thermometer probe protruding into the
airstream (only effective up to about 150 knots).
The majority of sensors are, however, of the platinum resistance wire element type, the
element being contained either in a probe similar to that adopted for the temperature
measurement of liquids, or mounted in what is termed a flush bulb configuration.
For use at high Mach numbers, it is customary to sense and measure the maximum
temperature rise which is possible. This is referred to as total air temperature (TAT) and is
obtained when the air is brought to rest (or nearly so) without addition or removal of heat. For
this purpose, TAT probes were introduced, and are to be found on a number of present-day
public transport aircraft. They have several advantages over flush bulbs notably an almost
negligible time lag, and a high recovery factor (approximately 1.00). The probe is normally
connected to an indicator on the flight deck instrument panel and to a Mach number module
of a central air data computer.
The probe is in the form of a small strut and air intake made of nickel-plated beryllium copper
which gives good thermal conductivity and strength. It is secured to the aircraft skin, at a predetermined location in the fuselage nose section, and outside of any boundary layer which
may exist. In flight, the air pressure within the probe is higher than that outside, and the air
flows in the manner indicated, separation of water particles from the air is effected by the air
flow being caused to turn through a right-angle before passing round the sensing element.
The bleed holes in the intake casing permit boundary layer air to be drawn off under the
influence of the pressure differential across the casing.
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A pure platinum wire resistance element is used and is hermetically sealed within two
concentric platinum tubes. The inner platinum tube is used as the element former, thereby
ensuring a close match of thermal expansion and minimising of thermal strain. An axial wire
heating element is mounted integral with the probe to prevent ice formation, and is of the self
compensating type in that as the temperature rises so does the element resistance rise,
thereby reducing the heater current. The heater dissipates a nominal 260 W under in-flight
icing conditions, and can have an effect on indicated air temperature readings. The errors
involved, however, are small; some typical values obtained experimentally being 0.9 C at 0.1
Mach decreasing to 0.15 at Mach 1.0
Air temperature measurement is one of the basic parameters we use to establish aircraft
performance data. Under static conditions, temperature is relatively easy to measure.
However, in flight the temperature of the air is affected by what we call adiabatic compression
(change of the speed of the air without a change of temperature). The boundary layers of air
are forced to slow down or stop in relationship to the aircraft. This compression forces a
temperature rise known commonly as the ram rise.
We can calculate this ram rise due to the full adiabatic compression, mathematically, as a
function of the Mach number (speed of the aircraft in relation to the local speed of sound) of
the aircraft. To successfully do this calculation, we need to start with a reference temperature
reading, which may be obtained in flight if we use measuring devices to register:
no ram rise( Bendix and Flush Mounted)
complete ram rise (TAT Probe)
a constant factor of the ram rise.
The different forms of temperature measurement devices all function in a different manner
with respect to the effect of ram rise. All passenger aircraft have an outside air temperature
sensing device but the shape and style of the temperature sensor will be dependant upon
how the temperature sensing system is designed.
Acronyms :
SAT Static Air Temperature
OAT Outside Air Temperature
TAT Total Air Temperature
RAT Ram Air Temperature
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TAT Total Air Temperature
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Electrical Air Temperature Sensors Safety Precautions
No hand holds
No hanging equipment on them
Fit covers when on the ground for personnel safety and to stop contamination by
insects
They are a protrusion hazard, dont walk into them
They are sensitive items, treat them with care when working around them
Thermocouple type indication systems

If the ends of two dissimilar metals of equal length were jointed together at both ends to form
a continuous circuit and one end was heated, an EMF will be generated in the circuit. The
magnitude of the EMF and the resultant current produced will depend upon the combination
of the metals, the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions of the metals
and the resistance of the circuit
Thermocouples are used in very high temperature applications, eg engine turbine & cylinder
head temperature
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Radiation Pyrometer System

Thermocouple combinations work very effectively, but are subject to errors because of:
differing characteristics of compressor and turbine assemblies
thermal hysteresis of the system
burning away of the thermocouples with age.
This can result in even the best engine operating at less than its most efficient output.
The temperature of the turbine blades in air-cooled blade engines, is governed by:
efficiency of the engine
inlet air temperature.
These variations will cause a change in the output characteristics of the engine. Designers
found it essential to be able to accurately monitor the turbine blade temperatures. They
needed a system with a rapid response time to allow close
control of the operating parameters.
The system found to be the most suitable was the radiation pyrometer system. It works on
the fact that hot engine parts emit infra-red radiation, the value of which is a direct function of:
temperature of the parts
radiation characteristics of the blade materials.
The temperature of the turbine blades can be measured then by measuring the infrared
radiation from them.
The Sensing Head

The sensing head is positioned on the turbine casing directly facing the turbine blades. A
synthetic sapphire lens focuses the blade radiation into a fibre optic cable which transmits the
radiated energy as an optical signal to a silicon photo cell detector unit.
The output of this unit is non-linear and has to be processed through an amplifier to create an
output capable of operating a temperature indicator or engine control unit as required.
Cooling
The sensing head and fibre links are mounted directly in the hot turbine exhaust gas stream
or around the hottest part of the engine. Careful design, choice of materials and
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thermostatically controlled temperature are required to ensure stability of operation and long
service life.
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ACCELEROMETER
An airplane structure is designed and built to withstand a certain load, and an accelerometer
on the instrument panel gives the pilot an indication of the load imposed on the airframe in
terms of load factors. An aircraft that is allowed to carry a load factor of 3.8 positive can carry
3.8 times its maximum gross weight before structural failure is likely to occur.
Accelerometers are calibrated in G Units and when an rest the instrument should read 1 G
positive.
Measures aircraft's acceleration in the pitch axis (G-Force). Most often used to determine
how tightly the aircraft is turning, or in achieving a "zero G" dive for maximum aircraft
acceleration. The number of "G's" indicate the apparent gravitational force being applied to
the aircraft and pilot in the pitch axis.
Two auxiliary pointers also move with the pulley, the one moving in the negative direction
remains at the maximum negative value, and the other, moving only in the positive direction,
remains at the maximum positive load factor. These auxiliary pointers may be returned to the
at rest condition by turning the pointer reset button which releases the pawls.
1 G is the normal force of gravity, and is what is experienced in normal straight and level
flight. So in a 5 G turn, the plane and pilot experience a force apparently 5 times the force of
gravity... a 200-pound man would SEEM to weigh 1000 pounds! Positive G's indicate a force
toward the bottom of the aircraft, negative G's indicate a force towards the top of the aircraft.
The accelerometer is an instrument that measures the G forces or acceleration forces on an
aircraft in flight. The common application is in an aerobatic airplane where the pilot needs to
know how much G force the airplane is being subjected to in order to prevent overstress of
the structure.
The mechanism of the accelerometer consists of a weight which is connected by a cord and
pulleys to the shaft that operates the pointer. The weight is supported by a guide shaft which
only allows it to move up and down relative to the guide shaft. A positive G acceleration will
cause the weight to move downward and rotate the pointer to show a higher positive G
loading. There is a balance spring on the pointer shaft pulley to balance the forces. The
instrument Is installed in the airplane so that it measures acceleration along the vertical axis
of the airplane. The normal at rest indication on the ground or in level flight is + 1 Gs.
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The instrument has three pointers connected to the operating mechanism. One pointer gives
a readout of the current acceleration force along the vertical axis. The other two pointers
have a ratchet device so that they will remain at the highest reading recorded for positive and
negative forces. A knob is included on the instrument to reset the two recording pointers.
AIRCRAFT CLOCK
An aircraft clock performs exactly the same function as any other clock, but must be very
accurate, display hours, minutes and seconds, and will normally have internal lighting
incorporated.
Aircraft clocks can be digital, analogue, battery powered, mechanically powered, etc.
Normally aircraft clocks have a stopwatch function incorporated.
Critical for navigation, eg timing legs of journeys, periodic manual radio broadcasts, and for
timing events such as APU start, engine spool down,
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TOPIC 11.5.2.1: AVIONIC SYSTEMS COMMUNICATION (ATA 23)

INTERCOM SYSTEM
Audio frequencies are those perceptible by the human ear. All sound is produced by
mechanical vibrations. When something vibrates, it alternately compresses and expands the
air around it. When they come closer, they are known as compressions. When they move
further, they are known as rarefactions. These condensations and rarefactions are
transmitted to adjacent air particles. Therefore, some of the energy of a vibrating surface is
transmitted away from it and may affect our hearing mechanism, providing the vibrations are
those we can hear. All of the different sounds we hear are caused by minute pressure
differences in the air around us. Sound travels through the air as longitudinal waves. The
most important, and technically the most impressive, of sound receivers is the ear - it can
detect sound density changes of less than one ten-millionth of 1 percent. This figure
corresponds to a particle displacement of less than 0.0000001 millimeters.
The pitch of the sound is determined by its frequency - the rate at which the vibrations occur.
The unit of frequency is called a Hertz (Hz); 1 Hz is equal to 1 vibration per second or one
cycle per second. The human ear is sensitive to frequencies between about 20 Hz and
20,000 Hz.
Microphones
A microphone is a device that transforms sound into electrical signals. The signals can then
be transmitted, amplified, recorded electrically and, finally, converted back into sound. All
microphones contain a thin membrane - either a diaphragm or a ribbon. The membrane
vibrates in response to the sound striking it. A transducer connected to it generates an
electrical signal that is equivalent to the vibrations in frequency and amplitude.
The very first microphone was a metal diaphragm attached to a needle, and this needle
scratched a pattern onto a piece of metal foil rotating at a constant speed. The pressure
differences in the air that occurred when you spoke moved the diaphragm, which moved the
needle, which scratched a path onto the moving foil, recording the sound. When you later
rotated the foil and applied a needle to it, the needle vibrates reproducing the sound which
initially created the scratch (although the reproduction is very low volume).
All modern microphones accomplish the same thing as the original, but do it electronically
rather than mechanically. A microphone takes the varying pressure waves in the air and
converts them into varying electrical signals. Analogue electric audio signals come in various
standards, but typically, they are a direct current (DC) signal that varies in strength. The
quickly changing high and low voltages in an audio signal correspond to the rarefactions and
compressions of sound.
B1-11.5.2.1: Avionic Systems Communication (ATA 23)

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There are several different technologies commonly used to accomplish this conversion, two
of the simpler methods are:

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Carbon Microphones
The oldest and simplest microphone uses carbon dust. This is the technology used in the first
telephones and is still used in some telephones today. The carbon dust has a thin metal or
plastic diaphragm on one side. As sound waves hit the diaphragm, they compress the carbon
dust, which changes its resistance. By running a current through the carbon, the changing
resistance changes the amount of current that flows.
Dynamic Microphones
A dynamic microphone takes advantage of electromagnetic effects. When a magnet moves
past a coil of wire, the magnet induces current to flow in the wire. In a dynamic microphone,
the diaphragm moves either a magnet or a coil when sound waves hit the diaphragm, and the
movement creates a small current.
When the diaphragms of microphones vibrate, they create a little current in the audio cable.
This current is the audio signal. A speaker or headphone does precisely the same thing in
reverse. The current reaches the speaker, and the coils of wire in the speaker turn it back into
actual movement, that causes the air surrounding the speaker to vibrate, which results in
sound again. But a microphone produces a very low voltage signal, while the speaker needs
a much higher signal to work.
Basic Intercom System
A microphone produces a very low voltage signal, while the speaker needs a much higher
signal to work. The device that sits between the two is an amplifier. The amplifier will
increase the small audio input voltage to a higher-power audio signal to drive a speaker.
Speaker volume (amplifier gain) is controlled by the volume knob.
This is a basic intercom system. This small intercom system is necessary due to the noise in
the cockpit area of small aircraft. Without the system, communications have a great risk of
being misunderstood or unheard which can result in dangerous situations developing during
flight.
The push to talk button can be replaced by having hot mikes. With hot mikes, the initial
audio signal switches on the amplifier, eliminating the need to press the transmit button. The
down side is that any grunt, groan or even breathing is transferred over the intercom, so in
many applications there is a switch to select either hot Mike or to select press to transmit.

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Modes of communication
Three modes of communication are used in the aircraft industry. They are:
simplex
half-duplex
full-duplex.
Simplex
This term is given to a system restricted to signal flow in one direction only. Simplex is used
for airport terminal weather reports, telemetry and control, marker beacons and radio
broadcasting.
Half-duplex
Half-duplex is a two-way communications system where the signal flow is in one direction at
a time. Air-to-air, air-to-ground and some data communications systems are good examples.
Only one source may transmit at a time, hence the familiar radio procedures, using words like
over and out.
Full-duplex
This is the term given to the signal flow in both directions at the same time without interfering
with any other user. The telephone is an example. Both members of a telephone
conversation can talk or interrupt at the same time. Some data communication systems are
also capable of full-duplex over lines.
Aircraft Intercom System
An Intercom system is a not a radio system. Although cordless or radio intercom systems are
available for domestic uses (cordless telephones typically incorporate an intercom feature),
intercom systems in aircraft are typically hardwired.

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Aircraft intercom systems use audio signals to permit communication between various points
in and around the aircraft. An intercom system and an interphone system operate in in a
similar manner, the difference is in who uses the systems and where the phone jacks are
located. The intercom system is used for voice communications from one point to another
within the aircraft. The small aircraft intercom on the previous slide only had the facility for
two users (pilot and co-pilot or student), in larger aircraft the system functions on the same
basis, with more inputs applied to an amplifier and additional control facilities incorporated so
certain intercom stations can be selectively included or omitted from conversations, eg just
pilot to co-pilot with all others excluded, or captain to all flight crew for a broadcast message.
Large aircraft have intercom systems so that the cockpit crew can communicate with the
cabin crew and vice versa.
The interphone system permits conversation between the cockpit and someone outside the
aircraft, usually maintenance or service personnel. The operation of intercom and interphone
systems is the same. Phone jacks are available at different locations where a handset or
headset can be connected. The handset or headset contains a microphone, a small speaker
and a push to talk button. The phone jacks and wiring are connected to an audio amplifier so
that the volume can be controlled. Switches are available to select the desired system and a
ringing system like that of a telephone is used for alerting the other party. On a larger scale a
passenger address (PA) system is included so that announcements can be made to the
passengers by flight crew or cabin crew, Good morning this is your captain speaking.

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In the schematic diagram interphone connections for maintenance and service personnel
hook-up installed near APU, Avionics Bay, and Nose-wheel bay.
Control panels differ between each aircraft and typically provide volume and switching
controls. In addition on the larger control above there are outputs to a recording device, and
the bottom left selector is to select parties to communicate with (broadcast etc). In the
Schematic diagram many of these controls would be provided on the pilot and co-pilot audio
control units, with the audio electronics unit probably located in the avionics bay. In large
passenger aircraft an audio control unit would be incorporated at a flight attendants station to
provide the cabin crew with a means to broadcast to passengers, and selectively
communicate with the flight deck.

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Interphone Interface
On larger passenger aircraft, the flight interphone is primarily used for communication
between crew stations and some equipment racks. Typically, the flight interphone connects
the following:
Captain, First Officer, Flight Engineer, Observers crew station, radio equipment
compartment.
The service and cabin interphone allows two way communication between designated
servicing stations during maintenance and includes the cabin attendant station. The service
interphone typically connects the Cockpit crew as listed above and the following stations:
cabin attendant stations
forward radio equipment compartment
rear radio equipment compartment
rear fuselage port
rear fuselage starboard
forward fuselage port
forward fuselage starboard
undercarriage wheel well port
undercarriage wheel well starboard
vertical stab
external power panel
forward cargo compartment
rear cargo compartment.
Attendant panels

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The cabin attendant panels contain telephone style handsets which are connected to the
aircraft interphone and PA system.
The cabin attendant is able to select:
another attendant station
flight/interphone system
public address system.
A typical handset is shown and operation requires lifting the handset from the cradle,
selecting the audio system required, and pressing the push-to-talk button. Interphones also
come with 12 digit keypads to permit dialing of a specific handset, or functions (passenger
address system).
The passenger address system overrides the aural in-flight entertainment system so that no
passengers can inadvertently miss vital or emergency information due to the wearing of a
seat headset.

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RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
Once an audio signal has been generated it can be transmitted over wiring in an intercom
system, or transmitted via radio. The audio signal is transmitted on a carrier wave from a
radio transmitter, to a radio receiver. Radio communications are typically half duplex in
operation. Radio transmissions are not point to point, and the transmission may be received
by any radio receiver within the broadcast area.
Human voice frequencies for normal speech can be anywhere from a low of about 90 hertz
for a deep bass to as high as 10 kilohertz for a high soprano. The most important speech
frequencies almost entirely fall below 3 kilohertz. The range of frequencies used to transmit
voice intelligence over radio circuits depends on the degree of FIDELITY (the ability to
faithfully reproduce the input in the output) that is desired.
The minimum frequency range that can be used for the transmission of speech is 500 to
2,000 hertz. The average range used on radiotelephone circuits is 250 to 2,750 hertz.
Frequencies contained within the human voice can be transmitted over telephone lines
without difficulty, but transmitting them via radio circuits is not practical.
This is because of their extremely long wavelengths and the fact that antennas would have to
be constructed with long physical dimensions to transmit or radiate these wavelengths.
Generally, antennas have radiating elements that are 1/4, 1/2, 1, or more full wavelengths of
the frequency to be radiated. The wavelengths of voice frequencies employed on
radiotelephone circuits range from 1,200,000 meters at 250 hertz to 109,090 meters at 2,750
hertz. Even a quarter-wave antenna would require a large area, be expensive to construct,
and consume enormous amounts of power.
FM communications always use the VHF or UHF band because the MF band is too small to
carry sufficient FM broadcast channels due to the high bandwidth required.
In the modulation process, the voice signal to be transmitted is impressed onto a radiofrequency wave called a CARRIER. This carrier is sufficiently high in frequency to have a
wavelength short enough to be radiated from an antenna of practical dimensions. For
example, a carrier frequency of 10 megahertz has a wavelength of 30 meters.

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An information wave is normally referred to as a MODULATING WAVE. When a modulating

wave is impressed on a carrier, the voltages of the modulating wave and the carrier are
combined in such a manner as to produce a COMPLEX WAVE (a wave composed of two or
more parts). This complex wave is referred to as the MODULATED WAVE and is the
waveform that is transmitted through space. When the modulated wave is received and
demodulated, the original component waves (carrier and modulating waves) are reproduced
with their respective frequencies, phases, and amplitudes unchanged.
Typically, carrier waves can be modulated by varying their amplitude (frequency remains
constant), or by having the modulating wave vary the frequency (amplitude remains
constant). This is the basis of AM and FM radio transmissions.
There are a number of different radio communications systems available for aircraft use.
They differ primarily in the frequencies used and the type of communication involved. The
most important use of communications radios is for Air Traffic Control since the controllers
need to be in contact with the pilots to give necessary instructions. The general trend since
the 1930s has been the use of higher frequencies and the development of specialised
communications for other than ATC purposes.

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RADIO SYSTEM RANGE

Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Communications
An ELF communications system is ideal for sending short messages great distances. ELF
has the ability to penetrate ocean depths to several hundred feet with little signal loss. This
ability means ELF is ideal for transmitting messages to submarines. Due to the large size of
ELF transmitters and antennas it is practical to have an ELF transmitter only at a large land
based facility, so it is typically only a one way or broadcast system.
Very-Low-Frequency (VLF) Communications
VLF transmissions provide a highly reliable path for communications over great distances as
well as over and under all oceans and seas of the world. A VLF transmission is normally
considered a broadcast, that is, one-way transmission, no reply required. Secondary
applications of the VLF range include worldwide transmission of standard frequency and time
signals. Standard frequency and time signals with high accuracy over long distances have
become increasingly important in many fields of science. It is essential for tracking space
vehicles, worldwide clock synchronization and oscillator calibration, radio navigational aids,
and communications systems. A VLF broadcast of standard time and frequency has more
than adequate precision for the operation of synchronous cryptographic devices and
decoding devices.
Low-Frequency (LF) Communications
The LF band occupies only a very small part of the radio-frequency spectrum. LF transmitting
installations are characterised by their large physical size and by their high construction and
maintenance costs. Another disadvantage is low-frequency signal reception is seriously
hampered by atmospheric noise. LF waves are not so seriously affected during periods of
ionospheric disturbance when communications at the high frequencies are disrupted.
Medium-Frequency (MF) Communications
Some ships have MF equipment. Ashore, the MF receiver and transmitter equipment
configuration is usually affiliated with search and rescue organizations. The commercial
broadcast band (AM) extending from 535 to 1,605 kilohertz uses the majority of the MF
range. Low MF frequencies are used for ground-wave transmission over moderately long
distances over water and moderately short distances over land. Transmission in the upper
MF band is generally limited to short distance communications (400 miles or less).
High-Frequency Communications
The general belief in the early days of radio was that frequencies above 1.5 megahertz were
useless for communications purposes. One of the prominent features of high-frequency,
long-distance communications is the variable nature of the propagation medium. Because of
atmospheric variations which interfere with HF transmissions, you must generally use more
than a single frequency, sometimes up to four or five, to maintain communications on a
circuit. In spite of the difficulties we encounter with HF propagation, the economic and
technical advantages of using high frequencies have led to rapid expansion of the use of the
HF band. Because the number of users has increased, the HF spectrum is approaching
saturation. The use of single-sideband equipment has increased the available HF spectrum.
Some predict that satellite communications will eventually relieve congestion in the HF band
and that, for some types of service, it will replace HF for long-distance communications. Even
with new technology the HF spectrum most likely will continue to be in high demand for some
time. HF produces Sky Waves they do not follow terrain like a ground wave, but travel
through the air and bounce off the ionosphere and return to earth hundreds of miles away.

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Very-High-Frequency and Above Communications

Frequencies above 30 megahertz are not normally refracted by the atmosphere and groundwave range is minimal. This normally limits our use of this frequency spectrum to line of sight
(Space Wave) this means they travel in a straight line only and will be blocked by terrain, and
do not bounce off the ionosphere. Frequencies at the lower end of this band are capable of
overcoming the shielding effects of hills and structures to some degree; but as the frequency
is increased, the problem becomes more pronounced. Reception is notably free from
atmospheric and man-made static. Because this is line-of-sight communications, the
transmitting antenna must be in a direct line with the receiving antenna and not over the
horizon. The SUPERHIGH- FREQUENCY (SHF) band is used for radar & satellite
communications, whereas the EXTREMELY HIGH-FREQUENCY (EHF) band is used only in
the experimental stage.
ANTENNAS
Antennas are usually , , or 1 full wavelength or more, A wavelength is basically the linear
length of the electromagnetic sine wave. The higher the frequency, the quicker sine waves
are pumped out, hence a shorter wavelength. In the example, the wave length of a 3KHz
signal is approx 100 KM, hence an antenna of just wavelength will be 25 KM long, for a full
wavelength, 100KM long. Even a mid range VLF wavelength would be about 50KM long,
necessitating a wavelength antenna having to be about 12KM long. This is one of the
reasons why low frequency communications are commonly land based (the enormous power
requirement is another reason).
In the case of a HF antenna, a mid range HF signal would have a wave length of around 50
meters, a wavelength antenna would be about 12 meters long, hence the HF antenna wire
on aircraft running from the tail fin to behind the fuselage. In the HF system wavelengths can
be from 100 meters down to 10 meters before we reach the VHF band, so the smallest HF
antenna of wavelength would still be 2.5 meters long, and would only be able to transmit
HF band frequencies from the highest end of the band, ie bordering on VHF band.

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When we get to UHF, with a bandwidth from 1 meter down to only 10CM, you can understand
why antennas for the higher frequency bands decrease in size, and require less power to
drive.

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AIRCRAFT RADIO COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

HF Communications
Up until the 1940s most aircraft radio communications utilised freqs in the LF, MF and HF
bands because suitable equipment was not available to use the higher frequencies. The only
modern aircraft that carry HF radios are those that operate long distances over water or in the
remote regions of the earth. Jets that routinely fly the Pacific or Atlantic will have HF radios
for ATC purposes. HF radios have a max range of about 2500 to 3000 KM compared to a
maximum of only about 400 KM for VHF comms. HF, long range is achieved by using sky
waves refracted off the ionosphere. Range is dependent upon frequency selected & time of
day (ionosphere) etc.
Smaller aircraft with HF comms normally have a long wire antenna that usually extends from
a wingtip or tailfin to an attachment point on the fuselage. HF comms radios use ground and
sky waves to achieve their greater reception range. Aircraft HF antennas produce an output
of 80 200 watts which is much higher than the output power typically found with VHF
transmitters, which is necessary to achieve the long distance communications. HF is more
effected by atmospheric interference than VHF, and sometimes an aircraft over the middle of
an ocean will lose communication because of thunderstorms or similar disturbances.
Long wire antennas are more commonly found on smaller or older aircraft. Jet aircraft rarely
have them because of the vibration and the increased risk of damage at high speeds. Once
upon a time trailing wire antennas were used and would roll out the back of an aircraft up to
200 ft. It was common in the 1930s & 40s. The better reception the antenna gave was at the
disadvantage of the added weight and complexity of the antenna extension assembly.
Trailing wire antennas are not suitable for high speed aircraft and are rarely used on modern
aircraft. Long wire antennas as shown on the Orion in the slide are still commonly
incorporated on modern light aircraft with HF. On a light aircraft the antenna runs from a
wingtip, to the tail and then down through a feed-through to the HF transceiver. They usually
employ a weak point so that if they do break theyll separate from the aircraft before wrapping
around something and causing damage or loss of control.

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VHF Communication
The VHF band was developed in the 1940s. VHF provides much clearer reception and is
much less effected by atmospheric conditions. The electromagnetic waves in the VHF band
are space waves, so are limited to line of sight. At 1000 ft the range is approx 60 KM. The
maximum range using ground based stations is approx 400KM to aircraft above 35 000 ft.
Much less power is required for VHF than HF comms, with VHF power outputs typically 5 20
watts.
The transmitter only needs to have reasonably low power to contact with ATC , because
normally the pilot is reasonably close to the tower. The pilot selects the appropriate channel
assigned to a particular tower frequency and then transmits. VHF is the standard radio
communications frequency band for ATC purposes in the USA, and ICAO has designated
VHF as the standard radio communication system for ATC purposes over land. Over the
oceans, HF is the band that provides the additional range necessary to reach shore based
receivers.

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UHF Communications
UHF transceivers are used by the military for air-to-ground, air-to-air operations and for
working with military communication satellites. Propagation follows the same line-of-sight
behavior as VHF. Some characteristics of UHF communication is detailed below.
The output power is a low level up to around 20 watts.
A UHF installation is similar to a VHF system.
Because UHF is readily beamed it is also typically used in many navigation aid applications,
eg ILS glideslope, DME and ADF.
UHF is also a common carrier of television signals
UHF systems operate in a frequency range where the radio wave is not reflected and
is similar to VHF in that it is a line of sight communications system.

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MODULATION
Amplitude Modulation
Human speech frequencies almost entirely fall below 3 KHz (lower than VLF band).
Transmission of this low frequency is easily achieved in wired communications (intercom),
but to transmit the human voice via electromagnetic waves would require enormous
antennas, and would require very high power to achieve.
Higher frequencies are easily transmitted. To achieve human voice transmission, a carrier
wave is transmitted in the desired frequency (HF, VHF, etc) and the human voice signal is
superimposed over the carrier wave. This is called modulation. At the receiving end, the
carrier wave is received, and the voice signal is extracted/separated from the carrier wave
thus reproducing the voice signal at the received destination. The reception process is called
de-modulation.
AM or FM, radios are the most common wireless communications device on the face of the
planet. Cellular phones, pagers, televisions, in fact just about everything "wireless" (with the
exception of infrared devices) uses modulated electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive
information. Almost every kind of radio transmitting device uses some form or variation of
either AM or FM to do its job.
Radio waves are part of a general class of waves known as electromagnetic waves. In
essence, they are electrical and magnetic energy which travels through space in the form of a
wave. They are different from sound waves, which are pressure waves that travel through air
or water and can even be compared to ocean waves, as a waveform traveling from one point
to another. The wave part is similar, but the energy involved is electrical and magnetic, not air
or water pressure/volume.
Electromagnetic waves show up as many things: At certain frequencies, they show up as
radio waves. At much higher frequencies, we call them infrared light. Still higher frequencies
make up the spectrum known as visible light. This goes on up into ultraviolet light, and x-rays.
Radio waves have two important characteristics that change. One is the amplitude, or
strength of the wave. This is similar to how high the waves are coming into shore from the
ocean. The bigger wave has a higher amplitude. The other thing is frequency. Frequency is
how often the wave occurs at any point. The faster the wave repeats itself, the higher the
frequency.
We have to impress the voice signal on the carrier wave in such a way that it can be
recovered at the other end. This process is known as modulation. In order to modulate a
radio wave, we have to change either or both of the two basic characteristics of the wave: the
amplitude or the frequency.

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If we change the amplitude, or strength, of the signal corresponding to the information we are
sending, we are using amplitude modulation, or AM. The earliest means of radio
communications was by Morse code, and the code key would turn the transmitter on and off.
The amplitude went from nothing to full power whenever the key was pressed, a basic form of
AM.
Modern AM transmitters vary the signal level smoothly in direct proportion to the sound they
are transmitting. Positive peaks of the sound produce maximum radio energy, and negative
peaks of the sound produce minimum energy.
The main disadvantage of AM is that most natural and man made radio noise is AM in nature,
and AM receivers have no means of rejecting that noise. Also, weak signals are (because of
their lower amplitude) quieter than strong ones, which requires the receiver to have circuits to
compensate for the signal level differences.
Frequency Modulation
In an attempt to overcome these problems, instead of modulating the amplitude, the
frequency was modulated. At its inception many engineers at that time said that FM was not
practical, but FM today is the mainstay of the broadcast radio services.
In a frequency modulated system, the frequency of the carrier is varied according to the
modulating signal. For example, positive peaks would produce a higher frequency, while
negative peaks would produce a lower frequency. At the receiving end a discriminator circuit
converts the frequency variations back to the original signal.
In this way, the effects of amplitude noise are minimized. Since the recovered audio is
dependent only on the frequency, and not the strength, no compensation for different signal
levels is required, as is the case with AM receivers.

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MODULATORS & DEMODULATORS

Take a fresh 9-volt battery and a coin.
Find an AM radio and tune it to an area of the dial where you hear static.
Now hold the battery near the antenna and quickly tap the two terminals of the battery with
the coin (so that you connect them together for an instant). You will hear a crackle in the
radio that is caused by the connection and disconnection of the coin.
Your battery/coin combination is a radio transmitter! It's not transmitting anything useful (just
static), and it will not transmit very far (just a few inches, because it's not optimised for
distance). But if you use the static to tap out Morse Code, you can actually communicate over
several inches with this crude device!
In a more complex radio transmitter, the voice signal is applied to the carrier wave, or
modulated, by a modulator. The two signals are combined and the modulated radio wave
(modulated RF) is transmitted from the antenna.
The receiver which is tuned to the same frequency as the transmitter, receives the modulated
signal and applies it to a demodulator where the voice signal is extracted from the carrier
wave (by filtering the carrier wave out, which is easy because we know exactly what
frequency to filter), then amplified and applied to a speaker or headset.

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Modulation
A high frequency carrier wave is modulated by an audio (voice) frequency by superimposing
the voice frequency on the carrier. When the two signals are combined at the base of the
transistor, the low frequency voice signal will modulate the carrier wave increasing and
decreasing the amplitude in proportion to the voice signal.
The carrier signal alone will increase and decrease the Emitter, collector current flow
uniformly, producing a constant amplitude output, the voice signal will further increase the
Emitter/collector current flow on the positive signals, and will decrease the current flow on the
negative signals, producing the modulating waveform as illustrated.
The modulated waveform is then transmitted from an antenna, at the frequency of the carrier
wave.

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Demodulation
The high frequency modulated electromagnetic wave is picked up by a receiver tuned to the
carrier frequency. The modulated signal is fed through a diode, effectively removing one-half
of the input waveshape. The remaining half of the modulated signal is filtered, leaving only
the voice signal, which is then amplified and applied to a speaker, reproducing the original
voice signal.
In frequency modulation (FM), the circuitry is different, and the voice signal modulates the
frequency of the carrier wave. The circuitry is a little more complex, but the same effect is
produced, by modulating a carrier wave at a transmitter, and demodulating it at a receiver.
The reason why AM is more susceptible to interference, is that EMF waves generated by
external sources, eg lightening, transformer EMF waves, static charge releases, all effect the
amplitude of the received modulated waveform, and are identified as components of the
original voice signal (only the carrier frequency is filtered out, any interference remains in the
demodulated signal).
In an FM transmission, the amplitude of the modulated signal is also effected by interference,
but the demodulator decodes the frequency variations, so the amplitude variations have no
effect on the demodulated signal (and interference does not have the capacity to effect the
frequency of the modulated wave, only the amplitude, eg spikes)

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RADIO TRANSCEIVER
A radio transmitter, and receiver perform similar functions, and can utilise much of the same
hardware. In reality, a receiver and transmitter are typically built into the same unit. There are
cases where dedicated transmitters and receivers are utilised, eg for navigation aids DME,
VOR, ILS, etc. But for the purpose of radio communications, transmitter/receivers or
transceivers are more the norm. This also illustrates why radio communications are half
duplex, the transmission line and antenna can only be used to transmit or receive at one
time, plus it is typical that some of the internal transceiver circuits would also be for universal
(TX/RX) usage. To achieve full duplex transmission two separate receiver/transmitter
systems are required, thus increasing overall weight and space required by the installations.
A microphone converts the soundwaves to electrical signals that are then combined with a
carrier wave in the transmitter using AM or FM modulation. The transmitter applies the signal
to an antenna and electromagnetic waves are radiated from the antenna. The transmitter
circuits of the radio transducer are energised whenever the push to transmit button is
pressed.
A receiver tuned to the same carrier wave frequency receives the modulated carrier wave
then separates the audio signal from the carrier wave using a demodulator. The audio output
from the demodulator is amplified and drives a speaker or headset to reproduce the
soundwaves that were picked up by the transmitter microphone. The receiver circuits function
whenever the radio is turned on (like your transistor radio receiver), until the push to
transmit button is pressed, when the receiver function will be replaced by the transmitter
function.

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Radio Control Panel

A radio controller provides the means to interface the system components, and to control
radio system function. It typically provides an on/off switch, control volume, select pre-set
frequencies or tune to a desired frequency and may incorporate some navigation aid
selections, eg direction finding The press to transmit button is normally remotely located, on
the control column would be typical.
Very wide range available and will vary significantly between aircraft models, types and
complexity of the aircraft. On fully digitised modern aircraft radio control may be performed
via FMC keypad and display, with no dedicated radio control panel fitted in the cockpit,
except for a volume control and PTT button. All frequency selections, tuning and mode
control can be performed through the FMC keypad and display. The volume control panel
and the press to talk switch (PTT) are located in the flight deck. The transceiver is installed in
an equipment bay and the antenna is mounted on the skin on the upper or lower surface of
the fuselage.
It is common to have in-use and standby frequencies available, to facilitate ease and speed
in switching from a primary to a secondary frequency, eg approach control and Surface
Movement control (SMC).

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Volume control, Squelch control, Mode selector control, On-off switch, and Receiver
selectivity switch. The transceiver has a monitor lamp and a squelch disable pushbutton.

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ARINC CONTROL & REPORTING SYSTEM (ACARS)

During peak traffic periods more than 1000 commercial flights may be found in the skies over
North America. ATC centres must manage and command all air traffic. In addition to this
there is a myriad of voice contacts between flight deck crews and ground controllers. In the
past much of the voice contact was devoted to describing routine aircraft manoeuvres such
as push back, take-off, landing, gate arrival and aircraft messages on aircraft performance,
fuel consumption, position reports, etc.
The ACARS solution was developed and implemented by ARINC (Aeronautical Radio
Incorporated) in the mid 1970s. The system was designed to cut down on flight crew
workload by utilising computers on board the aircraft and at ground facilities to exchange
routine reports and messages.
A substantial amount of information transmitted between Air Traffic Controllers and aircraft is
routine in nature, and can be communicated by automated systems rather than by voice
communications which are slow, and distract the flight crew from their primary task of flying
the aircraft. ACARS is a semi-automated system which performs the majority of routine
communications needing minimal flight crew input unless a non-routine event occurs. ACARS
information is a data transmission which can be viewed on a multi-function display or sent to
the cockpit printer to produce a hardcopy. Information transmitted from the aircraft is used to
plan aircraft turnarounds and can be stored in airline computer systems for use in planning
logistics support with respect to maintenance, replenishments, passenger consumables, etc.

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The acronym ACARS has two main definitions in use within the aviation world :
ARINC Communicating, Addressing & Reporting System, and
Aircraft Communicating, Addressing & Reporting System.
ACARS utilises the aircraft VHF radio system to transmit data between the aircraft and ATC.
The protocol for the information transmitted including codes and listing transmission content
is detailed in an ARINC standard. The ACARS Computer on the aircraft receives the ACARS
encoded data after it is received and demodulated by the VHF radio system. The ACARS
computer then decodes the data and provides a display to the flight crew.
Airborne ACARS components The airborne components of ACARS are management unit
(MU), control unit (CU) & printer.
The ACARS management unit (MU), is the unit that formats all the flight data that is sampled
during the flight. The MU collects data from the control unit, aircraft sensors, and OOOI event
sensors (explained below). The MU generates a GMT (Greenwich mean time) clock which is
used in recording the time of the OOOI events. When requested by the ground processor, the
flight information accumulated from various aircraft & avionic systems, the aircraft integrated
data system (AIDS) (not illustrated on the slide to minimise complexity) and flight-entry
terminals in the cockpit is formatted into a digitally coded signal that will be transmitted to the
ground processor by the VHF transceiver. The ACARS management unit controls the
transmission of air to ground messages through the VHF transceiver and receives digital
messages from the VHF transceiver. It contains circuits for the transmission and reception of
digital data, to control peripheral devices, to provide a continuous GMT (Greenwich mean
time), and for self-testing of the MU.
The flight crew interfaces with ACARS through the Control Unit (CU). The CU provides a
method for entering information into the data link system. The CU will contain an

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alphanumeric keyboard for entering information or responding to a function inquiry. CUs for
ACARS systems are typically designed for a particular users system. Because of the many
operations and messages the ACARS system is capable of reporting, the user often elects to
utilise a few of these capabilities. The CU is designed by considering these requirements.
The ACARS control unit provides the pilot interface with ACARS. It has the necessary
controls and switches to allow a pilot to enter the text portions of the departure/arrivals
reports and contains a display that can be used to review text information, display flight
number, RF, Greenwich mean time (GMT) and OOOI events. The control unit is one of the
many sources of data with which the MU interfaces in ACARS
OOOI is an abbreviation for out-off-on-in. Out is recorded when the aircraft is clear of the gate
and ready to taxi. Off occurs when the aircraft has lifted off the runway. On occurs when the
aircraft has landed. In occurs when the aircraft has taxied to the ramp area.

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The printer provides a hard copy print-out of data collected by the management unit. Data
that will be printed includes uplinked printer messages and data entered into the CU not
queued for transmission. Uplinked messages might include weather reports and dispatch
messages. An uplink is the radio transmission path upward from the earth to the aircraft.
Downlink (air to ground transmission) The airborne station will initiate communication. (For
example, a pilot initiated or a pre-defined event), arm itself, check if the ACARS channel is
available (hold message transmission if channel is not available), notify the aircrew when six
attempts have been made to transmit message without receiving an acknowledgment signal
(ACK). This will show up on an annunciator panel as NO COM. If two or more airborne
systems select the same instant to transmit, messages will be garbled. However retransmission of messages will be at random intervals, therefore avoiding messages being
sent at the same time.
The ground station receives the transmitted message, checks if message is free of errors, will
transmit ACK to airborne system if message is free from errors.
Uplink (ground to air transmission) A similar process to the one just described occurs for
uplink transmissions. There is one difference if a message is sent to the aircraft and found to
have an error. The aircraft will reply with a negative acknowledgment. Therefore NAK will be
sent by the airborne station, back to the ground station.
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
An article appeared in a magazine in 1945 by SF author, Arthur C. Clarke addressing the
issue of orbital location for geostationary communications satellites. All these problems
(communications) can be solved by the use of a chain of space stations with an orbital period
of 24 hours, which would require them to be at a distance of 42,000 kms from the centre of
the Earth. At this distance from the earth the satellite a would rotate at the same angular
velocity as the earth, so would remain fixed above the same point, that is they would never
rise or set. Three satellites could provide complete coverage of the entire planet. This means
that long range communications can be achieved by utilising the satellite system as a carrier,
superceding the necessity for aircraft to incorporate long range low frequency high power
transmitters. The Inmarsat SATCOM systems consists of three geostationary satellites
providing global coverage, a series of earth stations and the aircraft stations. The Inmarsat
system of communication satellites is used for both maritime and aviation.

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A UHF radio is installed in the aircraft to communicate with commercial satellites in orbit
overhead. To date it is being used primarily for telephone calls from bizjets and passenger
airliners. It is beginning to be used for datalinks from an aircraft in flight to the airlines ground
based computer system. This permits monitoring the progress of the flight and the status of
the aircraft systems (covered in Central Maintenance Computer System). In the future
SATCOMM will be used to replace HF systems for communications and ATC purposes for
aircraft over oceans or remote areas. The equipment currently available is very expensive,
the antenna used with SATCOMM is a special type that must be installed on top of the
aircraft. The High Gain System Antenna is for high speed data and voice communication.
SATCOM, transmits data from AIRCOM, ACARS, flight-crew voice communications,
passenger telephone, telex and fax.
In the early 1980s, INMARSAT, which was offering a satellite communications service to the
maritime community, identified that this service could be extended to the aviation community.
This was achieved through extension of the frequency range supported by the satellite
transponder into the aviation band. This was seen as the lowest cost option to enable
aviation to utilise satellite technology without the high cost of designing and launching its own
system. Aircraft operators saw the potential benefit of reducing the avionics systems needed
to be carried on aircraft (HF, VHF, Etc) and ATS providers in developing countries could offer
a service using satellites without the need to build up a costly ground infrastructure. Despite
the potential advantages of satellite communications, aviation has failed to utilise this
medium at the projected levels. With increasing pressure on current aviation spectrum
outside satellite communications (e.g. the VHF band), and with the possibility of new satellite
systems being developed, a fresh approach to identifying the opportunities of satellite
systems in civil aviation needs to be adopted.

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In fact due to the costs associated with satellite communications and the need to have
reliable data communications in remote and oceanic areas, aviation has developed an HF
data link system adding further to the non take-up of satellite communications.
Some of the negative perceptions of satellite communications include
Transit delay time of approximately 0.25 seconds in all communications (voice and
data);
Lack of coverage at high latitudes;
Satellite voice is seen primarily as a replacement for HF voice communication;
High cost of airborne installations and high cost of the use of the link;
Size of the avionics which for high rate systems excludes equipage on small and
medium size aircraft;
In summary the general perception of current satellite communications systems is that they
are expensive, only suitable for low-density airspace and are only likely to be fitted to long
haul aircraft. This perception continues to favour the use of terrestrial based systems in highdensity airspace to achieve the performance requirements. In recent years new possibilities
for the use of satellite technologies to support aviation communications are emerging which
can overcome some of the limitations listed above. If geostationary satellites are used then
there is little that can be done about the propagation delay but other limitations such as the
cost and size of avionics may be able to be reduced due to new signal processing
techniques. Therefore due to the increasing pressure on the existing VHF spectrum and
limitations of current technology, the time is right to re-evaluate the role that satellite
communications could play in meeting aviation requirements.

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PASSENGER COMMUNICATIONS
RF Frequencies are extensively used to provide essential communication, navigation and
surveillance functions, throughout all phases of flight. As such, they are critical to
aeronautical safety and regularity. Aircraft operators are now looking into offering novel
value-added services to their passengers: email and INTERNET access, on-demand video
and more generally multi-media. All of which require significant bandwidth too. Due to the
increasing pressure on the existing VHF spectrum and limitations of current technology
satellite communications could play an important role in meeting passenger communications
requirements. Passenger communications systems are still quite limited in all but the most
modern and technically developed aircraft.
The satellite communication system provides a means to provide additional comms links to
an aircraft (in addition to the VHF band), but installations are very expensive, take up
significant space and weight (all the cabling to the passenger seats) and satellite time is
expensive. Passenger communication systems have been incorporated in many bizjets and
military aircraft, where the installations are of a more limited nature than is required for a
large passenger aircraft.
Passenger communications includes Telephone, Fax and E-mail options. As described, the
radio link between aircraft and the ground is virtually unlimited in the type of data it can carry,
although full duplex operation requires a full suite of hardware for both the transmitter and
receiver, and it is necessary to then use two frequencies to conduct a full duplex
conversation. As long as there is a dedicated passenger communication system incorporated
in the aircraft, data can be transmitted and received in the same way as communications
described throughout this lesson. Restrictions in how many users at a time due to limitations
in RF channels. Installations require a significant amount of additional wiring and control
boxes to provide the connectivity to each passenger seat.
How does the phone actually work?

When a call is placed, information is sent from the phone handset to a transceiver then down
a ground radio base station. From there it is sent to the public telephone network. For satellite
calls mainly over water: information is sent first to an orbiting satellite. From there, the calls
are sent to a satellite earth station instead of a radio base station, and onto the public
telephone system. How is it possible to use in-flight phones when passengers may not use
cellular phones?
The radio frequencies used by cellular phones might interfere with communications and other
equipment on planes. The frequency assigned to in-flight phones is unique, so it does not
interfere with the plane's navigation, communications or data processing equipment.

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EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELT)

Emergency location equipment is used in aircraft for the transmission of emergency signals
as a result of a forced or emergency landing. The most common emergency locater
equipment transmits distress signals on two main frequencies which are recognised
internationally: 121.5 MHz civil monitoring band VHF, and 243.0 MHz military monitoring
band UHF. The relationship of 121.5 to 234.0 is exactly double. Both these frequencies are
monitored 24 hours per day by appropriate authorities and civil operations. Some commercial
aircraft also monitor these distress frequencies on their national and international flight
routes. A transmitter may be operated by the pilot from a switch in the cockpit or by an impact
switch which is either integral to the unit, or located at strategic points on the airframe, they
typically transmit for approximately 48 hours. An acceleration switch activates the transmitter
when a rapid deceleration force is applied along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The ELT
must be installed as far aft as possible but in front of the tail surfaces, since this area has
been shown to remain intact in most airplane crashes.
Types of emergency location equipment :Emergency locater beacons (ELBs), emergency

location transmitter/transceivers (ELTs), & underwater locater beacons (ULBs). Emergency
locater beacon An emergency locater beacon, or ELB, provides a signal for civil and military
emergency operations to determine the location of the transmitter device.
One style of ELB that is contained in the life rafts of passenger and military aircraft is a small
buoyant automatic transmitter, with a water activated battery and a self erecting antenna. The
ELB is attached to the life raft with a restraining strap and approximately 25 meters of cord.
When activated by immersion in water, the previously dry and therefore inert electrolyte is
saturated and begins operating as a battery.
Emergency locater transmitter/transceivers An emergency locater transmitter or ELT is an
airframe-mounted unit that can operate even if separated from the aircraft because it has an
internal magnesium battery pack. This must be tested and replaced at designated regular
intervals. The transmitter is located in the aft fuselage with the antenna usually located
immediately forward of the vertical fin. The signal is easily recognised and continuously
cycles from 300 to 1600 Hz. The tone therefore starts as a low sound and increases to a
higher pitch, and then starts the cycle again.
The distress signal operates on a line-of-sight basis and can be intercepted at approximately
100 miles range at 10,000 ft, given favourable conditions. Underwater locater beacon
Commercial passenger aircraft carry an emergency underwater locater beacon or ULB, as
part of the flight data recorder. The flight data recorder ULB emits an emergency signal either
above or below the water. Under water location beacons transmit on 37.5 kHz , which is a
low frequency band. This lower frequency has better characteristics for underwater
transmission.

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Any transmission on these frequency indicates an emergency situation, so they must not be
used for any purpose other than an emergency. The transmitted signals are a constant
beeping or similar, and act as a homing signal for emergency services. A radio can also be
used to verbally transmit an emergency situation on the distress frequency, by selecting the
frequency and broadcasting your message, eg Mayday, and your position. The advantage of
ELTs are that the transmission need not be initiated manually, and they will continue to
transmit until emergency services arrive, without somebody having to manually transmit to
provide the homing signal.
When ELTs were initially designed to be detected by overflying aircraft. Today, the primary
sensors are spaceborne satellites. Many distress signals by ELTs are not received by the
satellite sensors. Because of this, and the numerous inadvertent activations of ELTs, a new
digital ELT system was developed using a frequency of 406 MHz. The new system transmits
a distress signal that includes a coded identification of the aircraft in distress. This allows for
the identification of false signals much more quickly. A new development ties the 406 MHz
ELT to a Global Positioning System. This adds location to the position and identification of
the distress aircraft. This measurably reduces response time to the crash site. ELTs should
be accessible from outside the aircraft to allow for manual activation & deactivation (if set off
accidentally).

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COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER

The cockpit voice recorder (CVR) is a flight safety black box which is designed to monitor all
signals transmitted and received, as well as conversation and all other tones, aural warnings
or noises in the cockpit area. The CVR picks up, amplifies and records, on magnetic tape for
a period of 30 minutes, and is designed to be downloaded in the event of an accident to help
find out the cause of the accident, or other information that may assist in the investigation.
The magnetic tape medium is a 30 minute continuous tape which deletes the oldest
information as it records the newest. The recorder is actually painted bright orange, or orange
with white stripes and is located in the same region as the emerg ency beacons, in the aft
fuselage area forward of the vertical fin. This part of the aircraft is most likely to survive, in the
event of an accident. The system consists of:
cockpit control panel, including microphone, monitor and audio jack
cockpit voice recorder unit, including underwater location beacon.

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CVR Control Panel Switches
Microphone
The microphone is for the input of all cockpit communication, tones and noises in the cockpit
area.
Test button
This button provides a means of testing the performance of the CVR system. Correct
operation is shown by two sharp needle deflections into the green zone, or OK area of the
indicator.
Monitor
The monitor is used during the system test. The green zone indicates acceptable audio level,
quality and all channels recording.
Headphone
The headphone jack allows an audio check of the CVR system.
Erase button
The erase button allows for the magnetic tape to be completely erased. The button must be
held for approximately 15 seconds.

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Designed to prevent in-flight erasure and to minimize inadvertent erasure during crash impact
A typical cockpit voice recorder records four channels continuously and separately, as
follows:
Channel 1 records the flight interphone and passenger address
Channel 2 records the output of the first officers audio panel
Channel 3 records the output from the captains audio panel
Channel 4 records all cockpit audio that is picked up by the cockpit microphone,
located in the overhead switch panel.
It is important that Channel 4 records cockpit noise separately from all other inputs. This
information is vital during an accident investigation, and must be as clear and uninterrupted
as possible. The system is different from most of the systems that you will encounter in the
aircraft industry, in that there is no control switch, ensuring that:
the system is operational immediately the cockpit voice recorder circuit breaker is
closed
power is supplied from the 115 volts AC system, whenever the aircrafts generators
are operating
the voice recorder cannot be played back in the air
the recorded conversations can be quickly erased, only when:
the aircraft is on the ground
the park brake is set
the erase button on the control panel is pressed for 15 seconds.
a test switch is provided on the control panel. When pressed, it shows objective
evidence of the system performance, via the meter deflection.

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TOPIC 11.5.2.2: AVIONIC SYSTEMS NAVIGATION (ATA 34)

NAVIGATION PRINCIPLES
It's easy to follow a trail or map over land, orienting yourself by following a river, a valley
between mountain chains, or a coastline. There are many landmarks that you can see to set
your course. But for sailors traveling across the ocean and pilots flying at high altitude, over
oceans, in fog/cloud or at night it is a different story.
The beginnings of navigation are associated with sea travel. In the early days of flying,
maritime navigation equipment was the only navigation aids available to early airmen. To
describe the fundamentals of navigation we will initially refer to developments from the early
sailing days.
The earliest travelers on the open seas stayed close to coastlines or sailed between islands
(so did the early pilots, low level using land maps). Some early explorers such as the
Polynesian islanders learned to follow the ocean currents, stars, and birds to cross the
ocean. But most explorers never ventured more than a day away from sight of land. The
foundations of long distance navigation rely on the principles of latitude and longitude.
It is crucial to understand the concept of location as a function of latitude and longitude. A

latitude or longitude is similar to an x or y coordinate on a graph or grid, except in this case
the grid overlays the spherical Earth. Because the Earth is round, we use an angular
distance, rather than a straight distance to measure from a point of origin (which would
usually be 0,0 on a flat graph). On the Earth, the origin or 0,0 point is the center of the Earth.
There are 360 degrees in a circle, 60 minutes in a degree and on a chart, 100 seconds in a
minute.
On a flat grid or graph we define a location by an x and y coordinate. On the Earth's surface
we can define a location by a latitude and a longitude. On the illustration on the slide point p
is located at 40 degrees north latitude and 60 degrees west longitude.
On a graph we can measure or calculate the distance between two points, the same is true
on the Earth's surface, using the latitude and longitude system. On the Earth's surface, 1
degree of latitude equals 111 km or 60 nautical miles, therefore 1 minute of latitude equals 1
nautical mile. Longitude is a bit more complicated because the distance between meridians
decreases to zero at the poles. However, at the equator, 1 degree of longitude also equals
111 km or 60 nautical miles (so at the equator 1 minute of one degree equals 1 nautical mile).
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Parallels of Latitude
Where then on the Earth, would the distance from the origin in a north-south direction be
zero? It is along the equator, we call this zero latitude. Both latitude and longitude are
measured in degrees, minutes and seconds
Latitude is measured as the angular distance in degrees north or south of the equator, the
north and south pole are located at 90 degrees north and south latitudes respectively.
Latitude lines are parallel to each other so they are also called parallels. East - West running
circles on a globe which connect points of equal latitude are called parallels of latitude.
Lines of latitude vary in their circumference, and run parallel to each other. The Arctic circle
for example has a far smaller circumference than the equator. The equator has the greatest
circumference and every other parallel of latitude is smaller.
The Earth is a sphere with 360 degrees in it. Each of the poles North and South is at 90
latitude, since they are one quarter of the way around the sphere. The North Pole is at 90
North Latitude and the South Pole is at 90 South Latitude.
There are several identified latitude lines. The Tropic of Cancer (23 1/2N) and the Tropic of
Capricorn (23 1/2S), mark the farthest points north and south of the equator where the sun's
rays fall vertically and the Arctic Circle (66 1/2N) and the Antarctic Circle (66 1/2S), mark
the farthest points north and south of the equator where the sun appears above the horizon
each day of the year. Inside the Arctic circle, the sun never rises for the winter months.
A position on the Earth can be determined more accurately by pinpointing minutes and
seconds. Each degree can be divided into sixty minutes. Each minute can be divided into
sixty seconds. So Brisbane is at 27 28' 0 S which is 27 degrees, 28 minutes 0 seconds
South Latitude (and 153 2 0 East longitude) Hong Kong is 22 15 0 North latitude (and
114 10 0 East Longitude).
If seconds are used, it is expressed as 27 28' 14 S which is 27 degrees, 28 minutes 14
seconds South Latitude.
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Lines of Longitude
Where is the east - west longitude zero line? A long time ago it was decided that the zero
circle would be at the line which passes through Greenwich, England. This is often called the
Prime Meridian, or the zero longitude line. Longitude lines are numbered west and east of the
Prime Meridian at 0 degrees longitude. The Prime Meridian originally went through Portugal,
but when England became more prominent in exploration, English mapmakers moved the
Prime Meridian to Greenwich, England, where it remains today.
Longitude is measured as the angular distance east or west of the zero longitude line. North South running circles which connect points of equal longitude are called longitudinal
meridians.
Longitude lines circle the Earth running lengthwise from North to South like orange
segments. They come together at the poles so the distance between longitude lines is
greatest at the equator and less as they approach the poles. Lines of longitude all have the
same circumference and intersect at the poles. Lines of Longitude are LONGER than lines of
latitude (except for the equator). This is a method of remembering longitude and latitude.
The International Dateline is at both 180 degrees East longitude and 180 degrees West
longitude, halfway around the world. On one side of the International Dateline it may be
Tuesday, but on the other side is Wednesday. If you keep flying west all the way around the
world, you will keep getting one hour earlier (remember that the sun rises in the east).
Eventually after 24 hours of flying you will be 24 hours earlier or the day before. Countries
have decided to mark that line as the International Dateline.
So Brisbane is at 153 2 East Longitude which is 153 degrees, 2 minutes 0 seconds East of
Greenwich (and 27 28' 0 South latitude)
Hong Kong is 114 10 East Longitude which is 114 degrees, 10 minutes 0 seconds East of
Greenwich (and 22 15 0 North latitude ).
If seconds are used, it is expressed as 153 2' 45 S which is 153 degrees, 2 minutes 45
seconds East longitude.
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Determining Latitude
Sailors could determine their latitude by using an instrument such as a sextant, and
measuring the angle of a star or the sun above the horizon then comparing that angle to a
chart. The North Star or Polaris, can be used to determine latitude in the northern
hemisphere. It's a bit more difficult in the southern hemisphere but the Southern Cross can
be used in the same manner. At the Northern Geographic Pole, the North Star is located
almost directly overhead. So you would have to look straight up to see it. The North Star
appears lower and lower in the sky as you travel toward the equator, where the North Star is
just visible at the horizon. So, you can use the position of the North Star in the sky to
measure your latitude. Specifically, your latitude standing somewhere between the North
Pole and the equator is determined by the angle of your line of sight to Polaris.
Principle of a sextant
Using a Protractor, a short piece of string or thread, a small washer or bolt and a drinking
straw you can construct a simple sextant. Construct the device shown on the slide. It's called
a clinometer.
Go outside on a clear night and locate the North Star, also called Polaris. Once you have
found the North Star, sight it through the straw. Hold still until the washer has stopped
swinging, and then hold the string in place against the protractor. Read the number of
degrees between 0 and 90 and subtract your reading from 90. You now have a
measurement for your latitude in degrees. A sextant works on the same principle
Navigators found they could determine a ships latitude quite easily by checking the height of
the noon sun. The Greeks also invented the cross-staff and the astrolabe, used to measure
the altitudes (angular altitude) of celestial bodies. The cross-staff was a stick about a meter
long, with a shorter sliding stick set at right angles. The navigator pointed the staff at a spot
halfway between the horizon and the sun or a star. The crosspiece was then adjusted until
the sights at its ends were in line with the celestial body and the horizon. A scale along the
stick showed the angle of the body above the horizon. For the most part, the cross-staff was
used to find the latitude by measuring the altitude of the Pole Star above the horizon. This, of
course, was useless in cloudy weather. It could also be used to determine the altitude of the
sun, but this required the observer to look directly into the blinding sun.
The astrolabe was usually made of bronze, with a pointer pivoting from its center. One sailor
held the astrolabe by means of a small ring at its top, while another knelt facing the
instruments rim. The kneeling person aimed the pointer at the star and read the angle from
markings on the disk.
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Figuring Your Longitude

A vessel's latitude was easily found by observing the height of the noon sun, but a method for
finding longitude remained a mystery. It takes the Earth 24 hours to rotate on its axis, when it
is 12 noon in Greenwich, it is 12 midnight on the other side of the Earth, on the International
Dateline. Since 24 divides into 360 of a circle 15 times, for every 15 the time at the local
areas differ by 1 hour. Therefore, local time differs by one hour between two locations that
are 15 of longitude apart. So if you are two hours later than Greenwich, you would be 30
West in longitude away from Greenwich, since the Earth rotates from East to West. So time is
the clue for knowing your longitude. Early navigators realised they could figure their local time
by seeing when the sun's shadow was the shortest on a sundial making it local noon. If they
also knew the matching time at Greenwich, they could determine their longitude and follow a
charted course.
This idea was very important to sailors and navigators in the Seventeenth Century. They
would measure the local time, wherever they were by observing the Sun, but navigation
required that they also know the time at some reference point e.g. Greenwich in order to
calculate their longitude. Although accurate pendulum clocks existed in the Seventeenth
Century, the motions of a ship and changes in humidity and temperature would prevent such
a clock from keeping accurate time at sea.
In 1728, a British clockmaker named John Harrison developed a clock which was
consistently accurate at sea. At last the mariner had the ability to easily and consistently
determine his exact position, latitude by gauging the angle (or elevation) of the sun or stars,
and latitude by knowing the difference in time between local time and GMT (Greenwich Mean
Time). Greenwich mean time is also known as Zulu time.
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Nautical Miles
All navigation uses the Nautical Mile as the unit of distance. Traditionally a nautical mile is
6,080 feet but more precisely 6,076.11549 feet. In metric measurement it is 1,852 meters,
which is one minute of arc of a great circle of the Earth. Even under the metric system, the
unit of distance for navigation is still called the nautical mile. One knot converted to miles per
hour (mph) would be approximately 1.15 mph. One mile per hour would be 0.868 knots. A
statute mile is the common "mile" with a length of 5,280 feet. Therefore a statute mile is not
as long as a nautical mile. One nautical mile would equal approximately 1.15 statute miles.
Making the conversion from nautical miles to statute miles would be done as 120 nautical
miles x 1.15 statute miles = 138 statute miles. Converting from statute to nautical miles would
require dividing by 1.15. Therefore 200 statute miles would equal (200 / 1.15 = 174) 174
nautical miles.
Nautical mile (nmi):

A unit of distance used in navigation and based on the length of one minute of arc taken
along a great circle. Note 1: Because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, various values have
been assigned to the nautical mile. The value 1852 meters (6076.1 ft.) has been adopted
internationally. Note 2: The nautical mile is frequently confused with the geographical mile,
which is equal to 1 min of arc on the Earth's equator (6087.15 ft.). Find the length (ft) of the
shortest nautical mile, the one based on the circumference of the great circle through the
poles (24,817 mi).
Because the earth is slightly bulged in the middle, the one minute of arc differs between a
great circle taken through the poles and the equator, so a standard measurement is used
6080 feet slightly. The great circle used to determine a nautical mile is illustrated on the slide.
Knots
Many of the air navigational terms come from our heritage of sea navigation. The speed of a
ship was often gauged by guesswork or watching weed or flotsam floating past. A wood chip,
thrown over the bow and timing it's journey to the stern would be enough to calculate a ship's
speed. Later a line was tied to a piece of wood. This line had knots tied to it at regular
intervals and the sailor would relate the knots slipping through his fingers to the time elapsed.
He then calculated the ship's speed - in "knots". It is this same term that is used in
aeronautics and aviation to indicate flight speed, however without the knotted rope trailing
behind the aircraft.
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Log Line
The log line is an old instrument for measuring the speed of the ship. It consisted of a flat
piece of wood (the log), which was weighted at the bottom edge to enable it to float upright in
the water. To the log was attached a long rope (log line). The log line was wound on a spool
(log reel) so that it could be reeled out after the log was thrown into the water at the aft (rear)
of the ship. The friction of the water held the log in place as the ship sailed away from it.
On the log line, knots were tied at intervals of 7 fathoms -- one fathom being equal to 6 feet.
As the ship sailed away from the log, the sailors taking the reading would count the number
of knots that passed over the rail in a period of half-a-minute. That gave them their
approximate speed in knots (equal to land miles-per-hour). This was a rather crude way of
taking the measurement of speed, but it was the best available in those times.
In later times the sailors used a 28-second glass for speeds under 8 knots, and a 14-minute
glass if the speed exceeded 8 knots-per-hour. But it must be remembered that the fastest the
Mayflower would have traveled would probably have been between 4 and 6 knots.
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Compass Directions
In navigation and surveying all measurement of direction is performed by using the numbers
of a compass. A compass is a 360 circle where 0/360 is North, 90 is East, 180 is South,
and 270 is West. The north end of a compass needle points to the north magnetic pole, not
the geographic north pole. Magnetic North is referenced to the magnetic North pole, True
North is referenced to the geographic North pole.
Runways are laid out according to the numbers of a compass. A runway's compass direction
is indicated by a large number painted at the end of each runway. A runway's number is not
written in degrees, but is given a shorthand format. For example, a runway with a marking of
"14" is actually close to (if not a direct heading of) 140 degrees. This is a southeast compass
heading. A runway with a marking of "31" has a compass heading of 310 degrees, that is, a
northwest direction. For simplicity, the FAA rounds off the precise heading to the nearest
tens. For example, runway 7 might have a precise heading of 68 degrees, but is rounded off
to 70 degrees. Each runway has a different number on each end. All runways follow this
directional layout.
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AVIATION NAVIGATION
The type of navigation used by pilots depends on many factors. The navigation method used
depends on where the pilot is going, how long the flight will take, when the flight is to take off,
the type of aircraft being flown, the on-board navigation equipment, the ratings and currency
of the pilot and especially the expected weather.
To navigate a pilot needs to know the following:
Starting point (point of departure)
Ending point (final destination)
Direction of travel
Distance to travel
Aircraft speed
Aircraft fuel capacity
Aircraft weight & balance information

With this information flight planning can commence and the proper method of navigation can
be put to use.
Pilotage
The earliest travelers on the open seas stayed close to coastlines or sailed between islands,
this was equivalent to aviation pilotage where pilots fly low level using land maps and
landmarks to navigate. In its simplest form, air navigation is the guiding of an aircraft by
means of landmarks. The early-day flier found his way by following rivers and railroads and
by watching for prominent towns and other outstanding objects. This is the same simple
process that a motorist uses to find his way. The motorist follows the highway, watching the
signs or landmarks indicating his desired route.
For a non-instrument rated, private pilot planning to fly VFR (Visual Flight Rules) in a small,
single engine airplane around the local area on a clear day, the navigation is simple. The
navigation process for such a local trip would be pilotage. The pilotage method of navigation
developed naturally through time as aircraft evolved with the ability to travel increasingly
longer distances.
Flying at low altitudes, pilots used rivers, railroad tracks and other visual references to guide
them from place to place. This method called pilotage is still in use today. Pilotage is mainly
used by pilots of small, low speed aircraft who compare symbols on aeronautical charts with
surface features on the ground in order to navigate. This method has some obvious
disadvantages. Poor visibility caused by inclement weather can prevent a pilot from seeing
the needed landmarks and cause the pilot to become disoriented and navigate off course. A
lack of landmarks when flying over the more remote areas can also cause a pilot to get lost.
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This crude technique of navigating by landmarks was satisfactory for short daytime flights
made within sight of the ground. But as aircraft design progressed, production increased and
traffic expanded. As air transportation grew in importance, the need arose for precise
schedules to handle traffic by night as by day, over water as over land, and in foul weather as
in fair. The old hit-or-miss method of navigation was no longer adequate; it had to be
replaced by newer and more precise methods.
Dead Reckoning
After the invention of the compass, mariners could begin reckoning their approximate position
by using their speed and time underway to calculate distance traveled. This "deduced
reckoning" (or dead reckoning) wasn't very accurate but it formed the basis of navigation. In
the attempt to improve the methods and instruments of air navigation, much was borrowed
from the long-established science of marine navigation. However, some of the marine
equipment was undesirable for fast-moving aircraft. Therefore, equipment design and
methods had to he changed for air navigation.
Of course, some of the problems of air navigation had no close parallel in marine navigation.
These problems had to be solved independently. Thus, air navigation progressed by the
improvement of old instruments and methods and the invention of new. However, even with
new instruments, there is one real basis for air navigation and that is dead reckoning.
Determining an aircraft position by application of speed and direction data to a known
previous position is known as dead reckoning. In air navigation you are confronted with three
basic problems:
(1) calculating your position at any time,
(2) calculating the time at which you will reach any point, and
(3) calculating a magnetic heading to take the aircraft to any desired destination.
Dead reckoning is the method of solving these three problems by means of measurements
and calculations involving heading, time, a known position, and true airspeed and wind
velocity or groundspeed and ground track. The measurement of windspeed/direction is also
difficult to do. Pilots of aircraft not fitted with sophisticated equipment rely on weather
forecasts for wind data which has obvious limitations.
"Dead" Reckoning (or "Ded" for Deductive Reckoning) is another basic navigational method
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used by low speed, small airplane pilots. It is based on mathematical calculations to plot a
course using the elements of a course line, airspeed, course, heading and elapsed time.
During this process pilots make use of a flight computer. Manual or electronic flight
computers are used to calculate time-speed-distance measurements, fuel consumption,
density altitude and many other en route data necessary for navigation.
The estimated time en route (ETE) can be calculated using the flight distance, the airspeed
and direction to be flown. If the route is flown at the airspeed planned, when the planned flight
time is up, the destination should be visible from the cockpit.
Navigating using known measured and recorded times, distances, directions and speeds
makes it possible for positions or "fixes" to be calculated or solved graphically. A "fix" is a
position in the sky reached by an aircraft following a specific route. Pilots flying the exact
same route regularly can compute the flight time needed to fly from one fix to the next. If the
pilot reaches that fix at the calculated time, then the pilot knows the aircraft is on course. The
positions or "fixes" are based on the latest known or calculated positions.
Direction is measured by a compass or gyro-compass. Time is measured on-board by the
best means possible. And speed is either calculated or measured using on-board equipment.
Navigating now by dead reckoning would be used only as a last resort, or to check whether
another means of navigation is functioning properly. There are navigation problems
associated with dead reckoning. For example, errors build upon errors. So if wind velocity
and direction are unknown or incorrectly known, then the aircraft will slowly be blown off
course. This means that the next fix is only as good as the last fix.
INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

An Inertial Navigation System (INS) is very simple in theory, but complicated in practice. Put
simply, it is a totally self-contained dead reckoning system. Given its starting position, INS
keeps track of all movements in all directions so it calculates the aircraft's flight position in
relation to that point.
INSs are unique in that they are completely self-contained. That is, they require no facilities
external to the aircraft in the form of ground transmitters or satellites to make them work.
Accordingly, they are independent navigation systems. This is different to VLF/Omega, or
Global Positioning Systems (GPS) which are termed dependant navigation systems as they
need ground equipment or satellites to work. An Inertial Navigation System is a Dead
Reckoning navigation system. It performs all calculations on present position based on
measurements of speed, heading, time, etc just as a pilot does when navigating via dead
reckoning, but an INS is incomparably more accurate than a human.
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Present position
Throughout flight the INS constantly computes the aircrafts position which is expressed in
terms of latitude and longitude. The pilot can view an instantaneous update of the present
position of the aircraft at any time during flight, typically on a HSI. The term inertial navigation
gives us a clue to the basic principle of operation of these type of systems. Measurement of
the accelerations resulting from forces which change aircraft inertia is the basis of INS.
Accurate measurement of acceleration is crucial to the performance of an INS.
Accelerometers
Inertial Navigation Systems simply measure the magnitude of aircraft acceleration, and then
use that information to compute velocity and distance traveled. The graphic on the slide
shows a simple pendulum. You can visualise what happens to the pendulum if it is attached
to a vehicle which starts to move forward, the pendulum swings towards the rear of the
vehicle. This characteristic is explained by Newton's First Law of Motion, which states:
A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in motion tends to remain in motion in a
straight line unless forced to change its state by an external force.
Newtons second law of motion states:
The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force causing it and inversely
proportional to the mass of the body.
Newtons second law applies to the pendulum in the vehicle on the slide and we can use the
pendulum to measure acceleration. The magnitude of acceleration can be measured
because the distance moved by the pendulum is proportional to the applied force. That is, the
greater the acceleration, the further the pendulum will move rearwards.
A device used to measure acceleration is called an accelerometer. Note that an

accelerometer will measure acceleration only - that may seem like an obvious statement but
it is important to realise that once the vehicle is in a steady state of motion (or rest) the
pendulum will hang vertically. For example, let us assume our vehicle accelerates from rest
to 100 km/hr, then cruises at that speed for a short period before stopping. When the vehicle
is accelerating the pendulum will swing backwards. However, during cruise at 100 km/hr the
pendulum will hang vertically as velocity is constant and acceleration is zero. When the
brakes are applied the pendulum swings forward and the harder the brakes are applied the
further forward it will swing. Finally, when the vehicle is stationary the pendulum hangs
vertical again.
Accelerometers are sensitive only along a single axis. This axis of maximum sensitivity is
known as the sensitive axis of the accelerometer. To measure N-S & E-W accelerations, two
accelerometers are required.
An INS measures acceleration in longitudinal and Lateral axes and plots aircraft movement
with respect to aircraft velocity (speed and direction or heading). Because the functionality of
an INS basically depends on gravity as the constant, it is unaffected by wind and atmospheric
conditions like a pitot/static system. An INS can very accurately detect any induced
accelerations, eg drift and cross wind so can calculate groundspeed, heading and time (the 3
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requirements for a dead reckoning system) with exacting accuracy, providing a reliable dead
reckoning navigation reference.
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Stable Platform
The transmitter provides an electrical output proportional to acceleration. So accelerometer
does not detect a pitch up angle as an acceleration, gyros utilised to stabilise a platform so
accelerometers are always maintained parallel with the earths surface (perpendicular to
gravity). The gyroscope is mounted directly to the platform. Any displacement of the platform
away from the reference, or null, position is sensed by the gyroscope which provides an
electrical signal proportional to the displacement. This signal is applied to a torque motor
which is used to drive the platform back to the reference position. The advantage of using the
gyroscope to stabilise a platform in the above manner is that the gyro is not subjected to
forces likely to cause it to precess. In effect the gyro is used as a sensor, with the output
amplified and applied to a servomechanism. This method ensures minimal gyroscope
movement and platform movements are virtually negligible.
Integrators
The magnitude of acceleration can be measured using an accelerometer. Acceleration can
be used to the determine speed and distance traveled by a vehicle. The mathematical
process of integration is used to derive velocity from acceleration then used again to derive
the displacement or distance travelled from velocity. There are various ways of
demonstrating how this is performed, but rather than inflict the mathematics on you, accept
that it is simply a function of time. So, if we accelerate at a given rate for a certain time we will
attain a certain velocity. Likewise if our vehicle moves at a steady velocity for a period of time
it will travel a specified distance which can be calculated.
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For example:
A vehicle accelerates from rest at 10 metres/second/second. After 10 seconds it is

traveling at a velocity of 100 meters per second.
After 10 seconds at a velocity of 100 meters per second a vehicle will travel a
distance of 1000 metres.
During acceleration the vehicle velocity is constantly changing. The mathematics becomes a
little more complex but we can perform this function electronically using an integrator.
Velocity can be calculated by multiplying acceleration by time. Distance traveled can be
calculated by multiplying velocity by time. These calculations may be performed electronically
using an integrator circuit which effectively multiplies the signals by time.
Speed is a single dimensional term, one accelerometer cannot determine aircraft direction,
only speed in that direction. Velocity is speed and direction, requires two accelerometers to
determine N-S & E-W components to plot velocity, distance and hence position.
A two degree of freedom INS contains the following major components:
Computer (contains integrators, amplifiers, processing circuits, power supplies, etc to

support stable platform elements)
two accelerometers
two degree of freedom gyroscopically stabilised platform.
The primary functions of the INS computer are to:
compute aircraft velocity and distance traveled using acceleration data
provide output of command navigational signals required to maintain an aircraft on the

planned course
provide platform correction signals.
In order to measure acceleration in the horizontal plane two accelerometers are required.
One measuring north/south acceleration and the other measuring east/ west acceleration.
The sum of the acceleration signals equals the actual direction of acceleration.
Although an INS is a very accurate and reliable navigation reference, recent innovations in
laser detecting capabilities have resulted in the Accelerometer and Gyro based inertial
reference systems being replaced by Laser Ring Gyros.
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Inertial Navigation System Components
A typical INS contains the following components:
Inertial Navigation Unit (INU)
Control/Display Unit (CDU)
Mode Selector Unit (MSU)
Battery Unit (BU).
Inertial navigation unit (INU) is a black box component which contains the INS computer and
stabilised platform.
The major functions of the INS computer are:
compute aircraft velocity and distance travelled using lateral acceleration data
provide outputs of aircraft present position, groundspeed, true heading, track, wind
speed/direction, distance/time to next waypoint, cross track distance and track angle
error (outputs will vary dependant on equipment manufacturer and system
configuration)
provide platform correction signals.
Control/display unit (CDU) contains an alphanumeric display, switches and a keyboard to

provide an interface from the Inertial Navigation Unit enabling flight crews to:
enter initial position, waypoint data and other information to the INS
access data for display
receive INS alerts/warnings.
In aircraft with digital data buses and Flight Management computer systems the INU may not
have a dedicated control display unit, as INU data would likely be entered/programmed
through the FMC control display unit.
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Mode selector unit (MSU) is a simple switching and indicator unit used by the flight crews to:
apply power to the system
select the mode of operation (initial start-up and alignment, Navigation modes, testing
and calibration)
receive INS alerts/warnings.
Battery unit provides an alternate source of electrical power and can supply the INS for up to
30 minutes if all other power is lost. During normal operation the BU is on standby and is
maintained at full charge by a trickle charge supply from the INU. Battery size and capacity
varies between installations, often a 19 cell, 15 ampere-hour, nickel-cadmium type battery is
used.
Alternatively, The INS may not have a dedicated battery for operation in event of a power
supply fail, the aircraft battery may be utilised through the essential battery bus. In this case,
whenever primary power to the INS is lost, the aircraft battery continues to supply power
without any interruption for as long as the system is designed to provide it.
Inertial Navigation System Operation
The heart of an Inertial Navigation System (INS) is the Inertial Navigation Unit (INU). It is a
fully self contained system that uses gyros, accelerometers and a navigation computer to
calculate position. It does not require any external inputs in the form of radio waves or digital
data. INS is extremely accurate and when set at a known destination prior to departure it will
calculate aircraft present position, groundspeed, true heading, track, wind speed/direction,
distance/time to next waypoint, cross track distance and track angle error for the duration of
the flight, providing the pilot with an accurate and reliable source of navigation information
which continuously tracks present position. INUs can be programmed with waypoints, and
when coupled to an autoflight system can provide steering commands to follow a
programmed flight path.
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Inertial navigation systems do suffer from drifting, typically around 1 to 2 nautical miles per
hour, meaning over an 8 hour flight the maximum error a serviceable INU would suffer would
be 16 Nautical miles. To maintain precision, many INS systems can be manually or
automatically updated with reference to visual landmarks, Radio Navigation transmitters, or
GPS. When the aircraft acquires an exact position fix the INU is updated and any
accumulated error is removed, thus keeping the INU exactingly accurate for the duration of
the flight.
Once turned on by the mode selector unit the INU gyros will run up to speed and the platform
will align with respect to gravity. The INU will detect the rotation of the earth and can
therefore establish its own reference to true North, and will perform this during the initial
alignment. The INU requires local Lat/Long to be input so it can correct gyro drift for earth
and transport rate, and to give it a starting point to begin navigating from. The local Lat/Long
and any waypoint data is input via the Control Display unit. The INU must not be moved
during its alignment phase as this will cause erroneous accelerations to be detected resulting
in a low quality alignment, creating expanding errors as the flight continues unless an update
is performed.
Once the INU is fully aligned (up to 3 minutes for gyro INUs & much faster for ring laser
INUs) it can be selected to the nav mode and will from that point keep track of exactly where
the aircraft is.
An uninterrupted power supply to an INU is absolutely critical. All INUs require an
emergency power source to provide uninterrupted power in the event of power fluctuations or
surges, and to provide emergency power in the event of a primary power supply failure. If an
INU loses power for even a short length of time the accelerometer outputs will be reset, or
changes in velocity will be missed and errors will amplify the longer the flight continues. The
standby power can be provided by a dedicated INU battery unit or from the aircraft main
batteries through an essential or emergency battery bus, as long as power is not interrupted
even for a fraction of a second while busses are switched.
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Ring Laser Gyro

Laser gyros are now widely used in aircraft navigation applications. They provide accurate,
independent navigational data with high accuracy and reliability. They are a solid state
device, & are less susceptible to malfunctions, compared to gyro stabilised platform systems.
They are also extremely accurate. They are still a dead reckoning system, and require no
external inputs to function.
Laser Ring gyro inertial units are more accurately referred to as strapdown systems because
it does not require a gyro stabilised platform as described in a conventional INU. Pitch and
roll movements which would normally introduce errors in an accelerometer, are provided to
the computer and the accelerometer outputs are modified electronically to compensate for
attitude changes.
This form of Inertial Reference Unit normally provides primary Attitude information, and can
also measure altitude (inertially), rate of ascent & descent and groundspeed. Outputs from an
IRU are typically distributed over a digital data bus to flight control computers, navigation
computers, multi-function displays, etc.
Fundamentals of laser operation
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation & was first
discovered in 1960.The first step in producing Laser is the ionisation of a gas which may be
helium, argon, krypton, neon or xenon. Each gas produces a different colour (and
wavelength) of light. A mixture of helium and neon is used in ring laser gyros. This gas
mixture is held at low pressure inside a sealed tube exposed to an anode and cathode plate.
When a high voltage is applied across these plates the gases ionise, producing a glow
discharge similar to fluorescent tubes. In laser gyroscopes the applied voltage is around 3000
volts.
What is the difference between laser light and say ordinary white light? Firstly, white light is a
mixture of many wavelengths; laser light is a single wavelength which is dependant on the
type of gas used. Secondly, ordinary light is scattered in all directions but laser light is a
parallel beam. For example, recent experiments using a pencil sized laser light aimed at the
moon found it spread to a distance of only two miles over the distance of 250,000 miles.
Laser is termed coherent light which means it is of a specific wavelength.
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Construction of the ring laser gyroscope

Ring laser gyros are not gyroscopes in the sense that we know them. They are simply two
beams of laser light rotating in opposite directions engineered to detect motion and behave
like a gyro. Laser ring gyros are constructed so that two laser beams are reflected around a
triangle causing the light to travel in an enclosed loop. The light travels in both directions at
the same time, so we have a clockwise beam and a counter-clockwise beam.
So how can this be used to detect motion? Picture a merry-go-round platform which is
stationary, with two people walking around it from the same starting point. One walks
clockwise and the other anticlockwise, and both can walk entirely around the merry-go-round
back to their starting point by walking 100 steps. However, if the platform is rotated slowly
clockwise, the person walking with the platform would need to take shorter steps to complete
the journey in the same number of steps. Conversely, the person walking against the
direction of rotation would need to take longer steps to complete the journey in 100 steps (like
walking on an escalator more steps to achieve the same distance).
This can also be explained using the Doppler principle.
A similar phenomenon takes place in our laser gyro. If the gyro is turned clockwise (CW), the
CW beam completes the journey in a shorter time. In order to complete the journey in the
same number of cycles the beam wavelength must be compressed, that is, the frequency
must be increased. Conversely, the counter-clockwise (CCW) beam wavelength must
increase (frequency decreased).
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Ring Laser Gyro Operation

Laser gyros used in modern navigation equipment are manufactured from a solid triangular
block of temperature-stable glass. Accurate holes are drilled through the glass to create the
triangular path. Mirrors are installed at each corner and the cavity is filled with a neon-helium
gas mixture. Each mirror is different in construction:
One mirror is fixed
next mirror can be adjusted by a servo motor and is used to tune the path length
third mirror is partially transparent allowing some laser light to reach the two photocell
detectors.
Two laser beams of identical frequency are reflected around a closed loop in opposite
directions at the same time.
The laser gyro detects motion by measuring the difference in beam frequencies. However,
these changes in frequency due to rotation are extremely small. The laser light frequency is
around 4700 Tera Hertz (4 700 000 000 000 000 Hz). Yet the gyro can sense frequency
differences of only a few hertz. For example, the gyros accurately sense the earths rotation
rate of 15 degrees per hour which causes a laser beam frequency change of only 4 Hz. To
achieve this degree of sensitivity, the beams are directed to a pair of photocell detectors
through the partially transparent mirror, where the frequency (wavelength) difference is
quantified as the movement of the laser ring gyro assembly.
Laser gyros have some limitations, including:
lock-in
path length
random drift.
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Lock-in is the major problem associated with laser gyros. A complication arises at very low
rotation rates (physical rotation of the RLG). Higher rates of change will break this locking,
however, the losses of sensitivity at low levels can be unacceptable. The mirrors are not
perfect and produce miniscule amounts of backscatter, which couples energy between the
two beams. This coupling of energy between two very high Q oscillators can cause the
frequencies to lock together. To overcome this, the dither motor applies a very small
oscillatory rotation (about 1 arc minute peak, at about 400Hz) to the entire block.
Lock-in is similar to the problem we sometimes have with mechanical instruments. (For
example a barometer which needs to be tapped to get an accurate reading. The instrument
lags behind the actual reading because of static friction - sometimes called stiction).
In terms of design, the longer the path length, the better. Accuracy increases exponentially
with path length. Most modern laser gyros are triangular in shape to get maximum path
length (and better accuracy) in a minimal area. The optimum path length is one that equates
to an even multiple of the desired wavelength. Even minute changes in path length result in
frequency changes which affects the photocell fringe pattern and, ultimately, the output from
the detectors.
Just like their electro-mechanical counterparts, laser gyros are subjected to random drift. This
is caused mainly by defects in mirror manufacture, particularly imperfections in mirror shape
and coating material.
Inertial Reference Units
Few if any high accuracy gimballed INUs have been designed within the last 10-12 years.
There are still plenty of them about though in the older commercial aircraft, eg Boeing 747s,
although there are certainly more RLG INUs than gimballed INUs in civil aircraft worldwide.
The modern strapdown RLG INU is about 178 X 178 X 279mm in size, weighs about 10kg,
with a power dissipation of about 50W (this increases the time the battery is available to
supply emergency power). It costs some tens of thousands of dollars. Typically, it contains
about five circuit boards, including a processor equivalent to a 68040, 486, etc. It has a
navigation performance of around 0.6naut. mile/hour in pure inertial mode, with a velocity
accuracy of about 0.7m/sec, and an attitude accuracy of about 1mrad.
The size, cost and weight are roughly about 2 - 3 times better than those of the latest'
gimballed INUs, with about the same level of performance.
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A strapdown IRS can replace a lot of the equipment used in conventionally equipped aircraft
including:
vertical gyroscopes
remote-sensing compass systems (directional gyros, flux valves, amplifiers)
rate gyroscopes.
In addition, the systems are capable of providing some data previously only available from
the air data systems
For example, instantaneous vertical speed (IVSI) and altitude
A new feature is that many strapdown IRUs today contain an embedded GPS (Global
Positioning System) receiver module. The following are the main advantages:
In a gimballed system, the gimbals can be moved into different positions, thus allowing the
earths rotation & gravitational field to calibrate each of the gyros & accelerometers. This
cannot be done with a strapdown system. The integration with GPS solves the problem of
calibrating' the instrument errors in a strapdown system
GPS provides a means of inflight alignment', removing the need for the aircraft to be held
stationary for up to 5 minutes while the gimballed INU gyrocompasses', prior to flight.
The IRU provides a seamless fill-in for GPS outages' resulting from jamming, obscuration
caused by maneuvering, etc.
The IRU provides a means of smoothing the noisy velocity outputs from the GPS, and a
continuous high bandwidth measurement of position and velocity.
No major evolutionary steps are foreseen for at least the next decade. There will
nevertheless be some continuous improvements. Electronics (and particularly processing
power) will evolve to the stage where the electronics becomes an insignificant part of an IRUs
cost, size, weight and power.
RLGs will continue to shrink (slightly), and in 10 years' time the 0.6naut. mile/hour IRU will
occupy 200cu. inches rather than the current 500. Cost should come down by a factor of two,
also.
There would seem to be no drive towards higher performance. 0.6naut. mile/hour is adequate
for all foreseeable aircraft applications, given that aircraft IRUs will almost invariably be
integrated with GPS, or other sources.
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Inertial Reference Unit (IRS)

The Inertial Reference Unit (IRS) is based upon the Inertial Navigational System (INS). The
IRS provides basic and complex navigational, attitude, and velocity data for its own
calculations and for other systems in the aircraft.
The IRS dispenses with the use of the complex accelerometer / gyroscope based system of
the INS. It instead uses a series of strap-down laser gyroscopes which provide detailed
acceleration velocities of the aircraft in the pitch, yaw and azimuth planes of the aircraft.
IRS systems are capable of providing some data previously only available from the air data
systems
For example, instantaneous vertical speed (IVSI) and altitude
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RADIO NAVIGATION
Radio navigation provides the pilot with position information from ground stations located
worldwide. There are several systems offering various levels of capability with features such
as course correction information, automatic direction finder and distance measuring.
Most aircraft now are equipped with some type of radio navigation equipment. Almost all
flights whether cross-country or local use radio navigation equipment in some way as a
primary or secondary navigation aid. Radio navigation aids enable pilots to navigate an
aircraft, in all weather conditions, to a given location with a high degree of accuracy and
safety. For example, by turning the aircraft so that the heading of the aircraft corresponds to
the bearing from the transmitter, the aircraft can fly or home towards the fixed transmitter.
The installation of fixed frequency transmitters close to airfields enable aircraft to be flown to
those airfields with accuracy and in all weather conditions.
ADF
Loop And Sense Antennas
You have probably noted how the reception of a small transistor radio changes as you rotate
it away from the transmitting station. This is a demonstration of the fundamental principle of
operation of direction finding (DF) using radio waves. Radio Direction Finding is a valuable
and widely used navigation aid.
An appreciation of the loop and sense antenna system is the key to understanding the
operation of modern ADF systems. A loop antenna consists of many turns of wire wound in
the form of a square or rectangular loop. If a radio signal (electro-magnetic wave) cuts across
the antenna, a voltage is induced in the loop. If the plane of the loop is parallel to the direction
of the radio wave, then maximum voltage is induced in the loop coil. However if the plane of
the coil is at right angles to the direction of the radio signal, then the voltage induced is a
minimum (or null). When the loop is rotated relative to the transmitting station the output is a
maximum at 0 and 180 and a minimum, or null, at 90 and 270.
Because the nulls are sharper than the maximas, they are more commonly used for direction
finding in older style and simple direction finding equipment. However, there are two null
points which can cause ambiguous bearing information.
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Loop Antenna
In a hand held direction finding arrangement, this basic form of direction finding is sufficient
for the purpose of locating a transmitter on an animal for example. The characteristic of
having two null points can be compensated for by the operator, or they can triangulate to
obtain two bearings to their desired target, also eliminating the ambiguity induced by having
two null points.
This arrangement is not suitable for aircraft use, plus the problem of the two null points must
be overcome. An aircraft could easily be in a position where the pilot does not know if he is
flying toward or away from a ground based transmitter, a very dangerous situation in poor
visibility with a catastrophic outcome likely.
To understand how aircraft direction finders eliminate the false null we must describe
antenna polar diagrams.
Loop Antenna Polar Diagram
The amount of voltage induced into a loop antenna is dependant upon the angular
relationship between the transmitter and the plane of the antenna. The signal induced into
the antenna will be of opposite polarity when the loop is rotated 180. In this respect the
characteristics of the loop antenna are comparable to the voltage induced into the secondary
winding of a transformer.
In the diagram on the slide, the magnitude of voltage induced is represented by the loop
diagram. When the antenna is in the max left or right position (on the slide) maximum voltage
is induced into the loop and this is represented by the widest diameter of the polar diagram.
The diagram relates antenna position to magnitude of voltage induced, with respect to the
centre point of the polar diagram.
The polarity of the induced signal is represented by the colours, for the purpose of instruction
assume the red portion is a positive voltage, and the blue a negative.
So maximum positive voltage is induced with the transmitter in the 9 oclock position to the
right of the loop antenna. A lesser voltage is induced when the transmitter is in the 10-11
oclock position, and no voltage is induced when the transmitter is in the 12 oclock position.
Continuing around, a negative voltage begins to build as the transmitter moves to the 2-3
oclock position, reaching maximum negative voltage when the transmitter is in the 3 oclock
position. This characteristic diagram continues through the rest of the rotation as illustrated.
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Sense Antenna Polar Diagram

The induced voltage is of a uniform magnitude regardless of the direction to the transmitter,
and the induced voltage does not change phase or polarity regardless of the direction to the
transmitter. The polar diagram is therefore represented by a circle.
An aircraft direction finder uses a loop and a sense antenna to determine direction to a
ground transmitting beacon.
Direction Finding Cardioid Diagram
If the two signals are combined or mixed, the sense antenna polar diagram will be modified
by the loop antenna polar diagram. The signal received by the sense antenna will be
strengthened or complimented by the corresponding polarity of the loop antenna, and will be
opposed by the opposite polarity section.
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Imagine having a radio tuned to a station (sense antenna) listening to music. We hook up a
second loop antenna to the radio and rotate it slowly through 360. When the loop is
receiving maximum induced voltage (plane is parallel to the transmitted signal) of the same
polarity as the sense antenna, the radio signal will be stronger/clearer. When the loop
antenna is receiving maximum induced voltage opposing the voltage induced into the sense
antenna, radio reception will decrease significantly.
By applying this principle to an aircraft ADF system, with a stationary sense antenna and a
rotating loop antenna, direction to a ground transmitter can be established without the
ambiguity of two null points as detected by a loop antenna alone.
The Loop and Sense antenna uses the maximum induced voltage as the locator for the
station, that is when the coil plane is parallel to the transmitted field. It is the maximum
induced opposing voltage which causes the sense antenna signal to diminish. In a basic loop
antenna direction finder assembly, it is the null points which indicate direction to the
transmitting station. Although each system uses differing aspects of the polar diagram to
identify direction to a transmitter, both methods function with the added benefit of the loop
and sense antenna arrangement eliminateing the ambiguity of two null points.
Using the diagram on the graph you can illustrate the signal strength of antennas at different
bearings from the antenna array. In this diagram the signal will be null or zero when the
transmitter is at bearing 180, at all ather bearings there will be some signal. Picture now a
spinning loop antenna signal combined with a sense antenna signal, whenever the loop
antenna is pointing to the ground station the signal will drop, and the aircraft system
controlling the loop antenna will identify the bearing to the ground station and it can then be
displayed on a HSI.
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Components of ADF System

Ground based Non Directional Beacon (NDB). An Automatic Direction Finder operates in the
lower frequency bands (190 1 800 KHz) which produce ground waves, so is not limited to
line of sight and will function over reasonably long distances. The highest frequency an ADF
system is designed to detect is the AM commercial radio broadcast band which has a
frequency band of 840 to 1750 kHz. In most cases, the ADF system uses the network of radio
beacons designed expressly for aircraft navigation which are in the 190 - 400 kHz range.
These beacons transmit a non-directional signal and are called non directional beacons
(NDB). The signal is modulated with a morse code identification signal which enables the
pilot or navigator to identify the particular NDB being received. This helps to ensure the ADF
receiver is tuned to the correct one. The morse identifier is usually a three letter code. For
example, the frequency of the NDB located at Carnarvon in Western Australia is 323 kHz and
the morse identifier is C A R.
The modern ADF system consists of the following components:
antenna system (loop and sense)
receiver
control box
indicator.
Antenna.
All ADF systems have two antennas. With older ADF systems you have two separate
antennas, but in modern aircraft the ADF system has what we call a combined loop, sense
antenna. It works far better than the old system. The loop antenna is rotated electronically,
not physically. The ADF antenna is usually located on the bottom of the aircraft and is a small
flat antenna without moving parts. Within the antenna are several coils spaced at various
angles.
The loop antenna is used to sense the direction of the station by the strength of the signal on
each coil but cannot determine whether the bearing is TO or FROM the station. The sense
antenna provides this latter information. Quadrantal Error Corrector (QEC) is necessary to
compensate for distortion of the radio signal field caused by metallic structures within the
aircraft. These distortions will cause errors in the bearing information of the received signal.
Some antennas have the quadrantal error correction circuit built into the antenna, This is not
a problem in modern aircraft ADF systems which use microprocessor technology to
compensate for these errors.
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Receiver
The receiver contains all necessary circuitry to:
process the incoming radio signals from the sense and loop antennas
determine the direction of the beacon
produce the necessary control voltages to drive the bearing indicators.
When an unreliable signal is detected, the receiver will produce a warning signal to alert the
aircrew of the likelihood of an error in the readings from the ADF. The receiver contains a
detector and audio amplifier to detect the morse code ident signal and pass the detected
audio signal to the aircraft audio system to allow NDB identification. Since many of the
modern antennas are low profile, the level of pickup is low and a receiver must have good
sensitivity to provide reliable direction information. To avoid interference from adjacent
stations, the receiver must have a good adjacent channel rejection ratio. In other words, the
receiver must have good selectivity.
Control Unit
With modern ADF receivers, some of the receiver circuitry is mounted in the control unit.
Typically, control units allow frequency selection and volume control to be made. Although
there may be a dedicated ADF control unit incorporated in the aircraft, it is not uncommon for
communications radio control panels to incorporate the ADF controls. The communications
receiver can be used as an ADF receiver if it is designed to perform this additional function.
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ADF Display
Typically done on a HSI or RMI. The compass card is controlled by a gyro stabilised
magnetic heading signal from a flux valve, but the two needles can be assigned to ADF or
VOR signals, whichever the pilot chooses.
ADF Operation
Radio Direction Finding is a valuable and widely used navigation aid. In early days the pilot or
navigator rotated a simple loop antenna by hand until a null in the received signal strength
was detected. The bearing to the transmitting station was then read from a calibrated scale
attached to the loop. Modern aircraft automatic direction finding (ADF) systems employ a
receiver which carries out the direction finding function automatically and displays the
direction to the transmitting station on an indicator on the instrument panel.
The pilot selects an ADF ground station to obtain a bearing to it by tuning to the ADF station
broadcast frequency. This is normally done using an aircraft communication radio, or there
may be a dedicated ADF receiver incorporated into the aircraft. Either way, ADF is selected
(thus selecting the ADF antenna as the receiver) and the appropriate frequency is tuned into
the receiver.
The pilot can tune to an AM radio station, in which case he/she will be able to listen to the
radio, and the HSI or RMI will display the bearing to the radio station transmitter. Normally a
pilot will tune to the frequency of a non-directional beacon (NDB) located at an airfield, to
obtain bearing to the airfield. In this case he/she will only hear a Morse code signal identifying
the NDB transmitter selected. If the pilot tunes to an AM radio station as an ADF reference,
the reception will be poor compared to simply receiving the AM signal through the normal AM
radio antenna (ADF antenna not designed for maximum reception efficiency designed for
direction finding).
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Homing
The ADF has automatic direction seeking qualities which result in the bearing indicator
always pointing to the station to which it is tuned. The easiest and perhaps the most common
method of using ADF , is to " home " to the station . Since the ADF pointer always points to
the station , the pilot can simply head the airplane so that the ADF pointer points straight up
on the HSI . The station will be directly ahead of the airplane. Since there is almost always
some wind at altitude the pilot must also allow for drift.
System errors in ADF
Some of the sources of error which can contribute to the accuracy of the ADF system are:
Night Effect
In normal ADF operation, the signals which arrive at the loop and sense antennas, from the
NDB or commercial radio station are by ground wave propagation. As the sun sets or rises,
the propagation conditions change rapidly, and the sky wave increases in strength. This is
great for long range communication, but not for ADF. The sky wave is reflected off the
ionosphere and has phase angles which vary from minute to minute. Also the reflections from
the ionosphere mean that the direction from which the sky wave arrives is not constant. The
ADF system relies on the signal from the radio station or NDB coming in a direct line from the
transmitter and not being bounced off ionosphere and earth a couple of times. The ideal
signal for direction finding is the ground wave radiated by the NDB. When the direct (ground
wave) and the reflected wave (sky wave) are mixed at the input to the sense and loop
antennas, the result is a signal which varies in amplitude and in phase, both causing
variations in bearing information. At the best the night effect causes minor deviations in
bearing readings, at the worst, the ADF pointer goes round in circles!
Coastal Refraction
This effect is a function of the differing absorption characteristics of land and water. The
absorption of radio waves by water is much less than the radio wave absorption of land.
There is a change in direction of the radio wave as it passes over the junction between land
and water. An example of this effect, called refraction effect, is the apparent bending of a
pencil when it is placed in a glass of water, although logically we know the pencil is straight.
In a similar way the signal from the NDB is bent as it passes from land to water. The effect is
that an ADF may obtain a radio direction which comes from a false direction.
Mountain Effect
This effect occurs when the aircraft is operating near a mountain range and is due to the
reflection of the radio signal from the mountains. The reflected signals add and subtract from
the signal received by the ADF and the changes in the phase of the resultant signal introduce
errors into the ADF system.
Station Interference
This occurs when other stations on or close to the ADF frequency are received. This may
occur when tuned to a broadcast station or when a high power station is close in frequency to
the frequency being received. The only method of overcoming this problem is in the design of
the receiver, which is designed with a high adjacent channel rejection ratio.
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Static Interference
When the antenna and equipment are not properly electrically bonded to the aircraft,
differences in potential may be created due to static electricity. ADF systems generally
become unreliable if this occurs. This is a consequence of the build-up of a high voltage
static charge on the surface of the antenna. The static electricity discharges to the aircraft
fuselage across the poorly bonded antenna-fuselage joint causing spurious RF
transmissions. Problems due to poor bonding can be particularly noticeable when the aircraft
is flying through cloud, as static charge builds up quickly under these circumstances.
In a small light aircraft with a direct reading compass and an ADF indicator, you can only tell
the relative bearing of your aircraft to the NDB - that is, the direction in which the NDB lies.
Only by comparing this against the aircraft compass heading and doing some trivial
trigonometry in his/her head can a pilot determine at which (magnetic or true) bearing the
NDB lies from the aircraft. If your aircraft has an RMI which incorporates both a directional
gyro and the ADF needle so that one can read the magnetic bearing to the beacon directly off
the instrument without having to do mental trigonometry.
VHF OMNIRANGE (VOR)

NDB navigation is not necessarily easy. First, there is a course to be flown. Second, the
aircraft may be on-course or slightly (or hugely) off-course. Thirdly, the heading of the aircraft
may be different from track, to accommodate a crosswind. During an instrument approach, a
pilot has to continuously determine all this information, and also calculate and fly corrections.
Determining which heading to hold to accommodate a crosswind is an empirical matter. One
guesses a heading and determines drift (range of divergence of track from course) and then
corrects - first twice as much, to get back onto course, and then when back on course,
enough to follow course. All this is quite tricky and one needs to be in practice. This is crucial
when flying an instrument approach, since strict adherence to course and altitude restrictions
are the only things that guarantee that the aircraft flies clear of obstacles. Anybody who has
flown an NDB instrument approach to an airport runway knows how labor-intensive it is.
One has to achieve course-following using the above procedure, correcting for probablychanging crosswinds as one descends in altitude, especially in non-level terrain, very
accurately and all inside of 2 or 3 minutes. ADF systems provide the pilot with an indication of
the aircrafts relative bearing to that station. The only means the pilot has to determine his
position using the ADF system is to plot the bearings of two different stations on a navigation
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chart and triangulate the aircrafts location at a point where the two lines intersect. This
method of establishing current position is effective, but can be very cumbersome.
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This problem was addressed in 1945 with the introduction of VHF OmniRange (VOR)
navigation stations. VOR is much more sophisticated and has definite advantages over ADF
navigation. VORs are radio beacons that transmit a signal which contains precise azimuth
information, so that upon reception of the signal, an aircraft can tell precisely what bearing
with respect to magnetic north the station is from the aircraft. ADFs are still in wide use
especially for aircraft flying to and from airports that are not equipped with VOR facilities.
VOR has been the standard radio navigation system for cross country flying around the world
for many years. The major advantages of the VOR system are:
Provides an infinite number of radials or course indications
Reduces the amount of indication errors from adverse atmospheric conditions
Accurately provides directional information
VOR operates in the VHF range 108 to 118 MHz. VOR reception is strictly line-of-sight. This
limits the useable range at low altitudes or over mountainous terrain
VOR is a VHF navigational aid for short and medium range flight distances, which is used
mainly along airways and in the airport terminal control areas. A VOR station emits position
lines, rather like a lighthouse, referring to magnetic north.
VOR Principle of Operation
Bearing to a lighthouse can be gauged by the following method. Time how long it takes for
the light to complete a full revolution. This can be done by timing from when the beam is
pointing directly at you, until it completes a full rotation and points back at you again.
Lighthouses are often fitted with a red light on the top of them which flashes when the beam
is pointing directly North. So if the beam hits you exactly when the red light flashes, you are
directly North of the lighthouse. If a full rotation takes 10 seconds and the beam hits you 5
seconds after the red light flashes, you are directly south of the lighthouse.
By knowing the time taken for a rotation and timing how long it takes from North for the vector
to reach you, you can calculate your angular displacement from the lighthouse with respect to
North.
VOR functions by the same principle, with the reference signal replacing the Red light, and a
varying vector signal providing sufficient information to the aircraft VOR system to calculate
angular displacement from the VOR transmitter, with respect to North.
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The VOR station transmits two signals, one is constant in all directions, and the other varies
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the phase relative to the first signal. For example, at magnetic North both signals are in
phase, but at magnetic south the variable lags the fixed signal by 180 degrees. The principle
behind VOR systems then, is comparison of the fixed and reference signals. The VOR
receiver senses the phase difference between the two frequencies and the difference
identifies 360 different directions or "radials" from the VOR. The system does not provide
distance information.
The name OmniRange leads one to believe that Range to a station is provided. The inclusion
of the word RANGE is an unfortunate choice of title, because a VOR transmitter provides
only bearing to a station, not range.
VOR System Components
The airborne portion of the VOR system consists of a receiver, a control unit, an antenna and
an indicator. The ground facility consists of a transmitter and an antenna array. The VOR
ground station transmits continuously and is capable of being used by all aircraft within the
limits of the airborne receiver. The ground station provides a morse code identification signal,
and has the capacity to be voice modulated in an emergency situation. The ground station
transmits two signals: a reference signal and a variable signal. The reference signal phase is
constant around the transmitter, and the variable signal varies in phase with magnetic
direction.
Antenna
VOR systems typically use a
omnidirectional radiation pattern,
range. Many systems employ an
VOR signals (both operate in the
the vertical fin of the aircraft.
bat-wing antenna, which is a horizontally polarised,

capable of receiving RF signals in the 108 to 118 MHz
antenna which is also capable of receiving localiser and
108 to 118 MHz range). Antennas are usually located on
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Receiver
The receiver contains all the circuits necessary to receive, decode and provide outputs of
aircraft bearing information from the transmitted VOR signal. In addition, the receiver
contains self-monitoring circuits which validate the signals received and the accuracy of the
bearing information sent to the indicator. Most commercial aircraft carry two complete
VOR/ILS receivers. Typically, receivers are black box units mounted in the aircraft radio
equipment racks.
Controls
The control unit provides all necessary control of frequency selection for VOR and ILS
operation. Many control units also tune the VHF communications and distance measuring
equipment (DME). You simply turn the power switch from OFF to ON and select the desired
VOR station frequency.
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Indicators
Relative bearing to the station can be viewed on a radio magnetic indicator (RMI) and most
RMI have two pointers which can be switched between ADF and VOR. However, VOR
information can also be displayed on a variety of other instruments including:
horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
electronic HSI.
VOR Operation
VOR is an aircraft radio navigation system which utilises ground based transmitters and
airborne receiving equipment to provide bearing information to and from a ground station. By
simply measuring the differences in phase relationship between the two signals, we can
determine the position of the aircraft at each compass point around the transmitter. Each of
the 360 compass points extend from the transmitter like spokes from a wheel hub. These
spokes are termed VOR radials and provide a bearing to the transmitting station. It should be
noted that the aircraft position on a radial is independent of aircraft heading.
As the aircraft passes directly over the VOR station, signals are varying continuously and the
VOR receiver temporarily loses track of the station. This zone is termed the cone of
confusion. Most VOR systems have delay circuits to prevent the VOR flag from showing
during this short period.
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The composite VOR signal is received by the VOR antenna and fed to the receiver which
ensures that the RF signals on adjacent channels do not interfere with the desired VOR
channel. The composite signal is then fed to a phase detector within the receiver. The output
of the phase detector is a voltage which is dependant upon the phase difference between the
variable and reference signals and represents the radial to the VOR beacon. The voltage
output from the phase detector is amplified and sent to the HSI or RMI to drive the VOR
pointer
The received audio is passed through to the cockpit audio system for station identification.
When the appropriate VOR frequency is entered into a navigation radio, the VOR indicator
connected to that radio is used to find where the aircraft is relative to the VOR station. The
RMI or HSI pointer will indicate bearing to or from the VOR ground station regardless of
aircraft heading.
The system provides flight crews with the ability to navigate accurately along a planned route
using VOR transmitters as waypoints. In effect, it provides the ability to follow a desired path
in the air.
To fly from from Canberra to Sydney. Fly Canberra Outbound vector until within range of
Bindook inbound station. Overfly Bindook and fly Bindook outbound vector until Sydney VOR
picked up to fly Sydney inbound vector.
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DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

DME is an electronic device that measures "slant range" from the DME station. Slant range
is a measure of an aircraft's position relative to the DME station that incorporates the height
of the aircraft, its angle from the ground station and its unknown ground range based upon a
90 angle. The farther the aircraft is from the station and the lower the aircraft's altitude, the
more accurate the distance reading. An aircraft could be directly over the DME station at an
altitude of 10,500 feet above ground level (AGL) and the DME would correctly indicate the
aircraft is two miles from the station.
Distance measuring equipment (DME) systems are widely used for aircraft navigation
purposes. These systems can provide extremely accurate distances from departure,
destination or en route waypoints allowing the accurate navigation of aircraft.
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Principles Of Operation
DME equipment works on the principle of timing the delay between transmitting a signal to
the ground based DME station, and receiving a reply. The longer the delay the further you
are from the station. The DME ground station is capable of responding to interrogation
signals from a number of aircraft:
How can the ground transmitter discriminate between so many aircraft without mixing them
up?
How does the airborne equipment distinguish its own message from all the others?
Jitter is the key to the operation of any DME system. In radio terms, jitter simply means a
randomly generated signal The process starts when the airborne transmitter sends a random
signal. This random signal is received by the ground station and re-transmitted back to the
aircraft in exactly the same format after a delay of 50 microseconds. The airborne receiver is
able to discriminate its own signal from all others by simply matching the received signal
against its own previously transmitted random signal.
Once a match has been made it is a simple matter for a computer to calculate a very precise
measurement of the distance from the aircraft to the ground transmitter based on the time
interval between the transmission and reception of the coded signal (including the 50
microsecond ground station delay).
Tuning
DME also works on specific frequencies, and the appropriate frequency must be selected to
receive a response and calculate slant range to the ground station. DME operates in the UHF
band from 962 to 1213 MHz. The airborne DME transmits and receives on one of 252
channels which are divided into 126 X and 126 Y channels. Tuning of the receiver/transmitter
(RT) unit is accomplished by using the VHF navigation controller as DME channels are
paired with VHF navigation frequencies. For example, tuning 108.00 MHz (VOR frequency)
will also automatically tune DME channel 17X.
When the airborne RT unit receives the reply pulse pairs it verifies them against its original
transmission for validity. As the signals are random (jittered), this process ensures that pulse
pairs transmitted by other aircraft are ignored. When the RT unit determines that the reply
pulses are occurring at regular intervals it locks on to the station transmissions. The airborne
RT unit computes the slant range to the ground station from the amount of time elapsed
between transmitting and receiving the pulse pairs. Ground stations are capable of handling
approximately 100 aircraft interrogations at one time. If more than 100 aircraft interrogate the
ground station, sensitivity is limited and it replies to the strongest 100 interrogations.
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DME System Components

The airborne components of the DME system are:
transmitter/receiver
controller
indicator
antenna.
Transmitter/receiver
The DME transmitter/receiver may be simply referred to as the RT unit and some
manufacturers refer to them as Interrogator Units. The transmitter section of the DME RT unit
contains all the necessary circuits to generate, amplify and transmit the interrogating pulse
pairs. The receiver section contains the circuits required to receive, amplify and decode the
received reply pulses. The computation circuits contained within the DME RT unit determine
the validity of the reply pulses and calculate the distance. Aural station identification outputs
are supplied to the aircraft audio system.
Controller
Typically the VOR control unit provides the necessary control and switching circuits for the
DME system. The VOR controller is used to tune the DME receiver/transmitter. The VOR and
DME frequencies are paired, and selection of the appropriate VOR frequency will
automatically tune DME to the matching frequency (although the frequencies will be different,
that is VOR will operate on a different frequency to DME)
Indicator
The distance indicator provides flight crews with a readout of aircraft distance from the tuned
DME ground station expressed in nautical miles. The indicator will also display a flag or other
warning if the system is malfunctioning or not locked on a reply signal. Some indicators also
display computed ground speed and the time to reach the ground station (time to station or
TTS). The computed ground speed and TTS are accurate only if the aircraft is flying directly
to or from the ground station. DME distance indications may be included on a HSI.
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Antenna
A single, L-band omnidirectional antenna is used for both transmission and reception of DME
signals. This is possible because the system transmissions are pulsed.
DME Operation
The DME Receiver Transmitter (RT) is the heart & soul of the DME system and contains
modules which perform the following functions:
transmit
receive
decode
compute range.
Transmit
The jitter generator creates a unique signal. This signal incorporates randomly generated
timing pulses and it is fed to the modulator where it is modulated with the carrier wave for
transmission. The modulator output is supplied to the receiver section to suppress reception
during transmission to protect the receiver from damage due to unwanted reception of the
transmitted signal. In aircraft fitted with two or more DME systems, the receive portions of all
RT units would also be inhibited. The amplified RF is radiated from an omnidirectional (all
directions) antenna. Once the randomly generated timing pulses have been transmitted, the
receiver portion of the DME RT is enabled.
Receive
The receiver section looks for reply pulses. If it finds these pulses, it assumes that these are
replies to its interrogations. The received signal from the ground station is routed to the
preselector where it is mixed, amplified and detected to produce an output signal which is fed
to the decoder section.
Decoder
The signal is decoded to determine if the pulses match the transmitted signal.
Range computer
In the range computer the decoded signal is applied to circuits that measure the elapsed time
(from transmission of the interrogation signal to reception of the ground station pulses) and
solves the equation:
Elapsed time 50S
Distance in nm
12.359S (radar mile)
Note
Radio waves take 12.359 microseconds to travel one nautical mile and return.
50 microseconds is the time taken for the ground station to respond to the
interrogation.
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The calculated distance is then sent to the DME indicator or HSI for display
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TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN)

For reasons peculiar to military or naval operations (unusual siting conditions, the pitching
and rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil VOR/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
system of air navigation was considered unsuitable for military or naval use. A new
navigational system, TACAN, was therefore developed by the military and naval forces to
more readily lend itself to military and naval requirements. As a result, the FAA has been in
the process of integrating TACAN facilities with the civil VOR/DME program. Although the
theoretical, or technical principles of operation of TACAN equipment are quite different from
those of VOR/DME facilities, the end result, as far as the navigating pilot is concerned, is the
same. These integrated facilities are called VORTAC's.
TACAN ground equipment consists of either a fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne
unit in conjunction with the ground unit reduces the transmitted signal to a visual presentation
of both azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse system and operates in the
Ultrahigh Frequency (UHF) band of frequencies. Its use requires TACAN airborne equipment
and does not operate through conventional VOR equipment.
VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE/TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (VORTAC)

A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two components, VOR and TACAN, which provides
three individual services: VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth and TACAN distance (DME) at one
site. Although consisting of more than one component, incorporating more than one
operating frequency, and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC is considered to
be a unified navigational aid. Both components of a VORTAC are envisioned as operating
simultaneously and providing the three services at all times.
Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are each identified by three-letter code transmission
and are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth with TACAN distance can be assured
that both signals being received are definitely from the same ground station. The frequency
channels of the VOR and the TACAN at each VORTAC facility are "paired" in accordance
with a national plan to simplify airborne operation.
TACAN receives at 1151 1213 MHz and transmits at 962 1024 MHz
Note Air to Air TACAN ranging may be performed by two aircraft suitably equipped. That is
an aircraft can act as a Tacan beacon and another aircraft can receive range and bearing
information from the aircraft acting as a beacon.
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INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)

Prior to World War II, aircraft approaches and landings in poor weather conditions were often
high risk endeavors. Early civilian air navigation systems provided only basic lateral position
information, and 1930s airline pilots flying in low visibility conditions had to take a heading off
a radio navigation station and then use speed, time and distance calculations to figure out
when they should see the runway at their destination. Safe descents were dependent on the
accuracy of their calculations and all final approaches had to be visual, because there was no
instrument guidance system that could direct a pilot on a safe, precise descent profile clear of
terrain.
An instrument landing system (ILS) provides pilots with commands which enable a non-visual
approach to a runway. The obvious advantage of such a system is that pilots can descend
even in the worst weather conditions. In an aircraft equipped with ILS, outside visibility is not
crucial until moments before touchdown.
Although the functions of ILS can be replaced by other systems (such as microwave landing
systems), it is likely that ILS will remain as the predominant world wide landing aid for the
next few decades.
The Instrument Landing System is in every sense a precision approach system. With modern
equipment it can guide an aircraft right down to the runwayzero Decision-Height and zero
visibility. An ILS system provides adds glide-slope, or elevation information, localiser
information and distance to go to the runway threshold.
The ILS Components
In order to guide an aircraft from several kilometers out, to a runway threshold, a system
providing lateral and vertical guidance is used. The lateral guidance portion is called the
localiser and the vertical guidance part is called the glideslope. In addition to the localiser and
glideslope signals there are marker transmitters which provide pilots with an indication of
their approximate position at intervals along the approach path. This total system using
ground based and airborne equipment is called the instrument landing system (ILS).
An aircraft flying ILS follows two signals: a localiser for lateral guidance (VHF); and a glide
slope for vertical guidance (UHF). When the ILS receiver is tuned to a localiser frequency a
second receiver, the glide-slope receiver, is automatically tuned to its proper frequency. The
pairing is automatic.
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There's more to an ILS than the localiser & glide slope signals. FAA categorises the
components this way:
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Guidance information: the localizer and glide slope.

Range information: the outer marker (OM) and the middle marker (MM) beacons.
Visual information: approach lights, touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights.
The indicator for an ILS system uses a horizontal needle and a vertical needle. When the
appropriate ILS frequency is entered, the horizontal needle indicates where the aircraft is in
relation to the glide slope. If the needle is above the center mark on the dial, the aircraft is
below the glide slope. If the needle is below the center mark on the dial, the aircraft is above
the glide slope.
Descriptions Of The ILS Components
An aircraft on an instrument landing approach has a cockpit with computerized instrument
landing equipment that receives and interprets signals being from strategically placed
stations on the ground near the runway. This system includes a "Localiser" beam with a width
from 3 to 6. It also uses a second beam called a "glide slope" beam that gives vertical
information to the pilot. The glide slope is usually 3 wide with a height of 1.4.
Three marker beacons (outer, middle and inner) are located in front of the landing runway
and indicate their distances from the runway threshold. The Outer Marker (OM) is about 8 km
from the runway. The Middle Marker (MM) is located about 1 km from the landing threshold,
and the Inner Marker (IM) is located between the middle marker and the runway threshold
where the landing aircraft would be 100 feet above the runway (about 150 meters).
Because of Australias good weather conditions relative to the rest of the world, most airports
do not have an inner marker installation. The theory here is that even under really bad
weather conditions, pilots will usually have the runway in sight by the time they reach the
inner marker point.
An ILS is a fixed installation useful for only one runway, accordingly there may be more than
one ILS system at an airport (ie one for each runway).
The ground-based equipment consists of:
a localiser (LOC) transmitter and antenna located at the far end of the runway
a glideslope (GS) transmitter and antenna located near the runway threshold
an outer marker antenna located approximately 8 kilometres from the runway

threshold
a middle marker antenna located approximately 1 kilometre from the runway

threshold
an inner marker beacon antenna located approximately 150 metres from the runway
threshold.
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Glideslope
The Glideslope is the signal that provides vertical guidance to the aircraft during the ILS
approach. The standard glide-slope path is 3 downhill to the end of the runway. The
glideslope antenna is capable of operating between 328 and 335 MHz, (UHF) with the lowest
assigned frequency at 329.15 MHz. The glideslope signal is radiated to produce two
intersecting lobes, one above the other. The upper lobe is modulated by a 90 Hz signal, the
lower lobe by a 150 Hz signal. When the aircraft is on the centre line, the two audio signals
are equal. This occurs at approximately 3 above the horizontal. This line of equal modulation
defines the glideslope approach path. If the aircraft is too high the 90 Hz signal will
predominate and if it is too low the 150 Hz signal will predominate. How these signals effect
the aircraft instrumentation will be explained later in this lesson.
The glide path projection angle is about 3 above horizontal and it intersects the inner marker
at 100ft, the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at about 1,400 feet above the runway
elevation. The glide slope is normally usable to a distance of 10 NM.
Localiser
The localiser signal provides azimuth, or lateral, information to guide the aircraft to the
centerline of the runway. It is similar to a VOR signal except that it provides radial information
for only a single course; the runway heading.
The localiser operates between 108 and 112 MHz, with the lowest assigned frequency at
108.1 MHz. The localiser signal is similar to the glideslope except that the 90 and 150 Hz
signal radiated lobes are side by side and directed along the centre of the extended line of
the runway. The line of equal modulation defines the centre line of the runway approach path.
If the aircraft is left of the centreline the 90 Hz signal will predominate. If it is right of the
centreline the 150 Hz signal will predominate.
How sensitive is the Localiser? Near the Outer Marker, a one-dot deviation puts you about
500 ft. from the centerline. Near the Middle Marker, one dot means you're off course by 150
ft.
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Specifics of the Localiser

The localiser antenna is located at the far end of the runway. The localiser signal is normally
usable 18 NM from the field. The Morse code Identification of the localiser consists of a threeletter identifier preceded by the letter I.
Localiser and glideslope frequencies are paired so that selecting the localiser frequency
automatically selects the glideslope frequency.
Marker Beacons
The three ILS marker beacons operate on a fixed frequency of 75 MHz radiated in a narrow
fan shaped vertical pattern. This information is presented to the pilot by audio and visual cues
by illuminating a lamp and emitting an audio signal which corresponds to the marker being
overflown, thus providing pilots with an indication of distance to touchdown.
Marker beacons are situated at various distances from touchdown. The location at each
airport is obtained from air navigation charts.
Marker beacons operate as follows:
OM approx 8 KM from runway threshold. Modulated with 400 Hz and emits dashes
continuously at a rate of two per second.
MM (or decision marker) approx 1 KM from runway threshold. Modulated with 1300
Hz and emits dots and dashes. At MM, the pilot must decide whether to proceed with
the landing or not.
IM located where the flight path is 100 feet above the ground (approx 150 metres from
runway threshold). Modulated with 3000 Hz and emits dots continuously at a rate of 6
per second. The inner marker is used only for Category II operations
The majority of problems in locating marker beacons are the availability of real estate and
access to utilities.
Notice that the sound gets "quicker" and the tone "higher" as the aircraft moves towards the
airportfirst dashes, then dots and dashes, finally just dots.
The OM normally indicates where an aircraft intercepts the glide path when at the published
altitude. On glide path at the MM an aircraft will be approximately 200 feet above the runway.
The IM is the Decision Height point for a Category II approach.
Marker
Code
Light
OM
___
BLUE
MM
._._._ AMBER
IM
....
Sound
400 Hz
two dashes/sec
WHITE
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1300 Hz
Alternate
dot/dash
3000 Hz
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ILS Ground Installation

In summary , the complete ground based ILS installation consists of:
a glideslope transmitter which produces a radio beam providing vertical guidance to

the runway threshold
a localiser transmitter which produces a radio beam providing lateral guidance to the
runway threshold
marker beacons which produce vertical, fan-shaped radio beams providing an

indication of position along the glide path.
Runway visual range (RVR). The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the line of a
runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating the runway or
identifying its centre line.
Decision height (DH). A specified altitude or height in the precision approach at which a
missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach
has not been established.
Categories of precision approach and landing operations:
Category I. DH 200 feet and RVR 2,400 feet (with touchdown zone and centerline
lighting, RVR 1,800 feet);
Category II. DH 100 feet and RVR 1,200 feet;
Category IIIa. No DH or DH below 100 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet;
Category IIIb. No DH or DH below 50 feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not less
than 150 feet; and
Category IIIc. No DH and no RVR limitation.
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ILS Airborne Equipment

The airborne equipment portion of the ILS system consists of:
a receiver or receivers with localiser, glideslope and marker beacon functions
three antennas
a control unit
an indicator displaying localiser and glideslope deviation
a set of marker beacon lights.
The marker beacon receiver system is completely separate from the localiser and glideslope
receiver system, although the two function in conjunction to make up the airborne ILS.
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The Airborne Receivers

The ILS system requires three receivers:
VHF localiser receiver
UHF glideslope receiver
marker beacon receiver.
The localiser and glideslope receivers are usually contained in the one radio unit. This
receiver contains all necessary circuits for receiving, decoding and computing the localiser
and glideslope signals transmitted by the ground stations. The receiver also contains the self
testing and self monitoring circuits that ensure the reliability of the decoded signals sent to
the indicator.
The marker beacon receiver contains the circuits necessary to receive a modulated carrier
signal and convert it to audio and visual output to indicate passage over one of three marker
beacons.
Controls
The controller is usually the same one used for the VOR system (ie the VHF navigation
controller). The controller selects a VHF localiser frequency and automatically selects the
paired UHF glideslope frequency.
The tuning for the glideslope and the localiser receivers is controlled by the VHF Navigation
Controller. Some control units incorporate the VHF Communication control in addition to the
ILS and VOR controls.
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ILS Airborne Antennas

An antenna is a conductor by which electromagnetic waves are sent and received by a
device such as a radio navigation transmitter and communications radio. An antenna is the
eyes and ears of the radios.
Virtually any conductor will work as an antenna, but to work efficiently an antenna must be at
least wavelength long. Even a piece of water pipe will work as an antenna, but if you need
clear transmission over reasonable distances you must select a resonant antenna, or one of
an appropriate length for the frequency transmitted. Antenna length can be modified
electronically by antenna tuning devices, so the length of an antenna is not as critical
depending upon the application it is utilised for.
Three antennas are required for complete ILS operation

An omnidirectional antenna operating in the 108-112 MHz (VHF) for localizer operation.
Typically the localiser receiver operates using the same antenna as the VOR navigation
receiver (also VHF).
Glideslope operates in the UHF band (329-335 MHz range) so the antenna is much shorter
than the localiser and VOR antennas. Even though glideslope is in the UHF band, it still
works fine with a VHF navigation antenna. When using glideslope the aircraft is seldom more
than 30 KM out and the glideslope beam is pointed directly at the aircraft nose during an
approach. Since the glideslope band is pretty close to exactly three times the VOR band, we
can use the VOR antenna for simultaneous duty as a glideslope antenna because at the
glideslope frequencies the VOR antenna is a good 3-quarter wave antenna. Splitters" are
available that take the VOR energy and pipe it to the VOR receiver and take the glideslope
energy and pipe it to the glideslope receiver.
Most light aircraft employ what we call a "Cat Whisker" VHF navigation antenna. Each
antenna ear is approximately equal to wavelength of the centre frequency of the VOR
transmission band, about 60CM long. This antenna is normally mounted high on the vertical
stabilizer. The so-called Cat Whisker is the two rods sticking out the top of the stabilizer, one
located on each side and is a dipole antenna capable of handling VOR and ILS localiser and
Glideslope transmissions.
The marker beacon receiver typically uses a loop antenna operating at 75 MHz. Loop
required for directional operation, so marker beacon signal is picked up only when aircraft is
directly above the transmitter (in the radiated beam). The lower the frequency the longer the
antenna needs to be, why is the marker beacon antenna smaller than the Communications
antenna? (both are VHF, but marker beacon is lower frequency than communications) The
marker beacon transmitter is designed to send its signal directly upward. In other words the
marker signal is aimed much like a rifle shot verses a shotgun.
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During an approach the aircraft passes only 200-3,000ft above the marker transmitter. Being
the marker signal is aimed up and the aircraft is low, antenna design can get a little
unorthodox and still work. An added advantage of having a non-resonant antenna is that the
marker beacon antenna is not efficient enough to pick-up every marker beacon signal the
aircraft flies over when cruising at altitude. Because the marker beacon antennas are
designed to be not very sensitive, on some marker beacon receivers you can adjust the
"sensitivity" from "low" to "high to boost the antennas effectiveness.
If I transmit my radio energy with the antenna pointed vertical, so that radio electrons are
dancing about the sky up and down vertically with respect to the earth's surface, then for
maximum efficiency at catching those electrons, your antenna has to be vertical also. If I
transmitted horizontally, then your antenna should be horizontal for best reception. This is not
a hard and fast rule because if I transmit vertically and you have your antenna at a 45 angle,
you will catch 70% of my electrons. Even if you tilt as much as 75, you will still catch over
25% of my signal. It is only when you get past 75 of divergence between your "polarisation"
and mine that signals drop off significantly.
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Why did we choose to have some of our signals polarized vertically (communications) and
some polarized horizontally (navigation)? When a transmitted signal bounces off of another
object, the resultant signal most often is polarized vertically. (Mountains, trees, houses, etc.
are mostly vertical, if you look at them in a "radio" sense.) With communications it doesn't
make a lot of difference where the signal comes from, just so long as you can hear it.
Therefore, to have a maximum chance of being heard, whether direct or reflected signal,
communications signals are polarised vertically. However, to a navigation signal, it makes all
the difference in the world what direction it comes from. If you think you are navigating to an
airport and instead you are navigating straight at a Mountain (signal reflected off a mountain),
bad things are likely to result. So we polarise navigation signals horizontally. Having your
communications antenna vertical is nice, but having your navigation antenna horizontal is
crucial.
ILS Marker Beacon Display
A marker beacon indicator simply consists of three annunciators (or lights) which indicate the
marker beacon over which the aircraft is passing. These three annunciators are usually
colour-coded as follows:
blue - outer marker (O)
amber - middle marker (M)
white - inner marker (I).
Instrument landing system marker beacons provide information on distance from the runway
by identifying predetermined points along the approach track. These beacons are low-power
transmitters; that operate at a frequency of 75 MHz with 3 W or less rated power output. They
radiate an elliptical beam upward from the ground. At an altitude of 1,000 ft, the beam
dimensions are 2,400 ft long and 4,200 ft wide. At higher altitudes, the dimensions increase
significantly.
The outer marker (if installed) is located about 8KM from the threshold within 100M of the
extended runway centerline. It intersects the glide slope vertically at approximately 1,400 ft
above runway elevation. It also marks the approximate point at which aircraft normally
intercept the glide slope, and designates the beginning of the final approach segment. The
signal is modulated at 400 Hz, which is an audible low tone with continuous Morse code
dashes at a rate of two dashes per second. The signal is received in the aircraft by a 75 MHz
marker beacon receiver. The pilot hears a tone over the speaker or headset and sees a blue
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light that flashes in synchronization with the aural tone. Where geographic conditions prevent
the positioning of an outer marker, a DME unit may be included as part of the ILS system to
provide the pilot with the ability to make a positive position fix on the localizer. In most ILS
installations, the OM is replaced by an NDB.
Middle markers have been removed from all ILS facilities in Canada but are still used in the
United States. The middle marker is located. approximately 1KM from the threshold on the
extended runway centerline. The middle marker crosses the glide slope at approximately 200
to 250 ft above the runway elevation and is near the missed approach point for the ILS
Category l approach.
Many Australian airports do not have an inner marker because the weather conditions here
are almost never bad enough to necessitate Category III ILS landing facilities, hence Inner
markers are not necessary.
Typically, sensitivity can be increased by selecting a switch so increased sensitivity is
selected for airway beacon (inner marker) use when navigating using airways markers as
waypoints. Lower sensitivity is generally preferred for ILS use to accurately pinpoint the
beacons. The receive frequency is set at 75 MHz, and has a low sensitivity so that false
indications are not given by the reception of other marker beacons on different approach
paths. On the slide the sensitivity switch doubles as the volume control for ILS marker
beacon tones.
The lights associated with the Outer and Middle Markers will flash automatically, so why
arent pilots bombarded with marker beacon "whistles and bells" as they fly across the
country? Because the marker beacon transmitters are low-powered, and once the aircraft is
at several thousand feet the Marker Beacon receiver will not capture the signals. The inner
marker is sometimes labelled FM/Z in lieu of IM, it still performs the same function, the FM/Z
title refers to the alternate name for the inner marker which is airways beacon. (dont know
how you get FM/Z from airways beacon)
Speaker phones switch for selection of tone through either cockpit speaker or headphones.
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ILS Indicators
ILS information can be displayed on several different types of indicators. These can include
ILS indicators, Course Deviation Indicators (CDIs), Horizontal Situation Indicators (HSIS) ,
Attitude Director Indicators (ADIs), Head-up Guidance Systems (HGSs) and flight directors.
These types of indicators show lateral deviation (localiser) and vertical deviation (glideslope)
with respect to an aircraft symbol in the middle of the indicator. Also displayed on these
indicators are pitch and roll functions, as well as steering command information as computed
by flight director systems. Warning flags are displayed whenever the information supplying
that function becomes unreliable. Indicators may utilise pointers to display localiser and
glideslope, or bugs and dots.
If the aircraft is left of the runway centreline the localiser pointer will appear to the right of the
instrument centre line, indicating to the pilot that the localiser beam is to his right and he/she
must fly to the right to capture the localiser beam. The glideslope pointer performs in the
same manner, if the aircraft is above the glideslope, the instrument pointer will appear below
the instrument horizon indicating the pilot must fly lower to capture the glideslope.
In bug and dot pointers there are two displays, one for localiser and one for glideslope. The
localiser display is on the bottom of the display and the glideslope is on the right hand side.
When the bug is centred on the centre mark, the aircraft is on glideslope, or localiser. If the
aircraft strays from glideslope or localiser the bug moves off high/low or left/right in the same
manner as the pointers as explained above.
In all cases, the localiser bar and glidepath pointer are deflected by independent meter
movements to which the respective receiver channel signals are supplied. Scales are
provided and indicated by a series of dots which show the amount of deviation in degrees
from the respective beam centrelines. A two dot deflection of the localiser bar equals an
aircraft deviation of 2.5 and a full scale deflection of the glide path pointer corresponds to a
deviation of 0.5. The dots are indicative of how far the aircraft strays from the centreline - 1
dot equates to a small distance, two dots are further, the actual distance depends on how far
away from the threshold the aircraft is. On the outer marker a separation of one dot may be
100 feet, on the inner marker 1 dot separation may only be 20 feet.
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MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS)

US airlines began using ILS approaches on a regular basis after World War II, and by 1949,
the ILS had become the world standard for landing guidance systems. By the late 1960s,
however, air traffic congestion and the need for more noise sensitive approach paths to
airports had begun to demand a more capable and flexible landing system.
One problem with ILS is that the VHF/UHF frequencies in which it operates have a limited
number of channels. As air transportation became more popular, planners began to see a
time when certain areas of the country would have more airports requesting instrument
landing systems than the ILS frequency range could accommodate. The relatively low
frequency range of the ILS was also susceptible to signal reflection, or "multipath," errors.
Another limitation of the ILS was that it allowed only one approach path to a runway.
Airplanes would lock on to the ILS up to 10 miles away from the runway, and fly a straight
course in for a landing. Two of the top priorities identified by the Department of
Transportation, however, were to increase the air traffic capacity of airports and to develop
approaches that avoided noise sensitive areas. The curved, segmented approach paths
suggested by NASA and the FAA could accomplish both of those goals, but they would
require a more flexible landing guidance system than the ILS.
In 1968, a Special Committee representing military and civil US airspace users, was formed
to develop specific requirements and specifications for a new aircraft approach and landing
system.
The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration had already evaluated several types of
technologies and had decided that a microwave frequency based, scanning beam format
would make the best landing system. The higher frequency microwave band would alleviate
the frequency allocation and some of the multipath signal problems, and a scanning beam
technique would provide broader signal coverage, allowing more flexible airplane approach
paths.
ILS Limitations
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) has served as the standard precision approach and
landing aid for the last 40 years. During this time it has served well and has undergone a
number of improvements to increase its performance and reliability. However, in relation to
future aviation requirements, the ILS has a number of basic limitations:
site sensitivity and high installation costs;
single approach path;
multi path interference; and
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channel limitations - 40 channels only.
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MLS Advantages
MLS not only eliminates all the problems associated with ILS, but also offers many
advantages over ILS including:
elimination of ILS/FM broadcast interference problems;
provision of all-weather coverage up to 60 from runway centerline, from 0.9 to 15

in elevation, and out of 20NM;
capability to provide precision guidance to small landing areas such as roof-top

heliports short final segments;
continuous availability of a wide range of glide paths to accommodate STOL and

VTOL aircraft and helicopters;
accommodation of curved approaches noise reduced flight paths with curved

decelerating approaches;
availability of 200 channels - five times more than ILS;
potential reduction of Category I (CAT l) minimums;
improved guidance quality with fewer flight path corrections required;
provision of back-azimuth for missed approaches and departure guidance;
elimination of service interruptions caused by snow accumulation; and
lower site preparation, repair, and maintenance costs.
The MLS provides precision navigation guidance for exact aircraft alignment and descent
during an approach to a selected runway. It integrates azimuth (AZ), elevation angle (EL),
and range (DME) information to provide precise aircraft positioning. The components of an
MLS are similar to an ILS. Instead of a glideslope antenna, the MLS has an elevation station,
and instead of a localiser antenna, it has an azimuth station. The MLS also has a precision
DME (DME/P) transmitter. The DME/P signal is more accurate than traditional DME.
Operates 5.03 to 5.09 GHz.
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Ground Equipment Location

MLS is normally installed in a configuration similar to ILS; however, it is possible, if necessary
because of limited space, to install all of the components together. One example of this type
of collocated configuration might be a hospitals heliport. In a standard airfield installation, the
MLS azimuth transmitter is usually located between 1,000 and 1,500 feet beyond the
departure end of the runway along the runway centerline. The elevation transmitter is
normally located 400 feet from the runway centerline near the approach threshold. The DME,
which provides range information, is collocated with the azimuth transmitter.
The "Time Reference Scanning Beam" (TRSB) technique, is used in an MLS to pinpoint an
airplane's location. In the TRSB system, an airplane's horizontal and vertical location is
determined by two separate microwave beams with very precisely timed scanning patterns.
The first beam swept back and forth across the runway centerline (plus or minus 60 degrees
on each side) at a rate of 13.5 times per second. The second swept up and down from the
runway elevation to a position 20 above that at a rate of 40 times per second. The airplane's
horizontal and vertical position could be determined by measuring the time difference in
between each signal transmission received by the aircraft. By integrating that data with
distance information from a conventional distance measuring equipment (DME) transmitter
on the airport, a receiver on board an airplane could accurately pinpoint the plane's location
in relation to the runway. A third beam, scanning up and down over a 7.5 degree arc from the
runway elevation 40 times a minute, could also be installed to provide flare guidance for
automatic landings. The net result is a system that can provide precise manual or automatic
landing guidance to an airplane anywhere in a wedge-shaped area stretching 120 wide and
20 high from the airport runway.
Displays. MLS displays are virtually identical to the ILS. Both lateral and vertical MLS
guidance may be displayed on conventional course deviation indicators or incorporated into
multipurpose cockpit displays.
Mobile Microwave Landing System (MMLS)
Microwave landing systems provide the capability of mobility, and quick set-up.
Their compactness provides a significant advantage in that they can be loaded on one pallet.
They are relatively easy to assemble, allowing operators to set it up very quickly. It only takes
about 30 minutes to an hour to set up a trailerised version, The other version can be set up in
three hours or less.
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Currently, this system is more aligned to a military application, but the advantages of the MLS
over the ILS are further evident by the fact that the MLS is so much smaller and readily
transportable if required.
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GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

The use of satellites for navigation has grown rapidly in recent times. Not only aircraft but
ships, cars and even bushwalkers are using global positioning systems (GPS) for fast,
accurate position fixing.
Principles of operation of GPS

The global positioning system (GPS) was first developed and funded by the United States
Department of Defense for military use. Once developed, the system became available for
civilian use but the military system is still more accurate. The system is based on a
constellation of 24 satellites orbiting the earth at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km. Of
the 24 satellites only 21 are used, the other three are maintained as spares. The satellites are
placed in six orbital planes (four satellites in each plane). The satellites continuously transmit
a 1.575 GHz radio signal satellite identification and range data.
Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the globe making two
complete rotations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at any time, anywhere on
Earth, there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky .
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GPS Principle of Operation

A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the distance to
each, and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on a
simple mathematical principle called trilateration.
Imagine you are somewhere in Australia and you are TOTALLY lost. You find a friendly local
and ask, "Where am I?" He says, "You are 750 KM from Alice Springs." This is a nice, hard
fact, but it is not particularly useful by itself. You could be anywhere on a circle around Alice
Springs that has a radius of 750 KM.
You ask somebody else where you are, and she says, "You are 1000 KM from Townsville."
Now you're getting somewhere. If you combine this information with the Alice Springs
information, you have two circles that intersect. You now know that you must be at one of
these two intersection points.
If a third person tells you that you are 1250 KM from Broken Hill, you can eliminate one of the
possibilities, because the third circle will only intersect with one of these points. You now
know exactly where you are Mt Isa.
This same concept works in three-dimensional space, as well, but you're dealing with
spheres instead of circles.
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GPS Position Fixing

Fundamentally, three-dimensional trilateration isn't much different from two-dimensional
trilateration, but it's a little trickier to visualise. Imagine the radii from the examples in the last
section going off in all directions. So instead of a series of circles, you get a series of
spheres. If you know you are 10 miles from satellite A in the sky, you could be anywhere on
the surface of a huge, imaginary sphere with a 10-mile radius. If you also know you are 15
miles from satellite B, you can overlap the first sphere with another, larger sphere. The
spheres intersect in a perfect circle. If you know the distance to a third satellite, you get a
third sphere, which intersects with this circle at two points.
The Earth itself can act as a fourth sphere -- only one of the two possible points will actually
be on the surface of the planet, so you can eliminate the one in space. Receivers generally
look to four or more satellites, however, to improve accuracy and provide precise altitude
information.
In order to make this simple calculation, then, the GPS receiver has to know two things:
The location of at least three satellites above you
The distance between you and each of those satellites
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Basic principles
Position fixing using satellites is based on the accurate measurement of time taken for a
radio signal to travel from the satellite to the aircraft receiver.
dis tan ce
velocity
time
We know that the speed of light (and radio waves) is 300,000,000 metres per second (or
186,000 miles per second). All we need to know then is the time taken for the radio signal
from the satellite to reach us and we can calculate the exact distance from the satellite.
Each satellite emits a coded signal which contains essential information like its position and
the exact timing of the signal emission to earth. Therefore, nothing but a simple receiver is
needed to measure the elapsed time between emission and reception of the signal. The
satellite to station distance is simply deduced from this travel time. Three different
measurements made on three different satellites give the three distances needed to
determine the three coordinates of the station position : latitude, longitude, and altitude. This
type of measurement is known as "pseudo-range" measurements in GPS jargon. Every
satellite emits two types of pseudo-ranges : A precise code (P code) which enables a position
precision of around 10 meters and a coarse code (C/A code) which allows a precision of
around 100 meters. The precise code is encrypted to deny the precise positioning to anyone
other than the American military. Therefore, the only precision available to civilian
applications based on the pseudo-ranges measurements is this of the C/A code.
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GPS Time Keeping

The aircraft GPS receiver knows exactly when it received the satellite signal but it needs to
know when the signal was sent in order to calculate the transmission time. The system
designers came up with a unique method for calculating transmission time. Each satellite
sends a specific digitised code at a specific time. The aircraft receiver generates the same
code at the same time as the satellite transmission. All the receiver needs to do is measure
the time interval between generating the signal and receiving the same one from the satellite.
A major weakness of the system is that even extremely small errors in time measurement
can cause huge inaccuracies. For example, if the clocks in the satellite transmitter and the
aircraft receiver are out of synchronisation by as little as 0.000001 second, an error of 300
metres is created. The satellites have extremely accurate atomic clocks but these are very
expensive. Each GPS satellite has 4 atomic clocks on board, because precise timing is the
key to GPS navigation; this guarantees an accuracy of one nanosecond, or one billionth of a
second. The satellites broadcast this time along with data used by receivers to calculate
satellite position. Receivers have much cheaper clocks which are, of course, much less
accurate (after all, you only get what you pay for). If the system was 100% accurate, our
actual position would be precisely calculated by the GPS.
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However, if the receiver timing is out of synchronisation with the satellite it will plot an
inaccurate position. The GPS computer recognises a timing problem exists and minutely
adjusts computations by adding or subtracting time equally between each signal until they
intersect. The computer actually continuously calculates the timing errors but needs the input
from a fourth satellite to do so. Accordingly, GPS systems need data from four satellites to
guarantee accurate and reliable position fixing. The fourth satellite determines the offset
between the receiver's inexpensive clock and a satellite's highly precise atomic clock.
In order to make this measurement, the receiver and satellite both need clocks that can be
synchronized down to the nanosecond. To make a satellite positioning system using only
synchronized clocks, you would need to have atomic clocks not only on all the satellites, but
also in the receiver itself. But atomic clocks cost somewhere between $50,000 and $100,000,
which makes them a just a bit too expensive for everyday consumer use.
The Global Positioning System has a clever, effective solution to this problem. Every satellite
contains an expensive atomic clock, but the receiver itself uses an ordinary quartz clock,
which it constantly resets. In a nutshell, the receiver looks at incoming signals from four or
more satellites and gauges its own inaccuracy. When you measure the distance to four
located satellites, you can draw four spheres that all intersect at one point. Three spheres will
intersect even if your numbers are way off, but four spheres will not intersect at one point if
you've measured incorrectly. Since the receiver makes all its distance measurements using
its own built-in clock, the distances will all be proportionally incorrect. The receiver can easily
calculate the necessary adjustment that will cause the four spheres to intersect at one point.
Based on this, it resets its clock to be in sync with the satellite's atomic clock. The receiver
does this constantly whenever it's on, which means it is nearly as accurate as the expensive
atomic clocks in the satellites.
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Differential GPS
GPS systems to suffer from a few errors:
Satellite position
The position of each satellite is vital to the operation of the aircraft GPS receiver. The
satellites orbits are constantly monitored and occasionally deviate slightly due to factors like
the gravitational effect of the moon and the effect of solar wind (the impacting of solar
radiation on the satellite). The altitude, position and speed of each satellite is accurately
measured and correction factors are sent to the satellite (but this does not mean that the
satellites can correct any deviations in their orbit). Each satellite transmits corrected position
information in addition to the timing data.
Atmospheric errors
The transmissions from the satellites can be delayed during passage through the ionosphere
and troposphere. Good quality aircraft receivers have correction factors built-in but the signal
deviations are random, so some inaccuracies are inevitable.
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Multipath error
Satellite signals can be reflected from mountains, buildings and other objects. The system
must discriminate between the original signal and reflected signals. Bogus signals take
longer to reach the receiver and can interfere with the original signal which may result in
position error. Similar effect to ghosting on a TV screen.
Satellite geometry A good quality GPS receiver will take into account the relative position of
satellites. The geometry of the satellites can magnify the errors discussed so far. As a
consequence of these errors the distances from each satellite will not be precise, some
tolerances will exist. The spread of tolerances can be magnified by the relative positioning of
the satellites, eg the more spread out the satellites are the more accurate the position fix,
bunched satellites do not produce the same accuracy.
Mask angle
Satellites which are low on the horizon are unsuitable for GPS purposes as the atmospheric
problems are magnified. Typically, satellites which are below approximately 7.5 degrees
above the horizon are rejected by the receiver.
Differential GPS is a refinement of the standard GPS which eliminates most of the errors
listed above by using ground-based transmitters. Put simply, a precisely located ground
transmitter near the receiver can be used just like a satellite except all the errors are virtually
eliminated. For example:
the signals do not need to pass through the ionosphere so atmospheric problems are
eliminated
the location can be precisely measured using survey equipment so position errors are
eliminated
the ground station is a long way from the satellites so geometry is excellent
the ground station output cannot be degraded by the US Defense Department (which
limits satellite accuracy for non-military use: P {precise} and C/A {course code} modes
of operation).
The signal from this transmitter can then be used to apply timing correction factors to the
satellite transmitters, giving consistent horizontal accuracy measurements of less than one
metre (depending on receiver quality).
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The ground based receiver position is known exactly so when it computes its GPS calculated
position the receiver can measure exactly the errors inherent in the satellite signals
(atmospheric, GDOP, Ephemeris, etc) and transmit error correction messages to and GPS
receiver to correct for these errors, thus greatly increasing position fixing accuracy of the
aircraft or ship mounted GPS receiver.
GPS Receivers
You can use maps stored in the receiver's memory, connect the receiver to a computer that
can hold more detailed maps in its memory, or simply buy a detailed map of your area and
find your way using the receiver's latitude and longitude readouts. Some receivers let you
download detailed maps into memory or supply detailed maps with plug-in map cartridges.
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A standard GPS receiver will not only place you on a map at any particular location, but will
also trace your path across a map as you move. If you leave your receiver on, it can stay in
constant communication with GPS satellites to see how your location is changing. With this
information and its built-in clock, the receiver can give you several pieces of valuable
information:
How far you've traveled (odometer)
How long you've been traveling
Your current speed (speedometer)
Your average speed
A "bread crumb" trail showing you exactly where you have traveled on the map
The estimated time of arrival at your destination if you maintain your current speed
To obtain this last piece of information, you would have to have given the receiver the
coordinates of your destination
Airborne Components of a GPS
There are various configurations of aircraft GPS systems:
Simple general aviation

receiver/controller
Remotely mounted receiver used by airline and corporate aircraft, provides data to
the flight management system (FMS) over a digital data bus system
Dedicated multifunction control display unit (MCDU), coupled to a computer/ receiver

may be installed.
units
consisting
of
combined
panel
mounted
We will concentrate on the GPS system which is essentially a flight management system
(FMS) based on GPS inputs. This system consists of the following components:
Antenna and pre-amplifier unit
Multifunction control display unit (MCDU)
Receiver/processor unit
Data loader.
The GPS data is provided to the flight management system, where it can then be transmitted
to autopilot for autoflight control, navigation systems for update reference, Multi Function
Displays for display on a digital map, ACARS system for position transmissions, etc
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GPS Operation
Antenna system A typical GPS antenna is flat microstrip type with an integral preamp. Good
GPS reception relies on an antenna system which has line-of-sight access to the satellites.
Accordingly, the antenna must always be mounted on top of the aircraft fuselage and avoid
shielding from airframe protrusions. Many aircraft have the GPS antenna on the forward
upper fuselage so that satellites are not shielded by the tail and antenna cable runs are kept
to a minimum.
Receiver & Processor unit The GPS Receiver & processor unit contains:
the GPS receiver which processes the incoming satellite radio signals
data base containing satellite constellation data, navigational data
computer assembly
I/O interface with other aircraft systems and multifunction control display unit
power supply.
The GPS Receiver/Processor is typically a rack mounted unit.

Multifunction control display unit A typical MCDU has a colour liquid crystal display and
provides flight crews with the controls and displays necessary to:
turn the system on and off
access navigation data such as groundspeed, estimated time to waypoint, present

position
access navigation data base information such as waypoints, VORs NDBs, airports
create or edit flight plans
warn pilots of GPS malfunctions.
Data loader unit

Updated navigation information can be loaded into the NPU memory via the data loader. This
information would include a world-wide information base of waypoints, airways, airports,
runways, VOR beacons, arrival and departure procedures. Generally, this information base is
updated monthly by maintenance personnel. The data loader unit can also be used to load
new operating software into the NPU.
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LORAN-C
LORAN-C stations across the United States where originally just a marine navigation system
but the system was upgraded in the 1980s to support aviation. LORAN-C determines present
position by the intersection of Lines of Position (LOPs) that are hyperbolic curves. At least
three stations, (a Master and two Secondaries) are needed. The system uses triangulation to
measure the location of an aircraft or boat. LORAN C is based on the continental US,
Canada and Alaska, hence this navigation system may not be incorporated in aircraft that do
not service these areas. Additionally, LORAN C is under review to be phased out because its
capabilities have been superceded by GPS. In 1994 the US Govt released a statement
indicating that LORAN would be switched off in 2000, but it continues to function
LORAN-C provides: Range, Track, Ground speed, Estimated time en route, Cross track
error, Track angle error, Desired track, Winds and drift angle.
LORAN uses a network of land-based radio transmitters and was developed to provide an
accurate system for LOng RAnge Navigation. The system was configured to provide reliable,
all weather navigation for marine users along the U.S. coasts and in the Great Lakes. The
current system (LORAN-C) was the third version of four developed since World War II. With
an expanding user group in the general aviation community, the LORAN coastal facilities
were augmented in 1991 to provide signal coverage over the entire continental U.S. LORANC is also supported in the Canadian airspace system. The 27 U.S. LORAN transmitters that
provide signal coverage for the continental U.S. and the southern half of Alaska are
distributed from Caribou, Maine, to Attu Island in the Aleutians. Station operations are
organised into sub-groups of four to six stations called "chains." One station in the chain is
designated the "Master" and the others are "secondary" stations.
The LORAN navigation signal is a carefully structured sequence of brief radio frequency
pulses centered at 100 kHz. The sequence of signal transmissions consists of a pulse group
from the Master (M) station followed at precise time intervals by groups from the secondary
stations.
LORAN transmitter stations have several buildings and an antenna about 700 feet tall. A
station generally requires 100 or more acres of land to accommodate guy lines that keep the
antenna in position. Each station transmits 400 to 1,600 Kw.
Before a LORAN receiver can provide navigation information for a
receive, or "acquire," signals from three or more stations in a
between the reoccurrence of the Master pulse group is the Group
The GRI is the same for all stations in a chain and each LORAN
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chain. The time interval
Repetition Interval (GRI).
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Since all stations in a particular chain operate on the same radio frequency, the GRI is the
key by which a LORAN receiver can identify and isolate signal groups from a specific chain.
Acquisition involves the time synchronization of the receiver with the chain GRI, identification
of the Master station signals from among those checked, identification of secondary station
signals, and the proper selection of the point in each signal at which measurements should
be made.
The signal processor acquires LORAN signals and measures the difference between the
time-of-arrival of each secondary station pulse group and the Master station pulse group. The
measured Time Differences (TD's) depend on the location of the receiver in relation to the
three or more transmitters. The basic measurements made by LORAN receivers are the
differences in time-of-arrival between the Master signal and the signals from each of the
secondary stations of a chain. Each "time difference" (TD) value is measured to a precision of
about 0.1 microseconds. As a rule of thumb, 0.1 microsecond is equal to about 100 feet. The
navigation computer converts TD values to corresponding latitude and longitude.
The U.S. will continue to operate LORAN-C in the short term beyond the previously planned
Dec 2000 termination date while continuing to evaluate the long-term need for continuation of
the system and its cost effectiveness.
Loran C, in use for more than 30 years continues to serve a large community of commercial
and recreational users. The system will remain in service in North America for the
foreseeable future, providing a valuable back-up for the newer GPS.
While Loran C's absolute position fixing accuracy is not equal to GPS, it does provide quite
precise position repeatability, usually on the order of 50 feet except at sunrise, sunset or
during passage of strong weather fronts.
The supremacy of GPS as the world's most popular position fixing system is the result of a
number of factors. Being satellite based, it provides world-wide coverage. The operating
frequency, 1.575 GHz permits use of an antenna small enough to fit within a hand-held
package. The circuitry can be contained on a couple of large scale integrated circuits,
allowing automatic assembly of the entire device. The massive market supports production
volumes that drive costs down to levels far below previous expectations. Simply put, GPS is a
truly amazing bargain compared to LORAN.
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OMEGA NETWORK
The OMEGA navigation system, which used the VLF (Very Low Frequency) communications
band, was operated and maintained by the U.S. Navy. At one time VLF was state-of-the-art
technology for long-distance underwater communication with submarines. Omega was a
network of eight VLF transmitting stations located throughout the world to provide worldwide
signal coverage for marine and air navigation. The stations transmitted precisely timed
signals in the VLF band (10-13 kHz). Because of the low frequency, signals could be
received to ranges of thousands of miles. Omega signals were affected by propagation
variables which degraded fix accuracy. Omega provided a normal system accuracy of 2 to 4
NM worldwide. The Australian Omega Navigation Site was in Darriman in Victoria (ESE of
Melbourne, South of Sale, near the coast) and was the location of a 427 metre high steel
mast and antenna system.
As of September 30, 1997, the OMEGA Navigation System was terminated. All eight OMEGA
stations: Norway (A), Liberia (B), Hawaii (C), North Dakota (D), La Reunion (E), Argentina
(F), Australia (G), and Japan (H) around the world have permanently ceased to operate.
OMEGA, the first world wide radionavigaton system, operated for over twenty-six years.
How Omega Functioned
VLF/OMEGA is a combination navigation system that operates using the same general
principles as LORAN-C. Hyperbolic lines of position are electronically plotted and used to
provide position information to a computer, which can then direct the pilot to the selected
destination. The OMEGA portion of the VLF/OMEGA system operates in the very lowfrequency (VLF) band, with each station transmitting a unique format utilizing four different
frequencies: 10.2 kHz, 11.05 kHz, 11.33 kHz, and 13.60 kHz. Every OMEGA station also
transmits on a fifth frequency reserved for that station only. All stations transmit with a power
of 10 kilowatts. At these low frequencies, OMEGA signals are not line of sight, and a 10killowatt transmitted signal can be received almost anywhere around the world. Aircraft
should be able to receive usable navigation information from between three to six OMEGA
ground stations at any given time.
Each ground station transmits its signal using a time pattern that uniquely identifies it. Also,
each OMEGA transmitter is equipped with an atomic clock synchronized with the clocks at
the other seven stations, so each transmission can be distinctively identified by airborne
receivers. Because every OMEGA station is transmitting constantly, the navigation receiver
can measure the time difference between transmissions from three or more stations and use
this information to plot hyperbolic lines of position.
Once the aircraft's precise location has been established, the OMEGA receiver can issue
course guidance information to the pilot in a manner similar to LORAN. OMEGA signals can
be received worldwide, which makes this system very useful to pilots flying over oceans or
over countries that lack modern navigational aids. OMEGA has become one of the primary
methods of navigation for aircraft crossing the Atlantic and Pacific.
The U.S. Navy operates a worldwide communications network operating in the every lowfrequency (VLF) band. The primary purpose of this radio network is to provide
communications between U.S. Naval forces operating throughout the world. A secondary use
for this system is to provide worldwide synchronization of time standards. To accomplish this
secondary mission, each VLF transmitter operates 24 hours a day and transmits a coded
signal at precise times. The signals are similar to the transmissions from an OMEGA station.
VLF stations transmit their signal at power levels between 500 and 1,000 kilowatts, permitting
VLF reception at almost any location around the world. Many OMEGA receivers are designed
to utilize these VLF communications signals for navigational purposes. The receivers that are
designed to use these signals are known as VLF/OMEGA navigation systems.
VLF communications signals can be used only as a backup navigation system, since they are
not designed to provide reliable navigation information. The U.S. Navy reserves the right to
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alter any component of his communication system if necessary to meet its particular
operational needs.
RADAR ALTIMETER
Barometric altimeters measure altitude by reference to the local air static pressure based on
standard barometric pressures. The barometric system of altitude measurement has
limitations, particularly when an aircraft is at low altitudes, as the indicator does not provide
pilots with a distance from the aircraft to the surface of the earth. For example, an altimeter
might read 3000 feet above local sea level but this is relatively worthless if it is operating in a
mountainous area where the peaks vary from 2500 to 3500 feet! Radio altimeters use radio
waves to measure the height of the aircraft above the local terrain in a similar manner to the
way depth sounders measure the depth of water beneath a boat.
There are two basic methods used by RADALT systems for the measurement of height:
pulsed systems
frequency modulated continuous wave systems (FMCW).
Pulsed systems are often referred to as radar altimeters, while the FMCW systems are
termed radio altimeters.
Radio Altimeters are usually limited to 2500 feet in range. Radar and radio altimeters are
both usually simply referred to as RADALT systems. RADALT systems are completely selfcontained within the aircraft, that is, they need no ground-based facilities for operation.
Radar Altimeter Basic Principle
The pulsed RADALT system determines height by measuring the time delay between the
transmission of a pulse and its reception back at the aircraft after reflection from the surface
of the earth. Two antennas are used, one dedicated for transmission and the other for
reception. The altitude range of pulsed RADALT systems varies between manufacturers and
applications with airline systems typically measuring up to 2500 feet (5 watts), and military
systems measuring up to 5000 feet and radiating around 100 watts. Frequency of operation
is 4.3GHz and pulses are typically of 60 nanoseconds duration. The system is capable of
measuring altitude every few milliseconds, however output filtering is introduced to reduce
sensitivity. Without such filtering, the system could virtually measure every minor variation in
altitude.
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The FMCW RADALT is similar to the pulsed system in that it measures the height of an
aircraft above the terrain by measuring the time taken for a signal to be reflected from the
earth below. However, the method used to measure this time interval is quite different. Just
like the radar altimeter system, two antennas are used, one dedicated for transmission and
the other for reception. The antennas are also very similar in appearance to those used in the
radar altimeter systems. Instead of a pulsed system, the FMCW RADALT transmits a
continuous signal with a frequency which is constantly varied within a fixed range. Because
the transmission frequency is changing at a constant rate, it is relatively easy to measure
altitude by measuring the frequency shift which occurs between transmission and reception
of the signal.
This frequency shift is directly proportional to the time taken for the signal to travel from the
aircraft to the earth and back again. Of course, this time period is directly proportional to the
aircraft altitude. FMCW systems are usually limited in measurement to around 2500 feet
using only 0.5 to 1 watt. The continuous wave (CW) signal is varied from 4250 MHz to 4350
MHz and back to 4350 MHz every 0.01 seconds. This means it will take 0.005 seconds for
the transmitter output to go from 4250 to 4350 MHz. Radio waves travelling at the speed of
light would cover 931 miles (1498 km) in that time. So, at the maximum altitude range of a
radio altimeter (2500 feet), the radio altimeter could compute the altitude above the terrain
hundreds of times in that 0.005 second time interval.
So, just like the pulsed system, the FMCW RADALT is capable of measuring altitude every
few milliseconds, and output filtering is required to reduce sensitivity.
Components of a RADALT system
Although the pulsed and FMCW systems operate on different principles the components
used in each system appear similar. Both systems utilise:
a dedicated transmitting antenna
a dedicated receiving antenna
transmitter/receiver
an indicator.
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Antennas
The RADALT antennas are broadly directional horns which are flush mounted to the aircraft
skin. They are usually installed along the aircraft centreline on the underside of the fuselage
at a distance of around 0.6 to 2.0 metres apart. It is important that they are not affected by
projections from the aircraft such as landing gear and flaps. The manufacturer s
requirements for installing the antennas must always be observed. Most antennas must be
mounted with specific orientation which ensures minimal interference between them.
They should not be painted. Correct orientation of the antenna is essential for proper
operation of the system, many have a keying pin which prevents improper installation. As the
systems are extremely accurate (the tolerance is normally less than 1.0 metre near the
ground), it is important that the distance between the antenna and the transmitter/receiver is
accurately calibrated. This is referred to as the aircraft installation delay (AID) and can also
be affected by the height of the fuselage from the ground. Each aircraft can be specifically
calibrated for AID by installing antenna leads of a specific length. Some RADALT systems
provide for adjustment at the transmitter/ receiver.
Transmitter/receiver
Although older systems used separate transmitter and receiver units, most systems in use
today employ a combined receiver/transmitter-computer assembly. Typically, these are rackmounted units. When in the transmit mode the receiver is disabled so as not too pick up
transmissions direct from the transmitter. If radar altitude is lost for a short period of time the
receiver transmitter will continue to search for a short period of time before energising a fail
flag on the indicator.
Indicators
Like most modern avionics systems there are several ways of displaying radio altitude
including:
dedicated radio altimeter
attitude direction indicator (ADI or EADI).
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Most indicators incorporate a decision height (DH) annunciator which can be selected by the
pilot. This annunciator can be positioned by the pilot and if the selected height is breached
the pilot will receive an altitude warning. RAD ALT system power turn ON/OFF and built in
test initiate are typically incorporated on the indicator. The needle is masked when the
system is turned OFF, and will mask if the RAD ALT fails in flight, or loses height reference,
eg aircraft flies too high.
Radar Altimeter Operation
The transmitter generates 60 nanosecond pulses of RF at 4.3 GHz which are fed to the
transmitting antenna. The transmit pulses are also fed to a comparator where the reference
circuit compares the return pulse against the transmit pulse and measures the time difference
between them.
If the received signal is lost, search mode will be enabled and the transmitter will hold the last
good altitude signal for several seconds while it tries to reestablish a height reference. This
mode avoids spurious RAD ALT Fail warnings if pulses are not received for short periods, eg
banking or interference. If an altitude reference cannot be reestablished the RAD ALT
indicator pointer will mask and the pilot will be warned by audible or annunciator caution that
radar altitude is no longer valid.
The RAD ALT altitude signal sent to the FMC can be used for autoflight functions, display or
utilised by avionic systems as a reference, eg ACARS for transmit to a ground station.
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GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM

The ground proximity warning system (GPWS) monitors the data received from a variety of
aircraft systems. Using these inputs, the GPWS computer calculates the likelihood of the
aircraft crashing and provides an appropriate advisory message or warning to the flight
crews.
The primary system input is from the radio altimeter system. By monitoring radio altitude and,
more importantly, rates of change of radio altitude, the system can compute predictions on
the likelihood of the aircraft impacting with the ground.
Modes of operation
Because the likelihood of crashing varies with the aircraft configuration and the stage of flight
there are six modes of GPWS operation which can be summarised as follows:
mode 1: excessive sink rate
mode 2: excessive ground closure rate
mode 3: descent after take-off
mode 4: proximity to the ground with landing gear in the up position or the flaps not in
the landing position
mode 5: descent below glideslope
mode 6: descent below the decision height selected on the RADALT.
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GPWS Function
Two warning lamps located on each side of the instrument panel directly in front of pilot and
co-pilot. A single amber GPWS INOP warning lamp is located on the instrument panel. This
will illuminate if the system fails.
Messages from the GPWS are classified as either advisory or warning. The advisory
message simply alerts the crew to the situation. If corrective action is not taken and the
situation becomes dangerous, a more urgent warning will be given. For example, Mode 1
provides an advisory sink rate - sink rate aural message if the aircraft loses altitude when
close to the ground. If the flight crews fail to take appropriate action, the message is
upgraded to the more urgent warning of whoop whoop pull up - whoop whoop pull up.
All warning messages and most advisory messages consist of a combined visual annunciator
and aural announcement.
The major part of the GPWS is the computer. This is a single black box unit which interfaces
with the aircraft systems and provides outputs to the warning lamps and the audio system.
The GPWS computer receives information from the following systems:
radio altitude from the RADALT system
landing gear position
flap position
glideslope deviation from the VHF navigation system
Mach (airspeed) data from the central air data computer (CADC)
barometric rate of change of altitude from the CADC.
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The figure is a block diagram of a typical GPWS aircraft installation. The computer is the
central component and it receives input from a variety of systems.
The computer calculates the likelihood of danger based on the aircraft system inputs and:
generates the synthesised voice messages
activates the caution or warning lamps.
The radio altimeter (RADALT) system provides radio height signals to the computer. These
signals are the primary system input used to compute rate of closure with the ground. The
RADALT decision height (DH) is also supplied to the GPWS. This is used to provide aural
warning when DH is reached.
The VHF navigation system provides glideslope deviation signals to the computer. These
signals generate the mode 5 warnings which advise flight crews if the aircraft is below the
glideslope centreline by more than 1.3 dots.
The central air data computer (CADC) provides inputs of barometric rate of change of altitude
and mach (airspeed). Barometric rates of change of altitude are used to generate the mode 3
warnings which advise flight crews if the aircraft is descending after take-off. Mach (airspeed)
data is used by the computer to calculate warning envelopes. For example, an aircraft flying
above rising terrain will experience a higher rate of closure with the terrain if the forward
speed of the aircraft is higher. The computer therefore takes aircraft speed into account
when calculating warnings.
The landing gear position switches are used to generate a warning to the pilots if the aircraft
is in a landing configuration but the landing gear not extended.
Similarly, the flap position switch input is used to generate warnings if the aircraft is in a
landing configuration & flaps are not in the correct position. Most GPWS installations have a
flap override switch which inhibits the flap warnings if the pilot intends to make a landing
without using flaps.
GPWS outputs
Using the information listed above, the GPWS computer provides pilots with visual and aural
warnings.
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RADIO NAVIGATION FREQUENCY BANDS
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AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV)

Area navigation allows the pilot to fly direct to a destination without the need to fly VORs or
other ground based facilities. Navigation is simply the route an aircraft takes from one point to
the next. As described in this lesson, if a pilot can look out the window and keep track of his
position by eyeballing ground features like lakes, towns, hills, etc he/she can be assured
that they are sticking by the planned course and have no need for complex navigation
systems. In modern aviation aircraft pilots are rarely able to visually identify ground features,
but must still know exactly where they are at all times.
To ensure aircraft maintained accurate positional awareness the VOR system was used by
aircraft flying from point to point. An aircraft would take-off and fly out on a VOR radial away
from the originating airfield and would fly until it intersected the VOR radial for the next VOR
station, where it would fly inbound on the next stations VOR. After passing over that VOR, it
would again fly outbound on a VOR radial which would aim the aircraft at the next VOR
station on the flight plan. Following this route aircraft would overfly VOR station after VOR
station and thereby maintain good navigational awareness throughout the flight.
Area Navigation or RNAV equipped aircraft do not have to overfly VOR stations so can take a
much more direct route from origin to destination thus speeding up the flight, and conserving
fuel, a far more efficient method of navigating.
Some of the available systems which support RNAV include VOR/DME stations, VORTAC
based systems, Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) (including Ring Laser Gyros systems), and
Global Positioning Systems (GPS). Although not discussed in this lesson, the flight
management System Computer also provides area navigation capability utilising a range of
navigation systems to pinpoint aircraft location.
Using RNAV an aircraft can maintain navigational awareness utilising the modern accurate
navigation systems without having to overfly VOR stations. It does this by flying from
waypoint to waypoint. Waypoints (typically latitude/longitude positions) are entered into the
navigation computer and they are overflown instead of the VOR stations. A fix of actual
position can be obtained by utilising any of the afore mentioned modern navigation systems,
so the flight crew can be assured that are maintaining their programmed flight path. The
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waypoints are not reliant upon any particular point on the ground, so flight paths can be direct
from point to point.
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RNAV Waypoint Navigation

RNAV based on VORTAC and VOR/DME facilities has been in use for some time. It is
accomplished with a course line computer that creates phantom waypoints at convenient
locations for a direct route of flight. The pilot navigates to and from these phantom VORs the
same way as actual VOR navigation. The CLC requires DME to calculate the location of a
waypoint. To create a phantom VOR waypoint, an actual VORTAC or VOR/DME frequency is
tuned into the computer. A waypoint is established as a direction and distance from a
VOR/DME site. On the slide waypoint 1 is 50 nautical miles South South West (191) of the
VOR station. The pilot programs the RNAV computer by designating a number of waypoints
along the desired flight path. Even though the RNAV equipment is designed to permit direct
routes, the aircraft must be able to receive useable signals from the ground site. Waypoints
cannot be used if they would take the aircraft beyond the line-of-sight reception range of a
VOR facility. RNAV does not extend a VORs standard service range, which means that if a
pilot is flying below 15 000 ft they must remain within 40 nautical miles of the VOR stations
top receive a reliable navigation signal.
Inertial Navigation systems can also be used for RNAV and they ear an extremely accurate
self contained navigation system. Using INS, the pilot does not have to consider ground
based radio navigation facilities, and any number of waypoints can be programmed. When
coupled to an autopilot system, the INS programmed waypoints can be used to navigate the
aircraft on autopilot from point to point. However, even inertial navigation systems are subject
to some errors and a degrade of 1-2 nautical miles per hour is not uncommon. To maintain
precision many INS systems incorporate and updating facility and the pilot can correct the
INS calculated position periodically by either visual fix, VOR/DME, VORTAC, or GPS. INS
systems are reliable enough to be approved as RNAV systems either on their own, or in
conjunction with other systems.
Global positioning systems are also capable of supporting RNAV, and after programming
waypoints and then obtaining a fix from the satellite or GPS ground stations, the RNAV
computer can calculate heading, distance, ETA, etc to the next waypoint. Using GPS the
pilot can always be assured of the aircrafts position, and course, etc required to intersect the
next waypoint.
A limitation on the use of RNAV for IFR flight is the ATC system. In congested air traffic
areas, air traffic controllers may not approve direct routes of flight, and indirect routes around
the heavy traffic areas may be required. Additionally when storm activity is encountered the
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flight crew must reprogram their intended flight path (and have it reauthorised by ATC) to fly
around the storm (not unlike conventional IFR navigation).
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RNAV Computer
An RNAV computer is referred to by several names:
RNAV Transceiver
Course-line Computer (CLC)
Track-Line Computer (TLC)
The function of Area Navigation can also be performed by the Flight Management Computer
System (FMCS) as part of the overall aircraft flight management data processing and in large
commercial aircraft, and in modern aircraft with digital data bus systems the RNAV function
will be incorporated into the FMCS.
On smaller and less complex aircraft RNAV can be achieved by incorporation of a simple
RNAV computer. Where the position calculations described in the previous slides are
reasonably easily performed manually, while flying and with many more things occurring
simultaneously it is far more desirable that the navigation calculations be performed
automatically and electronically. A simple RNAV computer can perform this function, and only
requires inputs from the navigation systems already described in this lesson. The VOR/DME
and VORTAC systems are the most common in light aircraft, and this is all the input that
most simple RNAV computers would require to perform RNAV functions.
With GPS systems becoming more inexpensive and commonplace in light aircraft, modern
RNAV computers are likely GPS compatible in addition to the standard VOR/DME and
VORTAC inputs.
Inertial Navigation Systems are extremely expensive and are typically only incorporated in
large commercial or business jet type aircraft which also incorporate a flight management
system and a full suite of navigation systems. An aircraft with an INS would likely not have a
separate RNAV computer, as this function would be performed internally by the INS.
With the RNAV computer the pilot effectively moves or off-sets the VOR/DME or VORTAC to
any desired location if it is within reception range. This "phantom station" is created by setting
the distance and the bearing of the waypoint from a convenient ground station in the
appropriate windows of the waypoint selector on the RNAV computer. A series of these
"phantom stations" or waypoints make up an RNAV route.
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TOPIC 11.5.2.3: AVIONIC SYSTEMS AUTO FLIGHT (ATA 22)

AIRCRAFT FLIGHT CONTROLS
Axes Of An Aircraft
An aircraft in flight is controlled within three stabilised planes. Movement within each plane is
about an axis, rather than centred on an axis. All three axes pass through the centre of
gravity (C of G).
The three principal axes are:
longitudinal (X axis) which runs nose to tail through the C of G
lateral (Y axis) which runs parallel with a line from wing tip to wing tip and intersects
the X axis at the C of G
normal/vertical (Z axis) runs perpendicular to the other two axes intersecting them at
the C of G.
Roll
Movement around the longitudinal axis is called rolling, its control or stability is called the
lateral stability, and is controlled by ailerons.
Pitch
Movement around the lateral axis is called pitching, and the control or stability is called the
longitudinal stability, and is controlled by elevators.
Yaw
Movement around the vertical axis is called yawing. Control or stability is called the
directional stability and is controlled by the rudder.
Flight Control Surfaces
In straight and level flight, a flight control surface can be considered as an extended aerofoil.
When the control surface is deflected, the amount of lift produced by the extended aerofoil
either increases or decreases depending on the direction of the control surface.
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Movement - If the control surface is deflected down the shape of the aerofoil is extended so
the amount of lift produced increases. If the surface is deflected up the aerofoil shape is
distorted and the amount of lift is decreased. Primary control surfaces consist of the
following: ailerons/spoilers, elevators, rudder, stabilators, canards, elevons, ruddervators.
Ailerons/spoilers - The roll attitude of an aircraft is controlled by ailerons, and are operated by
sideways movement of the pilots control column. They are found on the trailing edge of the
wing near the wing tip. Placing them near the wing tip gives greater airflow deflection,
meaning only a small column movement will create a large amount of roll. They are
connected in opposition to each other, so that when the left aileron is raised the right one is
lowered. When the aileron is lowered lift is increased and the wing will rise. The raised
aileron will assist the lowered one to roll the aircraft. Movement of the control column is
instinctive. If you move the column to the left, the aircraft will bank to the left and vice a versa.
Spoilers can be used as a substitute for ailerons, and operate on the same principle as
ailerons, except they only extend upwards. When the spoiler of one wing is raised, the wing
drops due to the loss of lift.
Elevators - These control the longitudinal attitude of the aircraft, and are coupled together
and are found on the trailing edge of the tail planes horizontal surface. They are operated by
means of fore and aft movement of the pilots control column. Pulling the column back will
cause the elevators to rise, which will decrease the amount of lift on the tail, which will drop,
causing the nose to rise. Thus, the aircraft will climb. Pushing the column forward has the
opposite effect, and the aircraft will drive.
Rudder - This controls the direction of the aircraft in the same way as the rudder on a boat.
The rudder is hinged at the rear of the vertical fin, and is operated by the pilots rudder
pedals. Pushing the right pedal forward causes the aircraft to turn right.
Stabilators - Some aircraft have dispensed with the elevators on the tail plane, and replaced
them with a horizontal surface that moves in its entirety and is called a stabilator. It is mainly
used in high performance fighter aircraft.
Canards - Some aircraft have an additional set of wings set forward of the C of G instead of a
tail plane. They are used to give additional lift to the main wings, and improve the handling of
the aircraft at low and high speeds.
Elevons - These are combined control surfaces that act as both elevators and ailerons on
delta winged aircraft. Concord is a typical example.
Ruddervators - These are a combined control surface to operate in pitch and yaw, and fitted
to aircraft that have a butterfly of V tail.
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CONTROL SURFACE ACTUATION

On small light aircraft the power to move the control surfaces is provided by the muscles in
the pilots arms and legs. The control column is physically connected to the control surfaces
by cables, and the pilot moves the control surfaces by repositioning the control column or
rudder pedals. As the control column or rudder pedals are displaced the movement is
mechanically transferred to the control surface, the aircraft attitude changes, and the pilot recentres the control column or rudder pedals when the desired attitude or heading is achieved.
Any autopilot function in this simple system is nothing more than the use of trim tabs to trim
the aircraft to eliminate excessive drift and to relieve the pilot of the necessity to continually
maintain a force on the control column or rudder pedals in order to maintain straight and level
flight.
Servomotors and Servo Actuators
On larger aircraft it is physically impossible to move the control surfaces by muscles alone.
All aircraft, with the exception of light aircraft or very old aircraft, will incorporate some form of
power assistance (like power steering in a car) to move control surfaces. The power
assistance is provided by actuators or servos and these devices can operate from either/or
mechanical input (like your cars power steering) or electrical input. Once a flight control
system is capable of repositioning control surfaces by use of electrical signals, these signals
can be provided by a number of sensors to control the aircrafts flight path. Instead of the pilot
detecting an uncommanded roll or heading change and moving the stick or pedals to
counteract it, gyros, accelerometers and other sensor equipment can detect the
uncommanded attitude changes far more accurately and then provide an electrical output to
an actuator or servo.
This is the basis of a fly-by-wire or automatic flight control system. The sensors detect
uncommanded attitude changes and counter them. When the pilot moves the control column
or rudder pedals (a commanded attitude change) an electrical signal from the stick or pedal
transducers is transmitted to the electrically operated actuator and the control surface is
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deflected by pilot input to achieve an attitude change. In this electrically operated system, it is
electrical signals not mechanical inputs which control the actuator or servo operation.
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Going one step further, the electrically operated flight control system can be programmed to
fly a specific route, at a specific altitude and then the pilot is simply along for the ride. The
avionic systems of the aircraft provide the flight control computer with inputs of heading,
altitude, waypoints, etc and the flight control computer repositions the actuators with electrical
signals to maintain the aircraft on the programmed flight path. This attribute in an automatic
flight control system is called an autopilot.
The components used in an automatic flight control system (AFCS) to move the aircrafts
control surfaces are called servomotors, servo actuators, or by the name of the control
surface or channel that it controls, for example rudder servo or pitch actuator.
The signals received from the AFCS computer are electrical. Therefore the control of the
actuators is electrical. The servo actuators convert these electrical signals into control
surface movement by converting the electrical signal into mechanical motion which is usually
done by torque motors or solenoid controlled valves (electro-hydraulic valves).
The three main types of servomotors are:
electromechanical
electro-pneumatic
electro-hydraulic.
Electromechanical and electro-pneumatic actuators or servos are more suited to smaller

aircraft, and the typical installation in a modern commercial aircraft is an electro-hydraulic
system. Even though some of the surface actuators may be electro-hydraulic, it is not
uncommon for others to be electromechanical or electro-pneumatic, eg flap motors may be
electrically driven and throttle boost actuators may be pneumatically driven when the
remaining actuators may all be hydraulically driven (aileron, rudder, elevators).
Servomotors may be connected in series or parallel with the AFCS. A series servomotor is
one that moves the control surfaces without moving the pilots controls, whilst a parallel
servomotor moves the control surfaces and the pilots controls.
The most common actuator used on commercial aircraft flight control systems is the electrohydraulic actuator.
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Pneumatic & Electric Servos

Simple servos found on light aircraft use vacuum sources like those which operate the
gyroscopic instruments. Pneumatic pressure is obtained from either an engine driven pump
or from a tapping at one of the engine compressor stages. The vacuum is directed to
pneumatic servos that are mechanically connected to the normal mechanical flight control
linkages. The pneumatic servo is an airtight housing which contains a moveable diaphragm.
When vacuum is applied to the servo the diaphragm is displaced pulling on the cable to
reposition the flight control surface. Two of these servos would be needed for each control
surface, a pull and a push actuator.
Another method of driving the control surface of light aircraft is by use of an electric motor.
These servomotors may be powered by either AC or DC depending on the type of automatic
flight control system used. An electric motor servo can use a reversible DC motor and
reduction gearing to supply the force to move the flight control surface in both directions.
Alternatively a constant direction motor can be used with magnetically switched clutches to
engage a mechanism to apply force to a control cable. The servomotor consists of an
electromagnetic clutch, gearbox and drive mechanism. It may also include an amplifier to
amplify the command signal and a feedback system such as a potentiometer or
tachogenerator. The constant drive type has the advantage that the inertia forces in starting
and stopping the motor are eliminated so it can be engaged and disengaged more rapidly
and precisely.
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When the AFCS computer sends a signal to the motor of the electric servomotor, it will drive
the gear train and subsequently the control surface in the desired direction. At the same time,
it drives a tacho generator to provide feedback to the computer for speed limiting and
smoothing. A follow up synchro is also driven by the motor which will send a signal back to
the computer indicating the actual position of the control surface. The synchro signal is of a
phase opposite, but in proportion to the control surface displacement and will null the output
signal of the computer when both signals are equal. Thus control surface movement will
cease.
Both the pneumatic and electric servos are only power assisting servos, with the flight control
system still fundamentally powered by the pilots muscles. The pneumatic and electric flight
control servos are limited to use in only light and simple aircraft. Neither of these examples
are a fly-by-wire system.
The actuators used in larger and more modern aircraft are typically electro-hydraulic.
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POWERED FLIGHT CONTROLS

These are used in high performance aircraft and consist of two main types:
power assisted
power operated.
The main difference in the two systems is the way in which the actuators are connected to
the control surfaces
Power Assisted Control
In the power assisted system, the pilots control stick is connected to the control surface via a
control lever. When the pilot pulls back on the stick to begin a climb, the control lever pivots
about point X and commences moving the control surface up. At the same time, the control
valve pistons are displaced allowing hydraulic fluid to flow to the left hand side of the
actuating jack which is secured to the structure of the aircraft. The pressure exerted on the
piston causes the whole servo unit and control lever to move to the left, and because of the
greater control effort produced, the pilot is assisted in moving the control surface further.
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Power Operated Control

In this system, the pilots stick is connected to the control lever only, whilst the servo unit is
directly connected to the control surface. The effort required by the pilot to move the pilots
stick is that needed to move the control lever and control valve piston. The power required to
move the control surface is supplied solely by the servo units hydraulic power. As there are
no forces transmitted back to the pilots stick, the pilot has no feel of the loads acting on the
control surfaces, and a means of artificial feel must be introduced at a point between the
pilots stick and the connection to the servo unit control lever.
Electro-Hydraulic Actuators
The transfer valve is an electrically controlled hydraulic valve which operates a piston
assembly called the autopilot actuator, which in turn operates the main control valve for the
actuating cylinder. The movement of the actuator is monitored by the output of a linear
voltage differential transducer (LVDT). This will provide the follow up signal back to the
computer. Direct operation of the hydraulic power unit has two main advantages; one is the
very low computer power output required and the other is that it is more sensitive and
accurate, due to the absence of cable slack, stretch and drag.
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Manual Operation
In manual operation, the pilots stick moves the control quadrant, we will assume this relates
to a back stick input to move the elevators. The pilot pulls the stick backwards to start a climb
(moves the cockpit control to the left on the slide), the control cables will turn the control input
quadrant which will move the upper end of the control valve actuator (long green arm) to the
left. At this point before the surface begins to move the control surface actuator is
hydraulically locked in position (shown still centred on the diagram, because this is before it
begins to move) so the control valve actuator (long green arm) is anchored at the bottom.
The end result of the top of the arm moving left is that the control valve will be displaced left.
When the control valve moves left hydraulic supply pressure is ported to the left hand side of
the control surface actuator, which will force the piston to the right.
Note* autopilot actuator is also displaced to the left but has no effect on actuator operation in
manual mode
The pressure applied to the left of the control surface actuator will force the piston to the right
moving the control surface. This will move the bottom anchor point of the control valve
actuator (long green arm) to the right, and this time the top of the arm is held stationary (pilot
still has control column pulled back) so the control valve spool will be moved to the right, thus
centreing again and causing a hydraulic lock on either side of the control surface actuator
piston, locking the control surface in the commanded position (whilst ever the pilot maintains
the back stick input).
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The control surface will remain in the back stick position until the stick is recentred. When
back stick is released, the same process as previously described occurs again. The bottom of
the control valve actuator (long green arm) is locked in place because the control surface is
initially still hydraulically locked in the extended position. With the bottom of the control valve
actuator (long green arm) locked, the control valve will be displaced to the right, porting
hydraulic pressure to the right side of the control surface actuator.
Note again that the autopilot actuator spool has also recentred, but still has no effect on
actuator manual operation.
With the bottom of the control valve actuator (long green arm) locked, the control valve will be
displaced to the right, porting hydraulic pressure to the right side of the control surface spool
piston. The hydraulic pressure applied to the control surface spool piston will force the piston
to the left and retract the control surface. This will also reposition the control valve to the left
recentreing it and again hydraulically locking the control surface in the central position until
the control column is again displaced.
This description of flight control system operation still refers to a manually operated system.
No electrical inputs have been described yet. As you can see actuator operation is dependant
upon control valve position. If we can electrically drive the control valve, we can control the
actuator with electrical signals alone.
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ON/OFF Solenoid
An ON/OFF solenoid is simply a hydraulic relay. With no electrical power applied hydraulic
pressure is shut-off because the solenoid spring holds the seat against a seal, preventing
pressure from being felt downstream.
When power is applied the solenoid coil magnetises and unseats the valve (overpowers
spring pressure) and permits hydraulic oil to flow.
In the hydraulic actuator, the ON/OFF solenoid provides pressure to the transfer valve when
autopilot is activated. Power to the ON/OFF solenoid is typically controlled through a series of
monitors which detect any failures in the autopilot system. In the event that an autopilot
failure is detected, the ON/OFF solenoid is de-energised, isolating autopilot inputs from the
actuator.
ON/OFF Solenoid Operation

When the ON/OFF solenoid is energised, the transfer valve is provided with hydraulic
pressure. Typically the pressure provided to the transfer valve nozzle will also be provided
through the IN/OFF solenoid, but that is not shown here to reduce complexity of the diagram.
When the transfer valve is provided with hydraulic pressure it is primed to convert the
electrical inputs into hydraulic outputs which will drive the autopilot actuator thus controlling
the control valve and control surface actuator electrically instead of mechanically as
previously described.
With the solenoid turned off point out how hydraulic pressure is provided to the control valve,
permitting mechanical operation of the actuator. When solenoid is turned on mechanical input
is still available (autopilot can be overridden) but the electrical control of the actuator is also
energised by hydraulic pressure
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Transfer Valve
Before looking at the operation of the actuator, we must understand the workings of the
transfer valve, which transforms electrical signals from the computer into hydraulic pressure.
A transfer valve is also often called a Electro-Hydraulic Valve (EHV), or a hydraulic servo can
be driven by torque motors directly connected to the Autopilot Actuator spool. The torque
motor style is a high current application though, so the transfer valve and EHV style of
electrical interface to the hydraulic actuator are more common in modern flight control
installations.
On the right hand side there is a coil of windings around a C shaped core. If a signal is
presented to this coil, it will move the permanent magnet armature up or down about its pivot.
The computer outputs a DC signal and the polarity of the signal determines the direction of
movement. Hydraulic fluid is fed into the unit through the feed pipe, passing through a flexible
tube which then divides across the pointed divider, just under the flexible tube. The feed pipe
provides full hydraulic system pressure to the transfer valve nozzle, but it is supplied through
only very narrow gauge plumbing because the work it has to perform to manipulate the spool
valve is minimal, so a high rate of flow of pressurised hydraulic fluid is unnecessary.
If there is no electrical signal to the coil, the flexible tube remains in the neutral position, due
to spring loading (represented by the two black lines connecting the nozzle point and the
spool valve piston assembly). In this position, the spool valve and feedback springs sense
equal hydraulic pressure at both ends and take up the neutral position, closing off both
control ports.
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Transfer Valve Operation

When the flight control computer sends a signal to the coil windings (either drawing the
permanent magnet attached to the nozzle up or down) the permanent magnet will rotate
moving the nozzle in a direction dependant upon polarity of the input signal from the
computer.
In the first illustration on the slide this will cause a greater pressure to be directed to the top of
the spool valve than at the bottom. This moves the spool valve down. The spool valve will
continue to move down until the force of the feedback springs is sufficient to bring the flexible
tube back almost to the neutral position. With the spool valve moved down, hydraulic supply
pressure is ported out through the upper control port. This pressure is utilised to control the
autopilot actuator spool valve, which will be explained next slide.
With the spool valve down, hydraulic pressure is ported out the top control port, and the
bottom control port is opened to the hydraulic return line.
If the electrical signal is of reversed polarity, the spool valve will move up instead of down,
porting hydraulic pressure through the bottom control port and opening the top control port to
the hydraulic return line.
Autopilot Actuator Operation
On engaging the Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS), the ON/OFF solenoid opens and
supplies hydraulic pressure to the transfer valve. When an AFCS command signal is supplied
to the coil windings in the transfer valve, the spool valve is nozzle is displaced.
The hydraulic pressure is applied to the right hand side of the autopilot actuator, causing it to
move to the left. The control valve actuator (long green arm) pivots on the control surface
actuator and moves the control valve to the left. This is the same movement as shown in the
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manual operation, except that the input to the control valve actuator is provided by the
autopilot actuator, not the cockpit control.
When the command signal is of the opposite polarity the transfer valve nozzle moves down
forcing the spool valve up which ports hydraulic pressure to the left side of the autopilot
actuator. When the autopilot actuator moves right the control valve is forced to the right
providing pressure to the control surface actuator to drive the control surface.
On the actuator illustrated on the slide the electrical inputs driving the transfer valve and the
autopilot actuator reposition the control surface, and also reposition the control column in the
cockpit. Any corrections made by the flight control computer will be felt at the control column.
Other actuators are designed so that electrical inputs only move the control surface and have
no effect on the cockpit controls. Damper signals are typical of this method of operation.
When aircraft oscillations are detected by a gyro, it outputs a signal through the flight control
computer to the actuator to counter the oscillations, but the rudder pedals or control column
will not me moved. This design of the actuator is not that different from the type described
here, but the differences will not be covered in this lesson.
As the autopilot actuator moves to the left, the autopilot LVDT produces an electrical output
which is sent back to the computer to null the command signal input.
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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS (LVDT)

A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is an electromechanical device which
translates straight line motion into a linear Alternating Current (AC) signal (proportional to
amount of movement).
Transformer theory explains how an alternating current passed through a coil induces a
current into a coiled conductor in the vicinity. The expanding and contracting magnetic field in
the primary coil induces a current into the secondary coil.
If the magnetic flux is concentrated in an iron (ferrite) core, in lieu of just a hollow air gap the
transformer is more efficient and a stronger signal is induced into the secondary winding. The
strength of the signal induced into the secondary winding is therefore variable by inserting
and removing the ferrite rod core.
This is the basis of operation of an LVDT
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LVDT Operation
By incorporating two secondary coils (or a single coil with a centre-tap) whenever one end of
the secondary is positive the other end will be negative. If the signals from each end of the
coils are measured and compared to earth, the two signals will be of equal amplitude and
frequency, but of opposite phase. If the two signals are combined the resultant will be zero
volts because the two signals will cancel each other out.
The two signals will only be of equal amplitude when the ferrite rod is in the centre of the
secondary coil. If the rod is displaced in either direction, one of the secondary coils signals
will be stronger than the other, and the resultant signal will be indicative of direction (the
phase indicates this) and amount of movement (amplitude is proportional to amount of
movement).
The AC signal produced by the LVDT can then be rectified and combined with the initial error
signal applied to the transfer valve, nulling it out this is called feedback.
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FORCE TRANSDUCERS
In an E & I bar force transducer, the principle of operation is virtually the same as for an
LVDT.
The AC input signal is applied to the centre winding on the E bar and the outer legs support
the secondary windings. In the force transducer pictured, any input on the left hand end will
move the I bar with respect to the E Bar because the outer case of the transducer is designed
to expand and contract as force is varied. The magnetic relationship between the E & I bar
will vary, producing output signals in the same manner as the LVDT.
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CLOSED LOOP FEEDBACK

In a fly-by-wire system the control column will not be physically connected to the servo
actuator, the control column and rudder output is only applied to an LVDT (or similar
transducer) to convert the mechanical movement into and electrical signal proportional to the
degree of movement. This electrical signal is then transmitted to the Flight Control Computer
where the phase is detected to determine the direction in which the control column has
moved. The amplitude of the signal represents the distance the control column has been
displaced. Once phase detected the signal is rectified and amplified. The now DC signal is
applied to the transfer valve to reposition the control surface as explained on the previous
slide.
When the autopilot Actuator displaces (due to the hydraulic force applied from the Transfer
Valve) the autopilot LVDT will be displaced and the signal generated within the autopilot
LVDT will be phase detected, amplified and rectified and applied to the servo amp, to oppose
or null out the initial signal generated by the control column LVDT. When the feedback
voltage nulls the initial error voltage there will be no servo amplifier output, so the transfer
valve will recentre. The actuator will remain in the extended position until the control column
is released, then the autopilot LVDT signal applied to the servo amp will drive the transfer
valve, recentreing the autopilot actuator and control surface until the autopilot LVDT is again
at its null (centred) when the servo amp will no longer have an input from either the control
column LVDT or the autopilot LVDT
This concept is called closed servo loop operation. The feedback signal opposing the initial
input signal nulls it out, thus closing the loop of operation.
When flight control surfaces are aligned the control column LVDTs and autopilot LVDTs
must all be calibrated and aligned to the null position, this alignment is called rigging.
Typically a flight control surface will have several flight control channels, so the amount of
LVDTs will be trebled. That is there will be three for the control column in the pitch axis, three
in the roll axis and three connected to the rudder pedals.
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AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM ELEMENTS

The basic AFCS consists of the following major elements:
Detecting Element
This consists of attitude gyros, rate gyros, accelerometers, pitot static systems and air
temperature probes. They detect the movement of the aircraft about its three flight axes and
the rate of that movement. It is considered to be the internal controls or inner loop of the
system.
Command Element
This element consists of the pilots control panel and manually operated controls, that include
pilots stick, rudder pedals, navigation systems and radar. It is considered to be the external
controls or outer loop of the system.
Computer Amplifier
This is the brain of the system. It computes, amplifies and processes the signals from the
detecting and command elements and directs the output element to respond to the pilots
and/or systems requirements.
Output Element
This element consists of the units which move the control surfaces of the aircraft in response
to the computer demands. These servo units, as they are known, can be electric motors,
electromagnetic solenoid valves controlling hydraulic actuators.
Fly by Wire
This system refers to the replacement of mechanical linkages by wires that carry electrical
signals from the pilots control stick to the servomotors. The movement and forces created by
the pilot on his controls are measured by electrical transducers. The signals are amplified
and then sent to the various hydraulic actuator units which are directly connected to the
control surfaces.
When an aircraft is able to be mechanically controlled (through electrohydraulic power

controlled actuators) and electrically controlled (fly-by-wire), when engaging the AFCS the
transition to electric fly-by-wire must be smooth and without violent control surface
deflections. The AFCS engagement controlling circuitry will align to the current control
surface positions (and will incorporate any current control column or rudder inputs). With no
command inputs (stick or pedals) the AFCS will only steer to straight and level flight gradually
(non straight and level flight detected by sensors, which all develop error signals) without
violent or instantaneous manoeuvring.
Fly by wire systems are all duplex systems for safety reasons.
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PRINCIPLE OF THE AFCS

All automatic flight control systems (AFCS) are based on the closed loop servo system. Their
input signals originate from either a command signal device or a gyro stabilisation signal
(attitude gyro). The signal is amplified to provide an increase in signal strength to power the
correction unit (servomotor) to move the aircraft control surface. The amplifier output is
reduced to zero (null) by a follow up system (direct feedback) that cancels the input signal
and the control surface movement stops.
Since movement of the control surface causes aircraft response, the original input signal will
be cancelled by the change in aircraft attitude. The control surface is now returned to neutral
by the follow up (direct feedback) system providing the only input to the amplifier to drive the
servomotor back to a null or zero signal from the follow up system. The aircraft drift has
therefore been corrected by the sensor output and when the aircraft is returned to the
selected attitude by the control surface displacement, the control surface is returned to the
neutral position.
Basic AFCS loop
This consists of the detection, amplification, correction follow up and the aircraft response
loop. The function of the follow up signal is to cancel the input signal by applying an opposite
signal proportional to the command required to bring the aircraft to the desired attitude.
Position Feedback
Provides control surface displacement proportional to the strength of the input signal.
Rate Feedback
This allows a control surface displacement to be applied at a rate that matches the rate of
input signal application. It provides a damping effect on the control surface response,
providing tighter control over the aircraft.
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Damping Systems
When a flight control system can be managed by electrical signals, the output of sensor
systems can be harnessed to automatically correct for any variations from the intended
attitude. This can take the form of damper systems to counter porpiosing, Dutch-roll or
turbulence induced motion where gyro or accelerometer outputs are used to automatically
correct for any non-pilot induced attitude changes (any variations not initiated by control
column or rudder input).
Consider an aircraft flying in a straight and level flight attitude with the AFCS engaged. If a
sudden gust of wind should move the aircraft, the attitude gyros would sense the movement
and send a signal to the computer. The computer will process this information and send a
signal to the servomotors to move the appropriate control surface to bring the aircraft back to
its original attitude. The servomotors will send a feedback signal to the computer, telling it
that the control surface has been displaced.
Note
When the aircraft is returned to its original attitude (before the gust of wind hit), this will null
the original error signal produced by the gyro. This is called aerodynamic feedback. Where
the attitude change of the aircraft initially produced an error signal detected by the gyro, the
response by the flight control system to counter the drift will null out the initial gyro error
signal.
Damper correction will not be felt back through the control inputs (control column or rudder
pedals). The correction will be applied to the servoactuator to drive a control spool which is
not mechanically connected back to the pilots controls, so the control surface will correct for
the sensed variation in attitude keeping the aircraft in straight and level flight, but the pilot will
not feel any of the correction inputs in the cockpit.
Inner Loop Stabilisation
This is the basis of any AFCS. The inner loop is responsible for the basic attitudinal stability
of the aircraft. Its function may be called a stability augmentation system (SAS) or a damper
system. The operation of inner loop is by the sensing of aircraft attitude changes and the
transmission of error signals, which is accomplished by the use of gyros, accelerometers and
transducers.
Note
You will also notice that there is another feedback, which is the aerodynamic returning of the
aircraft to its original attitude, thus nulling the original error signal.
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Outer Loop Stabilisation

The outer loop refers to the control of the aircraft by external systems such as navigation,
pilot inputs, radar etc. Any signals received by the computer/amplifier from the external
systems will have the same closed loop effect. However the feedback loop for the outer loop
stabilisation is aerodynamic. That is the initial error signal is only nulled when the aircraft
assumes the desired or commanded attitude, eg pilot recentres control column or rudder
pedals, or aircraft heading matches selected aircraft heading set into autopilot.
Artificial Feel
The figures depicts a typical artificial feel system, using both spring and hydraulic feel.
Artificial spring feel may be quite adequate at low speeds, but at high speeds more
resistance to cockpit control movement is required to prevent overstressing the airframe. The
system is also used to position the pilots controls to a neutral position on release of the
controls. The double cam on the control quadrant shows the tendency of the artificial feel
system to place the control column in the neutral position. To move the column, the pilot must
compress the spring and overcome the force exerted on the hydraulic piston.
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The drawing of the artificial feel unit (AFU) shows how the hydraulic pressure on the
hydraulic feel piston is varied as a function of airspeed and control surface position. Pitot
pressure is delivered to one side of the airspeed diaphragm and static pressure to the other.
As a result, the diaphragm exerts a force in proportion to aircraft speed. This is exerted
against the spring on top of the control surface position cam (the one attached to the bellows)
and the spring above the metering valve (above the yellow valve).
Metered pressure forces exerted against the upper and lower interior horizontal surfaces of
the metering valve are equal and balance against each other. If the metered pressure exerted
against the triangular relief valve is enough to balance the force exerted downward against
the metering valve seat assembly (aqua blue piston assembly within the metering valve)
through the spring (above the yellow valve assembly), then the pressure line is closed off as
shown.
If airspeed increases, the downward force on the metering valve increases and overcomes
the metered pressure force. This pushes the metering valve down, opening the interior of the
metering valve to the hydraulic pressure line until the metered pressure balances the
downward force on the metering valve. The metering valve is continuously opening slightly to
make up for metered pressure leakage.
To move the control column, the pilot has to force the hydraulic feel piston up into the
cylinder. The hydraulic force on the piston must be overcome and the pilot must push fluid
out through the relief valve (yellow valve). When the pilot unseats (lifts) the yellow valve, the
valve seat will also move up permitting hydraulic pressure to gradually increase the pressure
within the metering valve opposing the input force, so the pilot will have to maintain a force on
the control column when it is displaced (just as if the control column were connected directly
to the control surface).
The further the pilot displaces the control column, the greater the hydraulic pressure increase
in the metering valve, the greater the opposition to the control column input.
The force the pilot has to overcome varies as an airspeed function. Also, as the control
surface nears its outer limits the cam arrangement within the AFU will also increase the
spring pressure on the yellow valve, thus forcing the aqua valve seat down permitting more
hydraulic pressure to flow into the metering valve increasing the force against the control
column input.
There will be a point at high airspeed with the control surface nearing the outer limits when
the pilot will not have the strength to move the control surface any further against the
hydraulic pressure. This situation also mirrors the characteristics of flying an aircraft with
mechanical input control surfaces at high speed the control surface has such a high
aerodynamic loading that the pilot will be unable to deflect it any further.
An ideal artificial feel unit replicates the opposition forces of repositioning a normal
mechanically driven control surface without the assistance of hydraulic servo-actuators.
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TORQUE LIMITING
The AFCS needs to have a limiting force. Otherwise you could have one of the situations
occur as shown on the slide. Without force limiting it would be very easy for the AFCS or the
pilot to overstress the aircraft by carrying out manoeuvres outside the aircrafts stress limits.
Methods of limiting
Limiting is provided in the pitch, roll and yaw channels. The maximum output of an autopilot
servo amplifier is limited with power source limiting resistors. In addition the mechanical force
is limited by using mechanical clutches that slip or disengage. Force limiting is commonly
referred to as torque limiting.
Another term used in gain scheduling.
The computer servo-amp signal to the actuator is limited by airspeed, attitude (high AOA),
altitude, all up weight, etc. By limiting the command signal to the actuator it does not matter
how far the pilot pulls the control column back, the aircraft control surface will only be
displaced as much as is allowed by the flight control computer. This gain scheduling is not to
limit the capabilities of the aircraft, the software program loaded into the FCC limits control
commands to only what is permissible to remain within the aircrafts flight envelope. That is
the system should prevent a pilot from stalling, overstressing or losing control of the aircraft
by overriding his/her inputs to remain within the flight envelope.
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MODES OF OPERATION
Aircraft operating in automatic flight mode are capable of maintaining set operating
parameters depending on the stage of the flight. These can include:
attitude hold
heading hold
turbulence
vertical speed hold
airspeed hold:
altitude hold
control wheel steering
navigation:
o
VOR
ILS
aux
or several other modes as selected by the pilots to suit the particular stage of the flight.
A flight director system provides cues for the pilot to navigate and fly the aircraft, but a flight
director cannot control the aircraft. Only the pilot or the autopilot system can fly the aircraft.
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Autopilot Engagement
The basic principles of an autopilots are to hold the aircraft in basic heading, pitch and roll
channel attitude at the time of engagement. An autopilot system is designed so that there will
be a gradual transition when it is engaged. if heading hold is engaged when aircraft is 90
from selected heading the aircraft will not immediately throw itself into a violent bank to
capture the commanded heading. The aircraft will be limited in its rate of heading change to
perhaps 3 per second, thereby taking 30 seconds or more to align to the commanded
heading. Typically the rate of change of heading can also be selected by the pilot. The same
gradual engagement is replicated for any autopilot function.
Autopilot Control Panel provides for engagement for the range of autopilot options, eg
Heading Hold, Roll stabilisation and Vertical speed hold all engaged simultaneously to
control a climb to assigned altitude. Often autopilot cannot be engaged until preset conditions
are met, eg roll stabilisation cannot be engaged until bank angle less than 10, Autoland can
only be engaged if Radar Altimeter system functioning, Radar altitude hold and barometric
altitude hold cannot be engaged simultaneously, etc.
Autopilot is engaged by selecting the appropriate switches and buttons to select the autopilot
functions desired.
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Autopilot Principle of Operation

To control autopilot steering the flight control computer can utilise many references. Heading,
attitude, instrument landing system commands, etc.
The basis of operation to maintain a selected reference is typically conducted by selecting a
reference and then having the flight control system generate corrective attitude changes
whenever a deviation from the selected parameter is selected. For example, the pilot flies
onto a heading and engages heading hold. The actual heading and desired heading signals
are compared in an operational amplifier and any variation from the desired heading will
produce a differential between the two signals (phase or amplitude) which will be applied to a
servo amplifier to correct for the deviation.
Similarly, a parameter can be selected on an autopilot control box, eg rate of climb and when
auto pilot is selected the difference between the actual rate of climb and the selected rate of
climb will produce an error signal (from an Op Amp) which will only be nulled when the
aircraft is climbing at the same rate as selected.
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This principle is the basis of all automated flight management. Aircraft actual parameters are
applied to Op Amps (or something similar) and are compared with desired parameters
whenever automatic pilot is engaged. Whenever a differential between selected parameter
and actual parameter is detected the aircraft attitude will be corrected to re-align.
In a fully computerised system heading changes can be programmed in advance. Assume an

aircraft is programmed to fly from Brisbane to Coffs Harbour on a heading of 180 and upon
reaching Coffs Harbour heading is to change to 190 to then track toward Sydney. The
parameters are typed into a Flight Management Computer (FMC), the aircraft takes off and
heads for Coffs Harbour. When the inertial Reference System determines the aircraft is over
Coffs Harbour a signal will trigger the change of heading required and the aircraft flight
control system will respond and turn onto the new selected heading of 190 automatically.
The maximum rate of turn permissible is typically programmed into the flight control computer
so as not to throw the aircraft into violent manoeuvres.
Selecting A New Heading
With heading hold engaged, when the pilot decides to select a new heading, he/she selects a
new heading by turning the heading marker on the HSI dial.
The aircraft is in position A flying on the original heading. The pilot selects a new heading by
turning the heading marker on the HSI. The new heading is compared to the aircrafts actual
heading. The AFCS will immediately notice the difference and send an error signal through to
the aileron servo actuator to deflect the ailerons and the aircraft
Rolls and turns onto the new heading. Once the aircraft has reached the new heading, the
error signal is nulled and the aircraft returns to its straight and level attitude.
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AUTOPILOT COUPLING
ILS Localiser Element
The transmitter is located at the far end of the runway. To direct an aircraft onto the centreline
of the runway, the transmitter radiates azimuth guidance signals to the left and right of the
centreline. The signal transmitted to the left has a 90 Hz signal superimposed on it, and a 150
Hz signal is superimposed on the signal transmitted to the right. The two transmissions
overlap along the centreline. When an aircraft is approaching, the ILS receiver receives both
signals at equal strength. This is indicated on the indicator. If the aircraft deviates to the left of
the centreline, the strength of the 90 Hz signal will be greater than that of the 150 Hz signal.
Both signals pass through a comparator circuit, which then produces an output, causing the
vertical bar of the indicator to deflect to the right. This tells the pilot to fly right to intercept the
centreline. The same occurs if the aircraft deviates to the right, except that the 150 Hz signal
becomes the stronger.
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Glidepath Element
The transmitter is located at the threshold of the runway. The transmitter radiates a pattern
similar to that of the localiser, but they provide vertical guidance above and below the decent
path at an angle of 2.5 to 3. When the aircraft is approaching along this path, 90 Hz and
150 Hz are received at the same strength. The same conditions occur as with the localiser,
except the indicator will indicate up and down deviations.
By following the displayed commands, a pilot is able to carry out an ILS approach to an
airport runway. In order to carry out an approach under automatic control, it is necessary for
the AFCS to be coupled to the ILS. The signals from the ILS are purely command signals
varying in amplitude with displacement from the beam centres, but they have no directional
properties and cannot take into account the heading of the aircraft. It is therefore necessary
for the pilot to align the aircraft with the runway in heading (this function can be carried out
automatically on modern computerised aircraft). Upon intercepting the localiser beams the
deviation pointer of the ILS indicator will display a fly left command. The pilot flies the aircraft
onto the appropriate heading, and now the ILS system can automatically control the aircrafts
approach to the runway threshold.
The localiser mode is selected so that the AFCS roll channel will respond to the result of the
beam signal and heading error signal. When the signals are in balance, the aircraft will fly
straight and level on the intercept heading.
As the aircraft enters the normal width of the beam, the signal is reduced and the runway
heading signal causes the aircraft to turn towards the centre of the beam until both beam and
runway heading signal are in balance. Any deviation from the runway heading or localiser
beam will produce an error signal and the deviation will be corrected so the aircraft will follow
the centre of the localiser beam right to the runway threshold.
The AFCS will also be receiving signals from the glide path transmitter, and these are fed to
the pitch channel. The glideslope signals will keep the aircraft on the optimum 3 glideslope.
Any deviation (so the 90 or 150Hz signals are imbalanced) will produce an error signal, and
when applied to the AFCS system to deviation will be automatically corrected.
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Autoland
During cruise and initial stages of approach to land, the control system operates as a single
channel system, controlling the aircraft about its pitch and roll axis and providing the
appropriate flight director commands. As multichannel operation is required for an automatic
landing, at a certain stage of the approach, the other two channels are armed by a switch on
the flight control panel. This will also arm the localiser and glideslope modes. Both the off line
channels are continually supplied with the relevant outer loop control signals and operate on
a comparative basis the whole time.
Altitude information essential for vertical guidance to touchdown is always provided by

signals from a radio altimeter which becomes effective as soon as the aircrafts altitude is
within the altimeter s operating range. When the aircraft has descended to 1500 feet radio
altitude, the localiser and glideslope beams are captured and the armed off line control
channels are then automatically engaged. The localiser and glideslope beam signals control
the aircraft about the roll and pitch axis so that any deviations are automatically corrected to
maintain alignment with the runway. At the same time, the autoland status displays LAND 2
or LAND 3 on the indicator and computerised control of flare is also armed. At a radio altitude
of 330 feet, the aircrafts horizontal stabiliser is automatically repositioned to begin trimming
the aircraft to a nose-up attitude. The elevators are also deflected to counter the trim and to
provide pitch control in the trimmed attitude.
When the landing gear is 45 feet above the ground (gear altitude), the flare mode is
automatically engaged. The gear altitude is based upon radio altitude, pitch attitude, and the
known distance between the landing gear, the fuselage and the radio altimeter antenna. The
flare mode takes over pitch attitude control from the glideslope, and generates a pitch
command to bring the aircraft on a 2 feet/second descent path. At the same time, a throttle
retard command signal is supplied to the auto throttle system to reduce engine speed.
Prior to touchdown and about 5 foot gear altitude, the flare mode is disengaged and there is
transition to the touchdown and roll out mode. At about 1 foot gear altitude, the pitch attitude
of the aircraft is decreased to 2 degrees, and at touchdown, a command signal is supplied to
the elevators to lower the aircrafts nose and so bring the nose wheel in contact with the
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runway and hold it there during roll out. The AFCS remains in control until disengaged by the
pilot.
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CONTROL WHEEL STEERING (CWS) MODE

CWS is an operating mode for the autopilot in addition to the command operating mode. The
command mode is the normal autopilot mode where the pilot does not touch the controls
because autopilot is flying the aircraft. In CWS mode the controls are moved by the pilot in
normal flight and the force applied to the controls is measured and used as an input signal to
the autopilot (Flight Control ) computers. In effect the human pilot is flying the aircraft but the
autopilot is helping to move the control surfaces. The transducer on the control wheel which
converts the input force into an electrical signal is typically an LVDT or similar sensor.
This system is provided in some AFCS to enable the pilot to manoeuvre his aircraft in pitch
and roll through the AFCS by exerting normal pressure on his control wheel. On releasing the
control wheel, the AFCS will hold the aircraft at the newly established attitude. The pitch and
roll forces that the pilot applies are sensed by transducers which will create output signals
proportional to the forces and are supplied to the pitch and roll channels of the AFCS. In
some cases, limits may be imposed, for example. if a roll angle is less than 5, the wings
levelling will automatically occur and the control system will hold the aircraft on an
established heading one second after the wing are level. Prior to and during capture phases
of radio navigation modes, the pilot can use the CWS to override the AFCS. This means the
pilot will then always have control and the aircraft does not have to follow a pre-programmed
flight path.
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AUTOPILOT OVERRIDE
The autopilot can be overpowered at any time by the pilot if he moves his cockpit control with
enough force. A typical overpowering force would be 25 to 35 pounds of turning force on the
control wheel, or 40 to 50 pounds of force on the control column.
If the pilot overpowers the autopilot, in the preceding example, he would be pushing the autopilot actuator back toward the right. In doing so he would increase the hydraulic pressure in
the pressurized side of the actuator enough to open the top relief valve (just below and to the
right of the auto-pilot actuator). The relief valve would then dump the excess pressure into the
return line.
The operating pressure of the relief valve determines the amount of force required to
overpower the autopilot. The actual overpowering operation is considerably more
complicated than indicated here, but this is the basic principle involved. It is actually arranged
so that if the autopilot is over-powered, a portion of the autopilot actuator moves the LVDT
center slug hard over, developing a high LVDT signal. The autopilot LVDT and the control
surface LVDT are so arranged that, in normal operation of the actuator by the autopilot, these
two signals are equal.
But, if the autopilot has been overpowered, the autopilot LVDT signal becomes very high,
and it is then quite easy to detect electrically that the autopilot has been overpowered,
resulting in the flight control computer disengaging the autopilot to permit manual control
inputs commanded by the pilot.
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TYPICAL AUTOFLIGHT COMPONENTS

Flight Control Computer
This is the brain of the system. It computes, amplifies and processes the signals from the
detecting and command elements and directs the output element to respond to the pilots
and/or systems requirements.
Trim Indicator
The trim indicator carries out the above functions by monitoring the outputs of the servo
amplifiers and producing deflections of the pointers from this zero datum marks in response
to the supplied signals. The illustration on the slide depicts a three channel trim indicator
showing all pointers aligned with the zero datum marks. The pointers which symbolise the
flight control surfaces are actuated by DC milliammeters and are deflected each time servo
amplifier command signals are applied to the servomotors. When the servo commands are
satisfied, the signals are balanced out and the pointers return to their zero trimmed positions.
If a servo amplifier produces a continuous correction signal to keep the attitude of the aircraft,
the appropriate pointer will be continuously deflected showing that the aircraft is out of trim.
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AFCS and Autopilot Sensors

AFCS sensors are gyros accelerometers and components considered to be in the inner loop.
Autopilot sensors are all typically outer loop components and systems, eg navigation
systems, landing systems, attitude sensor (typically INS), Air Data Computer, Radar
Altimeter, etc
Autopilot Disengage
Switch typically located on control column. Provides readily accessible disengagement of
autopilot as required.
Flight Director Display

Flight director information is displayed on Attitude Indicator and can be used for Monitoring
the Autopilot and for providing visual commands for the pilot to follow so as to achieve
selected profile of flight path as programmed (flight director cannot fly the aircraft only pilot
or autopilot can do this). Heading bug and course lines can be set in the HSI and coupled to
the autopilot system to fly a pre-programmed course. A flight director uses sensors and
computers but does not command servos to correct for deviations from flight path, it only
displays the deviation.
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Autopilot Control Panel

Provides for engagement for the range of autopilot options, eg Heading Hold, Roll
stabilisation and Vertical speed hold all engaged simultaneously to control a climb to
assigned altitude. Autopilot functions can be adjusted utilising latest installations, eg dial in
airspeed, altitude, heading, etc. In older style autopilots the aircraft would only assume the
altitude, speed, etc at the time of engagement. In modern systems, the aircraft can be flown
just by inputs to the autopilot control panel. Typically located on uppermost part of instrument
panel, in the centre.
The mode control panel of a modern A/C provides the point at which the pilot programmes
the A/P-F/D into which mode it is to operate. Also this information is passed to the flight
director so as to give the pilot a visual presentation and allow monitoring
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AUTO THROTTLE SYSTEM

This system is computer controlled and controls the thrust of the aircrafts engines within
specific design parameters. It is designed to operate in conjunction with the AFCS to
maintain an aircrafts speed and vertical path. When the AFCS mode is controlling the
vertical path of an aircraft, the auto throttle maintains airspeed through thrust control.
Autothrottle can be utilised during approach to maintain the correct approach attitude and
speed. Used in conjunction with the AFCS, the autothrottles can maintain an optimum AOA in
the final approach phase before flaring and touchdown on the runway threshold.
Autothrottle controlled by Thrust Management Computer (TMC) or the autothrottle function
may be performed by modules within an AFCS computer (if no dedicated TMC is
incorporated) The computer schedules an electrical output which commands a Fuel Control
Unit (FCU) or Main Fuel Control (MFC) to vary fuel flow to the engines. The autothrottle
computer can be used to maintain a specific airspeed when the aircraft is in the cruise phase
of flight, or it can control the engines to maintain a specific AOA in the approach phase.
Engine Electronic Control Unit
The engine electronic control is the brain of the engine, inputs such as speed, temperature,
pressure and pilot throttle are used to ensure the required fuel flow for the given set of inputs.
The EEC also provides a wide range of diagnostics data to the engine and aircraft
maintenance systems, for the Trent engine, 80% is for maintenance, 20% engine control.
This is often called the FADEC (Full Authority Digital Engine Control).
Input changes from the pilot's thrust levers in the cockpit are received by the FADEC which is
converted into a fuel demand signal that is transmitted to the Fuel Metering Unit (FMU). This
will then regulate the amount of fuel going to the engine. Features: Dual channel system,
Controls and protects the engine, System monitoring and reporting, Real time high integrity
software.
The CF6-6 engine (commercial version used on DC-10 aircraft) and the TF-39 engine
(military version used on C-5 aircraft) were developed in the mid 1960s.
These engines use a hydromechanical-style fuel control to meter the amount of fuel and air
into the engine based upon power demand and ambient conditions. The fuel control is a
mechanical computer that was designed with 1960s-era technology. Since its inception, the
fuel control has undergone 29 changes to correct deficiencies and improve performance.
Despite the numerous improvements and changes to the unit, it is still one of the highest
failure items on the engine based upon failure metrics data. In 1999, (a survey of a range of
engines in operation), 41% of all engine failures were related to the fuel control system.
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An alternative to the hydromechanical fuel control is a digital fuel control. The digital fuel
control system uses an electromechanical style valve to meter fuel into the engine, and a
separate servo valve to control the airflow. A digital computer determines the proper air/fuel
ratio, vice the mechanical computer in the old-style fuel control. Additional advantages to a
digital fuel control include advanced engine troubleshooting, condition-based maintenance,
performance optimization via software change, and reduced obsolescence.
Auto Throttle System
The Fuel Control Unit or Main Fuel Control is controlled by the TMC output in a similar
manner as an electrohydraulic servovalve. Where a flight control servo-valve is typically
powered by hydraulic pressure, an FCU or MFC is typically powered by pressurised fuel, or
by electric motors. The electrical signal from the TMC is applied to the MFC or FCU and fuel
flow is scheduled by valves restricting the flow of fuel to the engines.
Typically engaged using Autopilot control panel. Disengagement switch typically on throttle,
in the illustration on the slide the disengage is on the outer sides of each throttle lever
(indicated by labels on throttles).
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FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The Boeing 767 FMS has the capability of automatically controlling the aircraft from just after
takeoff through to roll out after landing at the destination airport. The human pilot must then
taxi to the appropriate gate. This system may not be used on any or all flights, but it has the
capability to perform as described.
The FMCs provide the following functions:

Flight Planning
the entire flight can be programmed into the computer using a cockpit keyboard (FMC Control
Display Select Unit)
Performance Management
The system can provide optimum profiles for climb, cruise, descent and holding patterns. A
minimum cost flight can be flown automatically by using optimum climb and cruise settings.
Navigation Calculations
The FMC can calculate great circle routes, climb and descent profiles etc.
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Auto Tune of VOR & DME

The FMC can automatically tune the radios to the correct station frequencies required for the
air route flown (data stored on navigation software which is upgraded monthly).
The FMC is in effect the master computer which integrates the functions of air data
computers, inertial reference units, navigation computers, EICAS or ECAM computers and
thrust management computers.
Flight Control Computers
Are the autopilot computers and there are typically three of them. Each computer is entirely
independent of the others in that it has its own dedicated inputs and provides its own outputs.
All computers function in unison during normal operation, although their outputs are
compared against each other so that a malfunction resulting in an erroneous signal will be
recognised immediately, and the malfunctioning computer (or sensor) will be isolated from
the flight control system.
Thrust Management Computer
Automatically sets the proper thrust level for the engines. The electrical output from the TMC
commands a servo which moves the throttle linkage to set the appropriate level of engine
power as calculated by the TMC. The system includes engine mounted sensors measuring
important engine operating parameters (TIT, N1, EPR, Fuel Flow, RPM, etc). Engine
parameters are monitored to prevent exceeding any engine operating limitation. Autothrottle
can be used to maintain a given climb rate, indicated airspeed, Mach number or Descent
rate. The autothrottle supports autoland capability and will maintain optimum AOA and
airspeed for approach to the runway threshold and will automatically close the throttles just
prior to landing to ensure a smooth touchdown.
The autopilot and autothrottle can be engaged separately or in unison depending on what
automatic parameters the flight crew wish to utilise.
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11.18 ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................2
Introduction...................................................................................................................3
Central Maintenance System (CMS)................................................................................4
Central Maintenance Computer (CMC) ...........................................................................5
Data Loading System ...................................................................................................17
Electronic Library Systems in Aircraft ..........................................................................23
Aircraft Printer.............................................................................................................27
Structural Monitoring ..................................................................................................29

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1- On Board Maintenance System .......................................................................3
Figure 2 - MCDU Menu ..................................................................................................4
Figure 3 - Central Maintenance Computer......................................................................5
Figure 4 - ECAM display ................................................................................................5
Figure 5 - CMC- ACARS Interface ...................................................................................6
Figure 6 - ACARS system ...............................................................................................6
Figure 7 - CMC switching...............................................................................................8
Figure 8 - Interfaces of CMC...........................................................................................9
Figure 9 MCDU .........................................................................................................10
Figure 10 - ECAM display ............................................................................................11
Figure 11 - System Types .............................................................................................12
Figure 12 - Interfaces between CMC and System computers .........................................13
Figure 13 - Airborne Data Loader .................................................................................17
Figure 14 - Portable Data Loader..................................................................................18
Figure 15 ADL ...........................................................................................................18
Figure 16 - Up and Down Loading via MDDU ...............................................................19
Figure 17 - Data Loader Selector ..................................................................................19
Figure 18 CCD on Maintenance Access Terminal .......................................................20
Figure 19 PMAT.........................................................................................................20
Figure 20 - Electronic Library System ..........................................................................23
Figure 21 - Electronic Flight Bag ..................................................................................24
Figure 22 - Display Unit of EFB....................................................................................25
Figure 23 - Typical printout .........................................................................................27
Figure 24 - Strain gauge 1............................................................................................29
Figure 25 - Strain gauge 2............................................................................................30
Figure 26 - Stain sensor...............................................................................................30
Figure 27 - Strain Gauge Bridge...................................................................................31
Figure 28 - Amplified Strain Gauge Bridge....................................................................31
Figure 29 - Strain sensor configuration ........................................................................32
Figure 30 - Strain Gauge Bonding ................................................................................32
Figure 31 - Piezo sensor ...............................................................................................33
Figure 32 - Change of direction ....................................................................................33
Figure 33 - Amplified Piezo circuit ................................................................................33

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INTRODUCTION
On-board Maintenance System (OMS) has been developed to assist the Maintenance
personnel in fault finding of complex avionics systems. It uses a range of techniques that
are built into and integrated with aircraft systems.
The OMS is a common framework for several functions needed for support the following
activities:
Aircraft maintenance (line and hangar; scheduled and unscheduled).
Engineering follow-up (systems, aircraft and fleet monitoring).
Aircraft reconfiguration.
Consequently, it facilitates to minimise the ground time, increases the efficiency of
maintenance requirements and improves the cost effectiveness.
The Onboard Maintenance System (OMS) comprises the systems below:
Central Maintenance System (CMS).
Data loading system.
Electronic library system.
Report printing system.
Figure 1- On Board Maintenance System

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CENTRAL MAINTENANCE SYSTEM (CMS)

The CMS enables the mechanic to extract maintenance data concerning most of the
aircraft systems, and to initialise tests on these systems in modern aircraft.
The main components in the CMS are Central Maintenance Computers (CMC 1 and 2),
and Multipurpose Control and Display Units (MCDU 1, 2 and 3).
The Central Maintenance Computer (CMC) acquires and processes (completes,
correlates, memorises and presents) the data received from the BITE memories of system
computers. The Multipurpose Control and Display Units (MCDUs) are used for control
the interrelated systems and display the relevant output messages from them.
The Central Maintenance System operates in two modes, Normal mode and Menu mode.
Normal Mode:
The Central Maintenance System (CMS) records fault messages generated by the Flight
Warning Computers (FWC), and failure information produced by the BITE function
integrated in computers. This mode is based on permanent real-time memorisation of
fault data. Memorisation of fault data is done by the system computers and also by the
CMCs.
Menu Mode:
The CMS allows the operator to obtain troubleshooting data from the systems and to
initiate self tests via MCDU. This mode is available on ground only.
Figure 2 - MCDU Menu

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CENTRAL MAINTENANCE COMPUTER (CMC)

Central Maintenance Computer systems are used to provide a centralised location for
aircraft fault information. This type of system is used in conjunction with the aircraft
ECAM-Electronic Centralised aircraft Monitoring (Airbus) or EICAS-Engine Indication
and Crew Alerting System (Boeing) cockpit display systems.
Figure 3 - Central Maintenance Computer
In normal operation, the ECAM/EICAS permanently displays normal aircraft parameters.

When an anomaly is detected by an aircraft system, the ECAM/EICAS displays the
abnormal parameter or function and its associated warning and the CMC records the
failure information and messages received from the system BITE in non volatile memory
system.
Figure 4 - ECAM display

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The CMC can integrate with Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System
(ACARS), Satellite Communication (SATCOM), Wireless LAN and other communication
systems. These communication systems will send maintenance information from the
aircraft in advance of its arrival at the destination station. That allows maintenance
personnel at the destination to begin the troubleshooting process and analysis before the
aircraft even gets there. This is particularly useful where the destination airport is one to
which the airline rarely flies, and where the relevant manuals might not be available.
Figure 5 - CMC- ACARS Interface
Figure 6 - ACARS system

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What is the purpose On-board Maintenance System (OMS)?
What are the systems included in the On-board Maintenance System (OMS)?
What is the purpose of Central Maintenance Computer (CMC)?
How does the Centralised Maintenance System (CMS) works?
What are the two modes of operation in Centralised Maintenance System (CMS) and
explain them briefly.
Which system sends maintenance data to the ground?
What is the purpose of Multipurpose Control and Display Units (MCDUs)?

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CMC Switching Control and Self-Test Function

Typically there are two CMCs available in large modern commercial aircraft for
redundancy purposes. In normal operation, the CMC 1 is the master. It is connected at
output to all the systems (these are the links between the CMC and the system BITEs)
and the links between the CMC and the peripherals such as Multipurpose Control &
Display Unit (MCDU), Printer and ACARS.
The CMCs switching can either be the result of an internal switching via MCDU or of an
action on pushbutton switch on the maintenance panel in the cockpit (Overhead panel).
If the OFF legend illuminates on this pushbutton, the CMC 2 is active and considered as
the master.
The CMC adapts its operation to external events such as power cuts (<300ms), self-tests,
in order to ensure transparency with respect to the interfaces.
The self-test function is to monitor the correct operation of the computer through the
generation of internal tests. The self-test results are analysed by the BITE function. The
results can be either shutdown of the master CMC and switching to the CMC 2.
During the CMC self-test process, if a fault is detected the result is:
Displayed to the operator through the MCDU and the Printer.
Sent to the main base via the Management Unit (MU) of the ACARS (optional
system) or via the Air Traffic Service Unit (ATSU) (optional system).
The interfaces between CMC 1 and CMC 2 are via ARINC 429 high speed buses link for
the purpose of Cross Talk (X-TALK) which enables both CMCs to exchange general data,
discrete links for both CMCs in order to give the status of one computer with respect to
the other (master or slave) and ARINC 429 low speed buses select the master as CMC 2
in the event of CMC 1 fault or manual switching
Figure 7 - CMC switching

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System Description of CMC

The CMC manages the dialogue protocols with the following equipment; hence all the
information can be retrieved through:
Multipurpose Control Display Unit (MCDU).
ECAM displays.
Cockpit printer.
Data down loading system.
Ground station via ACARS, if installed.
Figure 8 - Interfaces of CMC

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Connection with Multipurpose Control Display Unit (MCDU),

The MCDUs consist of a screen for data display, an alphanumeric keyboard and line keys
used to send commands to the connected systems.
The MCDU provides to access data from the CMC system and to perform testing of
aircraft systems.
The master CMC manages the authorisations for connection to the MCDUs. The CMC
initialises the dialogue with the MCDUs. MCDU interfaces and displays the CMS item in
the main menu of the MCDU.
Any operator wishing to use the CMC functions can access them through the CMS menu
by generating commands via MCDUs (line key or keyboard).
Figure 9 MCDU

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Connection with ECAM Display

The ECAM system monitors the operational data in order to display warnings and system
information. The warnings will be displayed automatically with the relevant flight phase
and it displays till the end of the flight unless it is been cancelled. The CMC memorises
these warning generated by the Flight Warning Computers (FWCs) and can be recalled if
necessary.
Figure 10 - ECAM display
These system failures detected by are classified in three categories, in function of their
operational and safety consequences on the aircraft.
CLASS 1
The failures which have an operational consequence to the current flight are categorised
as Class 1 failures.
They are displayed as a warning in real time on the ECAM and available on the MCDU.
Ex: Failure of one engine hydraulic pump.
CLASS 2
The class 2 failures are the failures which have no operational consequence to the
current flight. The systems affected are identified on the ECAM STATUS page. Ex: Loss of
one wing leak detection loop continuity.
CLASS 3
The class 3 failures have neither operational nor safety consequences on the aircraft.
They are only available on ground through the MCDU.

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Connection with Cockpit Printer

The printer interfaces with CMC to provide maintenance reports. The operation and
description of other CMC links like Data loading system and ACARS will be discussed
later stage of this topic.
System Types
The various aircraft systems linked to the CMC with different hardware interfaces and
different BITE characteristics. The system computers are categorised into of three
different types depending on their memory and connection to the Central Maintenance
Computers.
Type 1
They are connected to the both CMCs by an ARINC 429 output bus and to the CMC 1 by
an ARINC 429 input bus. These systems can memorise failures occurring in the last 64
flights.
This enables on ground in-depth troubleshooting and interactive test of the system and
its components.
Type 2
These systems memorise only failures from the last flight. A discrete input allows
initiation of the system test. The output connection is an ARINC 429 bus.
Type 3
These systems cannot memorise the failure messages. The discrete input permits
initiation of the test or reset. The discrete output indicates if the system is OK or not.
Figure 11 - System Types

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Aircraft systems (Type 1, 2 and 3) send their BITE information in parallel to the both
Central Maintenance Computers (CMCs) which both acquire and process information in
the same manner. The CMC memorises these data concerning all the aircraft systems in
non volatile memories.
The nature of the data memorised by the CMC is correlated with internal and external
faults transmitted by the systems during the last 64 flights.
Figure 12 - Interfaces between CMC and System computers

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Management of the maintenance data base

The CMC manages the data memory contents. The CPU board holds the storage area for
maintenance data.
The memory capacity for one flight is 64 warnings and 64 faults. The fault and warning
messages are memorised under the flight conditions only. The CMC has a memory
capacity of 256 warnings and 256 faults filed in the Previous Flight Report.
At each leg opening transition, the CMC:
Files the current flight.
Updates the 64 last legs filed in the Previous Flight Report.
Memorises the new leg heading: Date, Flight number, City pair from, Start
time, A/C Identification.
At each leg closing transition, the CMC memorises
End time.
City pair to.
Warning and Fault Processing

The CMC acquires and checks the warning messages from the FWC 1 and FWC 2 under
the maintenance phases. The data required for warning message, transmitted on the
label are as follows:
ATA.
Sub ATA.
Calculated warning code.
Calculated warning type.
Only primary and independent warnings or maintenance status type warnings are
transmitted to CMCs. The fault acquisition is directly from the system BITEs and CMC
correlates the messages with aircraft parameters to amalgamate the fault with the time,
date, flight phase etc.
These warnings are contained in the Post Flight Report or Current Flight Report. If same
warning message is transmitted to the CMC more than once during same flight, the
message shall only be displayed once in the Flight Report at the first occurrence.

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Other Functions of CMC

The main role of the CMC is to centralise and memorise all the maintenance data. In
addition to this main role the CMC ensures transmission of general parameters to
various systems, it establishes:
A/C identification.
Flight Number.
City Pair.
The Flight phases.
The Maintenance phases.
Flight/Ground condition.
Onboard Time and Date.
Aircraft configuration.
Servicing Parameters.
The processing of the general parameters at input/output is organised in such a way
that the CMC processes the normal and menu modes; consequently, only valid data are
sent to the systems.

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What are the types of system available in the On-board Maintenance System?
What are the differences between Type 1 and Type 2 systems?
What is purpose of ECAM-Electronic Centralised aircraft Monitoring (Airbus) or EICASEngine Indication and Crew Alerting System (Boeing) cockpit display systems?
Explain the Class 1, 2 and 3 failures.
What are the components/ systems which are connected directly with CMC?

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DATA LOADING SYSTEM

As with all computer systems, a means to load software and data updates is a necessity.
To facilitate this, a software loader or data loader is required.
Typically data loaders are linked with the Flight Management System (FMS), or to be
connected to a data bus coupler. Data loaders may be portable where they are taken to
the aircraft and plugged in, or in the most up-to-date systems they may be integrated
into the avionics system. Loading information is similar to loading software onto your
home computer. If there are several programmable computers incorporated into the
avionics system, you may be required to select which computer is intended to receive the
software.
Correct software loads and software configurations are critical to aircraft operations. A
software mismatch or a glitch as a result of incorrect loading procedures could
conceivably cause a disastrous sequence of events, so it is imperative that maintenance
manuals are strictly followed when loading software, and that software and system
functional and confidence checks are performed following software loading.
A data loader normally uses one of two media for the transfer of information into the
aircraft, either a standard 3.5 inch disk (1.44MB) or a CD-ROM (700+ MB). The disk is
the most common method of software transfer as it has more than enough storage for the
data required.
Data Loader Types

There are two types of data loaders.
Airborne Data Loaders (ADL).
Portable Data Loaders (PDL).
Figure 13 - Airborne Data Loader

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The Data loader is either permanently fitted to the aircraft (ADL) or an external device
(PDL) can be used to install new software .Also they can be used to download the data
recorded by certain onboard computers during aircraft operation.
Figure 14 - Portable Data Loader
The onboard data loaders are known as Multipurpose Disk Drive Unit (MDDU) on Airbus
aircraft and Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT) on Boeing aircraft. The software upload
is a ground operation only; where as the downloading can be accomplished in flight and
on the ground.
Airborne Data Loaders (ADL)
Interconnection between the data loader and each computer using the system is ensured
by ARINC buses (Input/Output) and discrete signals.
Figure 15 ADL

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Figure 16 - Up and Down Loading via MDDU
In the Airbus system, the software is loaded via MDDU and the Data Loader selector
switch provides the computer selection by switching the required relays in the system.
Figure 17 - Data Loader Selector

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The Cursor Control Device (CCD) of Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT) is the primary
tool that the operator has to use to select and update the required software to the system
in the Boeing 777 aircraft typically.
Figure 18 CCD on Maintenance Access Terminal
It is important to follow the loading procedure laid by the Aircraft Maintenance Manual
and use the correct version of software as per the aircraft configuration when installing
software to the Aircraft system.
In an internal data loader, information can be downloaded by placing the media format
(usually a disk) into the unit and following the downloading procedures as defined by the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual. At the completion of the process, the disk is removed. In
some other systems the disk may be left and the system directly reads from the disk.
The downloading procedure can be initialised by either MDDU or MCDU. After the
computer has acknowledged the request from the MCDU, it sorts the data to be
transferred into files. The TRANSFEF IN PROG message is displayed on the data loader
LCD throughout the transfer.
Portable Data Loaders (PDL)
An interface cable connects to the back of the PDL, supplies and interfaces to the
airplane with ARINC data for loading via the Portable Maintenance Access Terminal
(PMAT). It also supports a wireless link through which ground support personnel can
interface directly with the server from outside the aircraft.
Figure 19 PMAT
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The PMAT/NT supports dual Operating System (OS) software, including both Aircraft OS
and Windows NT operating system. The aircraft operating system supports the Onboard
Maintenance System, while the Windows NT operating system supports miscellaneous
applications such as the Aircraft maintenance manuals.
The PMAT is also provided with LoadStar software, an application program that controls
the configuration of loadable software on each aircraft type and tail number in the
airline's fleet.
Software Management
Field Loadable Software (FLS) is loaded into the target hardware using a Portable Data
Loader (PDL) or Airborne Data Loader (ADL). After loading, the software should be
verified onboard using the established processes and procedures detailed in the
maintenance manual or associated approved maintenance or modification data.
Any FLS loading should be recorded in the Aircraft Configuration List (ACL), and a copy
kept onboard the aircraft with a further copy also kept in the operator's aircraft
maintenance records system. After any loading of a Loadable Software Aircraft Part
(LSAP) a Certificate of Release to Service must be issued by an appropriately authorised
Line/Base Maintenance Staff.
It is essential that operators have appropriate procedures in place such that, at any time
it is possible to determine the equipment, and software configuration of each aircraft in
their fleet.
Operators involved in the procurement, modification and embodiment of FLS shall
produce a documented procedure within their company procedures, Maintenance
Management Exposition (MME) or equivalent. This process must also be included in the
internal audit programme.
It is expected that the procedure would cover the complete cycle from
Procurement specification.
Distribution methodology (e.g. EDS, media type etc.).
Receipt inspection/assessment.
Embodiment.
Subsequent testing.
Release to service.

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What types of Data loaders used on aircraft?
What are the important factors to be observed before and after uploading software to the
aircraft system?

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ELECTRONIC LIBRARY SYSTEMS IN AIRCRAFT

Today airlines receive their operational documentation under a variety of formats. Many
airlines still use operational documentation under paper or microfilm format, but a
growing number use the CDs provided by aircraft manufacturers and by engine/systems
vendors.
Airline personnel with a PC can run the CDs from different sources giving them all kinds
of information needed for the job: system or spare part information, procedures, etc....
The foreseen next step is to integrate all technical data for a given aircraft. This
integrated approach will result in a Digital Electronic Library System (DELS).
The Electronic Library System has been replaced most of the normal cockpit paperwork
with a computer-based reference system. This includes aircraft operations manuals,
maintenance information, checklists, cabin management tools, all systems logs, etc.
It is typically interfaced into the existing Flight Management System. For instance, in the
case of an engine emergency, the system could produce relevant checklists and the
secondary ability to step down into relevant Operations Manual pages, to review the
relevant systems.
Electronic Libraries are being developed by Honeywell, Bendix, Rockwell-Collins, Sextant
Avionique, and Smiths Industries.
Figure 20 - Electronic Library System
An airliner usually comes with about 50,000 paper pages of integrated text and graphics
in the form of operations, training, and maintenance Data. The electronic Library System
is typically subdivided into
Operational requirements.
Maintenance applications.
Cabin management tools
Operational Requirements
Taxi diagrams, Ops manual, Minimum Equipment List, Pre-flight info, Company policies
and procedures, flight manual, performance data, flight log book, check-lists, systems
diagrams, approach plates, and navigation charts are the documents used for
operational requirements.
Maintenance Applications
Maintenance information includes a maintenance log, illustrated parts list, maintenance
manuals, fault isolation and reporting data, trouble-shooting procedures and equipment
location.
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Cabin Management Tools

Cabin data includes check-lists, special passenger needs, announcement scripts, cabin
maintenance log book, flight schedules, reservations and supply inventory.
Classes of Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)

This paperless cockpit concept is also known as the Electronic Flight Bag (EFB). The
electronic devices are used on flight decks to allow flight crew members to perform a
variety of tasks that previously required reference books, aeronautical charts and
mathematical calculations.
These information are shown on additional display units which are normally installed on
side panels of the cockpit.
Figure 21 - Electronic Flight Bag
The Civil Aviation Authorities define three EFB Classes hardware to be configured in this
system. The AC 120-76A and JAA Leaflet No. 36 contain similar descriptions of these
classes.
Class 1
Class 1 EFB systems usually are portable, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS)-based
computer systems used for aircraft operations. They are connected to aircraft power
through a certified power source and are not attached to a mounting device on the flight
deck. No administrative control process is required before they can be used in an
aircraft. Class 1 EFBs are considered Portable Electronic Devices (PEDs).
Class 2
Also class 2 EFB systems usually are portable, COTS-based computer systems used for
aircraft operations. They are connected to aircraft power through a certified power source
and, unlike Class 1 EFB systems, are connected during normal operations to a mounting
device on the flight deck, and airworthiness approval is required before the devices may
be used in an aircraft. Connectivity to avionics equipment is possible. Class 2 EFBs are
considered PEDs.
Class 3
EFB class 3 systems are installed systems (not PEDs) that require airworthiness
approval. The certification requirements for Class 3 EFBs allow for applications and
functions not performed using Class 1 and Class 2 EFBs. For example, Class 3 EFBs can
accommodate moving-map software that also displays own-ship positionthe position
of the aircraft as it moves across the area depicted on the map.
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Description and Operation of ELB

The EFB provides the flight crew with a paperless flight deck environment and enhances
the quality of information available to the crew. In a class 3 system the captains EFB
system is independent from the first officers EFB system. Each EFB system consists of a
Display Unit (DU) and an Electronics Unit (EU).
The flight crew interacts with the EFB via the display unit (DU) either by pushing the
buttons on the DU bezel, or by using a touch-screen that is a feature of certain
applications (example: electronic logbook).
In addition, the flight crew can also make use of the cursor control device (CCD) and the
portable keyboard (optional).The EFB system can be interfaced with the aircraft printer
and cabin surveillance cameras as optional features.
Display Unit (DU)
The Display Unit (DU) operates as a computer monitor and input device. The flat-panel is
an Active Matrix Liquid Crystal Display (AMLCD) that shows graphics and video data in
colour. The panel is also touch-sensitive. It measures where you press on the screen, and
changes that to digital data for the Electronics Unit (EU).
Around the flat panel is a bezel frame with push-buttons, or keys. The keys across the top
and bottom are permanent in function (for example; power). The Line Selection Keys (LSK)
on the left and right sides operate in relation to the data shown on the touchscreen.
The DU operates on 28V dc power received from the EU. When the power up sequence is
completed, the DUs show the MAIN MENU page. The DU receives and shows graphics
data from the EU. It can also display the image shown on the opposite-side DU via fibreoptic cable.
Figure 22 - Display Unit of EFB

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What is the purpose of the Electronic Library System (ELS) in the aircraft?
What are the applications available in the ELS?
What are the Classes of Electronic Flight Bag (EFB)?
Explain the operation of DU and EU

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AIRCRAFT PRINTER
The printer is designed to print reports which come from various systems such as:
Flight Management System (FMS).
Central Maintenance System (CMS).
Engine Monitoring System (EMS).
Air Traffic Service Unit (ATSU).
Aircraft Condition Monitoring System (ACMS).
These print outs are possible in-flight or on the ground. The printer communicates with
one system at a time. Aircraft cockpit printers are high speed, single copy printers
designed to meet the requirements for flight deck mounting and power provision.
Full-format printers are typically installed in cabins of most modern transport and
passenger aircraft, supporting flight and maintenance crew printing needs due to the
advent of ACARS, FANS, SATCOM, EFIS and other new functions.
The printers provide hard copy output of pre-flight clearance delivery reports, weight and
balance reports, ATIS reports, aircraft condition monitoring reports, power plant trend
analysis reports, weather and radar reports, navigational aids, flight crew logs and IFE
Cabin Management reports.
Figure 23 - Aircraft Printer
Printing Process
The data printing can be generated either manually from the Multipurpose Control and
Display Units (MCDUs) or automatically depending on the systems.
Figure 24 - Typical printout

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Which systems are connected with aircraft printer to produce reports?
How to initiate the printing process?

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STRUCTURAL MONITORING
Structural monitoring can be used for many reasons:
To develop preventative maintenance policy by measuring the fatigue life of
components in real time or in a test bed environment.
To identify flight phases where the greatest load is placed on the airframe, to
thus avoid that flight phase wherever possible in normal operations.
To determine configurations which apply the greatest load factor on the
airframe, e.g. to determine which configuration to replenish fuel tanks full
wing tanks may produce less strain on the wing attachment points than full
fuselage tanks (when in flight).
This knowledge of stress and strain effects on the airframe is utilised to improve aircraft
design, to avoid high load factor flight configurations and to determine the life of certain
structural components. By identifying high load factor contributors, they can be avoided,
thus increasing the life of the airframe.
In aircraft design, strain sensors determine the viability of a certain configuration. If an
aircraft is designed and constructed, but has structural weakness induced by high stress
and strain levels in a specific area, the aircraft type will have a very limited lifespan. If
any high stress areas can be identified in the design phase, they can be corrected or
alleviated before the aircraft is massed produced.
The number of sensors on NASA research aircraft range from hundreds to thousands,
based on the complexity of the project and the number of parameters that need to be
studied. During the first phase of the X-29 Forward Swept Wing research project, the
aircraft had several thousand sensors; most of them on and in its unique wings just to
measure pressure, loads and deflection while the aircraft manoeuvred at different
speeds.
This data is obtained by sensors, Strain gauges and Piezo sensors. When installed on a
research aircraft they are collectively called a data acquisition system. The
instrumentation converts mechanical energy into electrical signals that are then
processed on the aircraft into radio signals (telemetry), transmitted to a mission control
centre where the information is monitored, and analysed by engineers and researchers.
Figure 25 - Strain gauge 1

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Strain Gauges
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer. This
structural change will result in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely, if a strip of conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without
buckling), it will broaden and shorten. If these stresses are kept within the elastic limit of
the metal strip (so that the strip does not permanently deform), the strip can be used as
a measuring element for physical force, the amount of applied force inferred from
measuring its resistance.
Such a device is called a Strain gauge. The Strain gauges are frequently used in
mechanical engineering research and development to measure the stresses generated by
machinery. Aircraft component testing is one area of application where tiny strain-gauge
strips glued to structural members, linkages, and any other critical component of an
airframe to measure stress. Most strain gauges are smaller than a postage stamp.
Strain gauges are most commonly used on military aircraft to monitor aircraft condition.
Civil or commercial aircraft often use strain gauges during the certification process of the
aircraft or airframe and they are not mounted onto the aircraft during normal operations.
Figure 26 - Strain gauge 2
Typical Strain gauge resistances range from 30 to 3 k (unstressed). This resistance

may change only a fraction of a percent for the full force range of the gauge, given the
limitations imposed by the elastic limits of the gauge material and of the test specimen. If
the forces are great enough to induce greater resistance changes, it would permanently
deform the test specimen and/or the gauge conductors themselves, thus ruining the
gauge as a measurement device.
Figure 27 - Stain sensor

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In order to use the Strain gauge as a practical instrument, we must measure extremely
small changes in resistance with high accuracy. Such demanding precision calls for a
bridge measurement circuit. Wheatstone bridge (Strain gauge bridge) circuit indicates
measured strain by the amount of imbalance of voltage due to resistance variations in
the bridge. Hence a precision voltmeter is used in the centre of the bridge to get an
accurate measurement of that imbalance.
Figure 28 - Strain Gauge Bridge
Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimise sensitivity to temperature by

processing the gauge material to compensate for the thermal expansion of the specimen
material under test as well as the variation of resistance of the strain gauge itself.
Because different materials have different amounts of thermal expansion, selftemperature compensation requires selecting a particular alloy matched to the material
of the object.
Specialised full-bridge circuits are used to measure bending, tension and torsion. For
example, when used with telemetry, this testing can identify blade tension due to
centrifugal force, bending due to lift, bending due to drag, plus torsion in the drive shaft
of an axial flow fan.
Figure 29 - Amplified Strain Gauge Bridge

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Strain Sensor Configuration

Strain gauges are available in literally hundreds of different metal film patterns providing
sensitivity to strain in particular directions.
A single strain gauge is sensitive to measure strains only in a direction parallel to the
mounted axis. Therefore it is necessary to use special arrangements to install the strain
gauges to measure all axes of strain components on the structure's surface.
Figure 30 - Strain sensor configuration
Strain Gauge Bonding

Strain gauges can be either bonded or welded to the test surface. The bonding of a strain
gauge to a surface is critical, and typically special jigs are utilised to position them with
absolute accuracy and perfect alignment. The adhesive material is also specific for the
purpose, and can take several hours or days to cure. Throughout the entire curing
process it may well be forbidden to even climb onto the aircraft, to ensure no
misalignment is induced by shaking or bumping the airframe.
Figure 31 - Strain Gauge Bonding

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Piezo Sensors
Piezo sensors are different from resistive sensors. They generate electricity in response to
applied stresses. When the piezo film is bent from the mechanical neutral axis, a very
high strain within the piezo-polymer is created and generates a voltage. This voltage is
created only as the sensor is deformed.
To illustrate this, if you connect an LED to the sensor's terminals and "flick" the sensor,
the LED will illuminate as the sensor been pressed, but not when it is static.
Figure 32 - Piezo sensor
The sensor produces positive voltages when they're deformed in one direction, and
negative voltages when deformed in the other direction.
Figure 33 - Change of direction
Voltage generated by a piezo sensor is typically weak, so it must first be amplified.
Figure 34 - Amplified Piezo circuit

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What are the reasons for monitoring the aircraft structure?
What is a Strain gauge?
How does the Stain gauge works?
How does the Piezo sensor works
What is the difference between the Stain gauge and the Piezo sensor?

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11.19 INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................2
History of Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) ..................................................................3
Advantages of IMA concept.............................................................................................3
Typical IMA Architecture ................................................................................................4
Operation of MAU ..........................................................................................................8
Typical IMA version of flight Guidance System (E170/190) .............................................9
Types of IMA ................................................................................................................12
IMA system on A380 ....................................................................................................14
Typical IMA version of Bleed Air Management (A380) ....................................................20

Issue A: January 2011
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - IMA Concept ..................................................................................................3
Figure 2 - Modular Avionics Unit (EMB170/190) ............................................................4
Figure 3 - Single Unit Handles Different Systems ...........................................................4
Figure 4 - Avionics Standard Communication Bus (ASCB) ..............................................5
Figure 5 - Data Buses ....................................................................................................6
Figure 6 - Backplane......................................................................................................7
Figure 7 - ASCB Coupler ................................................................................................7
Figure 8 - ASCB Terminator ...........................................................................................8
Figure 9 - Flight Guidance System (EMB 170/190).........................................................9
Figure 10 - IMA version of AFCS...................................................................................10
Figure 11 - Comparison of B777 and B787 Avionics .....................................................13
Figure 12 - Difference between EMB 170/190 and A380 IMA system ............................13
Figure 13 - IMA concept on A380 .................................................................................14
Figure 14 - CPIOM .......................................................................................................15
Figure 15 - Input/ Output Module ...............................................................................16
Figure 16 - ADCN Subscribers .....................................................................................16
Figure 17 - AFDX switches ...........................................................................................17
Figure 18 - AFDX cable ................................................................................................18
Figure 19 ARINC600 connector of a CPIOM ...............................................................18
Figure 20 - ADCN network ...........................................................................................18
Figure 21 - Typical Bleed system ..................................................................................20
Figure 22- Typical Leak Detection ................................................................................21

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HISTORY OF INTEGRATED MODULAR AVIONICS (IMA)

Some believe the Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) concept originated in the United
States with the new F-22 and F-35 fighters and then migrated to the commercial jetliner
arena. Others say the modular avionics concept, with less integration, has been used in
business jets and regional airliners since the late 1980s or early 90s.
However regardless of where it began, using the IMA approach it was able to shave 2,000
pounds off the avionics suite of the new 787 Dreamliner, versus previous comparable
aircraft. For Airbus the IMA concept cuts in half the part numbers of processor units for
the new A380 avionics suite.
ADVANTAGES OF IMA CONCEPT

As a consequence, IMA concept reduces the maintenance cost and increases the
reliability due to less number of computers.
IMA is the trend of the future due to the economies in fuel savings and
increases the payload factor derived from less weight.
It reduces work load for flight crew and maintenance personnel due to less
operational activities.
Multiple functions can be achieved with single LRU.
Figure 1 - IMA Concept

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TYPICAL IMA ARCHITECTURE

Thanks to the new avionics concept Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA), most of the
conventional avionics Line Replacement Units (LRU) functions are combined together in
modular structure.
On Embraer 170/190 each IMA is a metal cabinet solidly grounded to the aircraft frame.
This cabinet is called the Modular Avionics Unit (MAU) and it contains different line
replaceable modules (LRM) and can be single or dual channel.
Each MAU channel has a power supply module, Network Interface Controller (NIC), MAU
data communications back plane, and other modules connected to that back plane.
Figure 2 - Modular Avionics Unit (EMB170/190)
The MAUs incorporate new hardware and software technologies, host independent
applications in the same computing and memory resource, and also supply an
input/output interface service to some of the conventional avionics.
The MAUs usually have Digital Engine Operating System (DEOS) compliant processing,
input/output (I/O), and Network Interface Modules (NIM). The MAUs transmit and
receive data through the Avionics Standard-Communication Bus (ASCB) and LAN buses.
The generic I/O, custom I/O (CSIO), control I/O (CIO), and other modules input the
sensor and system data to the processor modules that calculate the data to control and
monitor the aircraft.
The MAU cabinet only connects to the aircraft system wiring through the front
connectors on the Line Replaceable Modules (LRM).
For security reason, firewalls protect the MAUs from malicious data coming from other
common applications.
Figure 3 - Single Unit Handles Different Systems

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The MAUs use following data buses, networks and components for data processing and
MAU operations.
Avionics Standard-Communication Bus (ASCB).
Network Interface Controller (NIC).
Local Area Network (LAN).
Controller Area Network (CAN) data bus.
Back plane.
ASCB Coupler.
ASCB Terminators.
The Avionics Standard-Communication Bus (ASCB)

The Avionics Standard-Communication Bus (ASCB) is the primary communications path
between the major subsystems of the avionics systems. It is a high-speed, serial data bus
network made up of four data buses:
Left primary.
Right primary.
Left backup.
Right backup.
Data on the ASCB is transmitted in data frames at 12.5 Millisecond (ms) intervals (80Hz).
The data frame is divided into blocks or time slots. Each user of the bus transmits in an
assigned time slot called synchronisation pulse
Each bus uses a single shielded twisted pair of wires (data buses) with resistor
terminations. The bus couplers isolate the ASCB buses from each other to prevent a
short circuit on one bus from having an effect on the other buses.
Figure 4 - Avionics Standard Communication Bus (ASCB)

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Network Interface Controller (NIC)

Communication in the MAU is managed by the NIC. The NIC transmits and receives
ASCB and LAN data and makes this data available to other modules in the MAU.
ASCB data is transmitted in data frames at 12.5 ms intervals (80Hz). The transmission
timing is controlled by the NIC in each LRU and is synchronised across each bus by a
master Network Interface Controller.
Each NIC keeps time synchronisation by correcting its internal clock with the
synchronisation pulses. By doing this, each NIC determines when to transmit its data in
the ASCB frame.
Each NIC attached to the ASCB is related to one side (right or left) and connected to
three buses:
Onside primary.
Onside backup.
Cross-side primary.
Local Area Network (LAN)

The NIC controls data transmission on the Local Area Network (LAN) bus. This serial
data bus is physically and electrically separate from the ASCB.
The LAN is used for development, maintenance, and software loading. It supplies an
additional communication path to be used between the display units, the MAU and
peripheral items such as the printer and the Data-Loader.
The LAN is a thin coaxial cable, which is Ethernet-based and uses the Transfer Control
Protocol/internet Protocol (TCP/IP). This protocol makes it possible for peripheral
computers/communications devices to interface with the NIC over the LAN.
Figure 5 - Data Buses
Controller Area Network (CAN) Data Bus.

The CAN bus is based on the CAN industry standard and uses controller integrated
circuits that operate at 500 kHz. The CAN bus is bidirectional and uses the same wire
and harness construction as the ASCB. The CAN consists of multi-point serial
synchronous digital communications.
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Back Plane
Units in the system use the back plane network to send data between each other. The
back plane network contains the ASCB, LAN, and Direct Current (DC) power buses.
Connection to the backplane is supplied by a standard hardware interface called the
Backplane Interface Controller (BIC).
The BIC is installed on the MAU modules. The BIC stores and sends received ASCB and
LAN data from the NIC to the modules in sequence when the modules are prepared to
receive the data.
Figure 6 - Backplane
ASCB Coupler
The ASCB bus coupler isolates onside primary, onside backup, and cross-side primary
buses. It uses a transformer coupler for isolation. The transformer coupler is impedance
matched to both the ASCB and the MAU.
Figure 7 - ASCB Coupler

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ASCB Terminators
The ASCB terminators are devices attached to the end-points of each ASCB with the
purpose of absorbing signals so that they do not reflect back down the line.
Figure 8 - ASCB Terminator
OPERATION OF MAU
The MAUs are important Line Replaceable Units (LRU) in the system because they hold
the avionics processors and utility functions. The MAUs send data to and from each
other on the ASCB and LAN buses.
Communication in the MAU is managed by the NIC. The NIC sends and receives ASCB
and LAN data and makes this data available to client modules within the MAU through a
backplane. The client modules may be processor modules, Input/Output (I/O) modules,
memory modules, or other hybrid modules.
NIC modules have Aircraft Personality Modules (APM) installed in their backshells.
Aircraft Personality Modules (APM) are programmed with system identification data,
options data, system settings data, and rigging data. The data content is custom for the
aircraft.

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TYPICAL IMA VERSION OF FLIGHT GUIDANCE SYSTEM (E170/190)

In general, the following contrast will help you to understand the difference between IMA
version of Autoflight Control System (AFCS) and conventional Autoflight Control System.
The additional feature in the new IMA AFCS is it contains Actuator Input-Output
Processors (AIOP) as Line Replaceable Modules (LRM). Typically four Actuator InputOutput Processor (AIOP) modules are installed in the MAU on Embraer 170/190.
Figure 9 - Flight Guidance System (EMB 170/190)
The AIOP modules also connect to other avionic and flight control equipment and
systems, as appropriate and necessary for the AIOP function.
Two AIOP modules operate in each channel. These modules are identified as lane A and
lane B. The modules in these two lanes have the same software, but do separate,
complementary, and similar functions that depend on the lane. The AIOP modules in
lane A and lane B must operate at the same time for the servos in that channel to be
active and engaged.
The AIOP modules on the MAUs are connected to the autopilot servo via Controller Area
Network (CAN) bus.
The Actuator Input-Output Processor (AIOP) modules do all of the necessary
computations and data processing for the Autopilot and Yaw Damper (YD) functions. The
AIOP modules collect the necessary data via Avionics Standard-Communication Bus
(ASCB) from other Flight Guidance Control System (FGCS) data inputs for calculations.

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The AIOP modules send position data to the servos through a bidirectional Controller
Area Network (CAN) data bus.
This CAN bus is the interface between the Flight Control Module (FCM) of each MAU and
the Primary Actuator Control Electronics (P-ACE). The Primary Actuator Control
Electronics (P-ACE) sends commands to the relevant control actuators to activate the
automatic flight control function.
Figure 10 - IMA version of AFCS

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What are the advantages of Integrated Modular avionics concept?
What are the typical components involved in a Modular Avionics Unit for data
processing? Write a short description of each component.

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TYPES OF IMA
The types of IMAs depend on the aircraft type and its systems. Within a given type, all
IMAs are interchangeable but may require a software reconfiguration. Each type hosts
avionics applications.
For examples:On B787 has IMAs dedicated for: Avionics.
o
Displays and Crew Alerting, Flight Data Acquisition and Recording, Flight
Management, Thrust Management, Communication Management, Health
Management, Data Loading, Configuration Management.
Environment Control Systems.

o
Protective, Air Conditioning, Pressurisation, E/E Cooling Systems Control

and Indication.
Electrical Systems
o
System Control and Indication, Secondary Electrical Power Distribution,

Proximity Sensing, Window Heat.
Fuel Systems
o
System Indication, Fuel Quantity, Nitrogen Generation System.
Hydraulics
o
System Control and Indication.
Mechanical Systems.
o
Brake, Landing Gear, and Steering Systems Control and Indication.
Payloads.
o
Lavatories, Potable Water, Crew and Passenger Oxygen, Vacuum Waste.
Propulsion/APU.
o
Engine and APU Fire Detection and Extinguishing Control and Indication,
Thrust Reverser Control and Indication.

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Comparison of Boeing B777 and B787 Avionics systems
Figure 11 - Comparison of B777 and B787 Avionics
Difference between EMB 170/190 and A380 Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA)
On Embraer 170/190 each IMA is a metal cabinet solidly grounded to the aircraft frame.
This cabinet called as Modular Avionics Unit (MAU) and it contains different line
replaceable modules (LRM) for different avionics applications.
Whereas, on A380 has independent LRMs to host different avionics applications. In
some LRMs merge 3-4 aircraft systems and handle these systems individually.
Figure 12 - Difference between EMB 170/190 and A380 IMA system

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IMA SYSTEM ON A380

On the A380, the independent applications are hosted in shared IMA modules, called
Core Processing Input/Output Modules (CPIOMs), and in order to accommodate and link
with the conventional avionics an additional modules are placed in the system, called
Input/Output Modules (IOMs).
Both CPIOMs and IOMs are LRMs. These LRMs dialogue through the Avionics Data
Communication Network (ADCN) by the means of a communication technology developed
from a non-aeronautical standard, which has been adapted to aviation constraints. This
technology is called Avionics Full DupleX switched ethernet (AFDX).
The major components of A380 IMA system are: Core Processing Input/Output Modules (CPIOMs).
Input/Output Modules (IOMs).
Avionics Data Communication Network (ADCN).
Figure 13 - IMA concept on A380

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Core Processing Input/Output Module (CPIOM)

The CPIOM integrates shared memory and computing resource to execute independently
its hosted avionics applications.
In addition the CPIOM processes independently specific input/output data for each
application. This data is AFDX data.
When the applications dialogue through ADCN and non-AFDX data when they dialogue
directly with conventional LRUs.
There are 7 types of CPIOM, each one identified by a letter (A to G) for following systems: Pneumatic applications (X4).
o
Engine Bleed Air system, Over Heat Detection System, Pneumatic Air
Distribution System.
Air conditioning applications (X4).

o
Air Generation System, Avionics Ventilation System, Cabin Pressure

Control System, Temperature Control System, Ventilation Control System.
Cockpit and flight controls applications (X2)

o
Flight Control, Weight and Balance Computation, Flight Warning System.
Data link applications (X2).

o
Air Traffic Control system, Avionics Communication.
Energy applications (X2).

o
Circuit Breaker Monitoring System, Electrical Load Management System.
Fuel applications (X4).

o
Fuel CG measurement COM, Fuel management.
Landing gear applications (X4).

o
Braking control system, Steering control system, Landing Gear Extension

and Retraction System.
Figure 14 - CPIOM

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Input/Output Module (IOM)

The IOM does not host avionics applications. The IOM converts non-AFDX data, coming
from conventional LRUs, into AFDX data used within the Avionics Data Communication
Network (ADCN) and vice versa.
All IOMs are fully interchangeable.
Figure 15 - Input/ Output Module
ADCN Subscribers
The A/C system computers connected directly to the ADCN are the LRMs, which are
Core Processing Input/Output Modules (CPIOMs) or Input/Output Modules (IOMs) These
computers are called ADCN subscribers.
The communication between the ADCN subscribers is done through the AFDX
technology.
Figure 16 - ADCN Subscribers

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ADCN and AFDX Technologies

The ADCN is supported by the AFDX technology. The AFDX is a communication
technology based on commercial Ethernet protocol adapted to aeronautical constraint to
meet the avionics requirements. It gives the following advantages:
Secure and reliable communications.
High data rate 10 and 100 Mb/s.
Flexibility for future developments of system architecture.
Less wiring.
The ADCN is made of AFDX switches and AFDX cables. The AFDX switches are
electronic devices. They manage the data traffic on the network between the connected
subscribers.
Figure 17 - AFDX switches

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The AFDX cable is a Full Duplex physical link between a subscriber and an AFDX
switch. (The term Full duplex means that the subscriber can simultaneously transmit
and receive on the same link).
This link is a QUAD cable, composed of four wires uniformly twisted, one pair for
transmission and one pair for reception.
Figure 18 - AFDX cable
Figure 19 ARINC600 connector of a CPIOM
For availability reasons, the ADCN implements a redundant network. Indeed, all ADCN
subscribers have a connection to both redundant networks A and B and with auto
switching system.
Figure 20 - ADCN network

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What are the integrated systems available in A380?
What are the differences between CPIOM and IOM?
What is meant by ADCN subscribers?
How many wires are in an ADFX cable?

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TYPICAL IMA VERSION OF BLEED AIR MANAGEMENT (A380)

The Pneumatic applications such as Engine Bleed Air System, Over Heat Detection
System, and Pneumatic Air Distribution System are controlled and monitored by a single
Line Replaceable Module (LRM) in the IMA system.
On A380, this application is hosted in 4 identical CPIOMs for redundancy purposes.
These CPIOMs are dedicated to monitor and control: Pneumatic Air Distribution System (PADS) applications.
Engine Bleed Air System (EBAS) applications.
Over Heat Detection System (OHDS) applications.
For example, by pressing the APU BLEED push button switch located on the AIR panel,
the APU bleed air supply is activated. On of the CPIOM-A commands the APU isolation
valve to open.
At the same time, the Electronic Control Box (ECB) receives data through the Avionics
Data Communication Network (ADCN) or with discrete signal to command the opening of
the APU bleed valve.
Now, the APU bleed air available in the system.
Figure 21 - Typical Bleed system

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If a leak is detected, the system is protected by a specific leak system loop which sends a
signal to the CPIOM-A. Then the Over-Heat Detection System (OHDS) application hosted
in the CPIOM-A triggers appropriate valve closure and sends a leak message to the
Flight Warning System (FWS)
The Control and Display System (CDS) for indication.
The Onboard Maintenance System (OMS) for leak localisation.
Figure 22- Typical Leak Detection
In view of the above examples, it is understood that the different applications are hosted
by a single platform with modular technology to accommodate different systems
simultaneously.

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What are the applications controlled and monitored by Bleed Management system in
A380 aircraft?
How does the IMA system operates with different applications in a single hosted
platform? Explain with an example.

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11.20 CABIN SYSTEMS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures ................................................................................................................2
Introduction...................................................................................................................3
Introduction...................................................................................................................3
CIDS Architecture ..........................................................................................................4
CIDS Functions ...........................................................................................................18
CIDS Warnings ............................................................................................................28

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Concept of CIDS ............................................................................................3
Figure 2 - CIDS Director ................................................................................................4
Figure 3 - Data links ......................................................................................................5
Figure 4 - Discrete and Audio signals .............................................................................6
Figure 5 - DEU A and DEU B .........................................................................................7
Figure 6 - DEU-A Interfaces ...........................................................................................8
Figure 7 -DEU A data bus ..............................................................................................9
Figure 8 - DEU-B Interfaces .........................................................................................10
Figure 9 - Connection Box............................................................................................11
Figure 10 Coding Switches ........................................................................................11
Figure 11 FAP interfaces............................................................................................12
Figure 12 FAP and PTP ..............................................................................................13
Figure 14 - Connections between DEU-B and AAP........................................................13
Figure 14 - AAP............................................................................................................14
Figure 15 - AIP.............................................................................................................14
Figure 16 - ACP ...........................................................................................................15
Figure 17 - Locations of ACP ........................................................................................15
Figure 19 - CIDS data bus ...........................................................................................16
Figure 20 - Connector Box ...........................................................................................16
Figure 20 - Functions of CIDS......................................................................................18
Figure 21 - PA system ..................................................................................................19
Figure 22 - Cabin Interphone System ...........................................................................20
Figure 23 - Service Interphone .....................................................................................21
Figure 24 - Alerting system ..........................................................................................22
Figure 26 - Indication on Water & Waste systems.........................................................24
Figure 29 - Cabin lights control....................................................................................24
Figure 30 - EVAC operation..........................................................................................25
Figure 31 - CIDS passenger light signs .........................................................................26
Figure 33 - CIDS warnings ...........................................................................................28

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INTRODUCTION
Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS) is the core digital cabin management
system used in modern aircraft. The requirement for variable and customised cabin
layouts and optional cabin systems has led to a new generation of Cabin
Intercommunication Data System.
The CIDS is a microprocessor based system which controls and displays cabin functions
for passengers and crew. The CIDS incorporates:
Air conditioning.
Communications (cockpit/cabin announcements).
Cabin lighting.
Door status indication.
Emergency signals.
Non-smoking/fasten seatbelt signs.
Fire protection/ smoke detectors.
Ice protection.
Water/waste tank capacity information.
Various other customised functions.
Figure 1 Concept of CIDS

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CIDS ARCHITECTURE
The CIDS components use the service bus power for normal operation. However CIDS is
connected to the essential bus as well for emergency requirements.
The CIDS employs following components to accomplish the functions for passengers and
crew: CIDS Director (DIR).
Decoder/Encoder Unit (DEU A).
Decoder/Encoder Unit (DEU B).
Forward Attendant Panel (FAP).
Additional Attendant Panel (AAP).
Area Call Panel (ACP).
Attendant Indication Panels (AIP).
CIDS Data bus cables.
CIDS Director (DIR)
The CIDS Director (DIR) is a central control and interface component of the CIDS. Each
DIR has its own On Board Replacement Module (OBRM). The OBRM used to store the
software for current cabin layout and the properties of related equipment. The DIR
provides functions of handling of data bus lines, transmission of digital audio signals,
controlling of related equipment and systems, programming functions, test initialising
and activation of emergency mode.
For redundancy the system has two identical Directors (DIRs). One DIR is in hot-standby
mode and has the same inputs and outputs as the active one. The hot-standby DIR
responds to the inputs in the same way as the active one. Most of the outputs of the hotstandby DIR are disabled.
Figure 2 - CIDS Director
The active DIR controls, operates and monitors passenger and cabin crew related
functions as well as the cabin support systems. For that, the active DIR exchanges data
with them through an onboard CIDS network or directly. DIR controls some aircraft
systems to activate automatically.
The CIDS DIR is connected with Forward Attendant Panel (FAP) to control the cabin
systems and to indicate the status of cabin systems.

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The DIRs and the related components are interfaced with CIDS data links, ARINC 429
links, discrete signals and audio lines to control individual equipment and systems,
programming functions, test initialising and activation of emergency mode.
For example following components are connected with CIDS data links: DEU type A.
DEU type B.
Between DIR 1 and DIR 2
Following components / systems are connected with ARINC 429 links: Flight Attendant Panel (FAP).
Vacuum System Controller (VSC).
Environmental Conditioning System (ECS).
Smoke Detection Control Unit (SDCU).
Centralised Maintenance Computer (CMC).
In-Flight Entertainment system (IFE).
System Data Acquisition Concentrator (SDAC).
Figure 3 - Data links

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The DIRs use discrete and audio signals to link with: Slat Flap Control Computer (SFCC).
Landing Gear Control and Interface Unit (LGCIU).
Engine Interface and Vibration Monitoring Unit (EIVMU).
Cabin Pressure Controller (CPC).
Call Panel.
Cockpit Door.
Cabin pressure/Exit Signs Relay.
Flight Warning Computer (FWC).
Audio Management Unit (AMU).
Cockpit Handset.
Service Interphone Boomsets.
In-Flight Entertainment system (IFE).
Figure 4 - Discrete and Audio signals

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The CIDS Directors (DIRs), Decoder/Encoder Units (DEUs), Forward Attendant Panel
(FAP), Additional Attendant Panels (AAPs) and Attendant Indication Panels (AIPs) contain
comprehensive Built-In Test Equipment (BITE) circuitry. This allows the CIDS to detect
faults in the connected systems.
The DIRs store the failure information send by BITE of these units. The received failures
are transmitted to Centralised Maintenance System (CMS) and Centralised Maintenance
Computer (CMC) records all failure data.
In the event of a major failure, a CIDS caution signal is immediately sent to the
respective location. Such as in the cockpit the failures are indicated on:
ECAM Status Page.
ECAM Warning Page.
CMC-MCDU Pages.
And also it will be indicated on FAP for cabin information.
Decoder/Encoder Unit (DEU)
There are two types of Decoder/Encoder Units and they are named as type-A (DEU-A)
which is used on passenger related systems and the other type-B (DEU-B) dedicated on
cabin related systems and crew functions.
The installation-address is identified by coding switches which are installed in each of
DEU A and DEU B connection box.
Figure 5 - DEU A and DEU B

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Decoder/Encoder Unit type-A (DEU-A)

The DEU-A data buses interface with active DIR to control passenger related systems
such as
Passenger Service Units (PSU).
PAX lighted signs (FSB/NS/RTS).
PAX-call lights.
Loudspeakers.
Cabin lighting.
However, the amount of DEUs-A requirement and the usage of inputs/outputs on each
DEU A depend on the cabin layout, the installation of the optional systems and aircraft
type.
For example in A320 has 16 DEUs-type A, where as in A380 baseline configuration,
there are 85 DEUs of type A installed in the whole cabin (a maximum of 192 can be
installed).
Figure 6 - DEU-A Interfaces

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The DEUs A are connected to the DIRs through CIDS data-bus. For redundancy
purposes, there are two top line data buses in each side of left, centre and right. The
DEUs A are connected alternately to one of these data buses.
All DEUs-A are interchangeable. The installation-address is given through coding
switches which are installed in each DEU A connection box.
Figure 7 -DEU A data bus

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Decoder/Encoder Unit Type-B (DEU-B)

The interface between the active DIR and the cabin crew related functions is done via
Decoder/Encoder Units type B (DEU B).
The CIDS uses each DEU B to control
Area Call Panels (ACP).
Attendant Indication Panels (AIP).
Additional Attendant Panels (AAP).
Handsets.
Emergency Power Supply Unit (EPSU).
Slide/door pressure sensors.
Drain mast heating monitoring.
Figure 8 - DEU-B Interfaces
Not all inputs/outputs are used on each DEU B. This depends on the cabin layout and
the installation of the optional systems. All DEUs B are interchangeable. The installation
address is given through coding switches which are installed on each DEU B connection
box.

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Connection Boxes
The CIDS data bus is connected through the connection boxes to all the DEUs. All the
connection boxes must be connected. If one connection box is not connected, the data
bus is interrupted and a related message is shown on the FAP/PIM and on the
CMC/MCDU.
Figure 9 - Connection Box
Coding Switches
The installation address on either DEU A or DEU B is given through coding switches
which are installed on each connection box.
Figure 10 Coding Switches

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Forward Attendant Panel (FAP)

It is used by the cabin and maintenance crew to control and monitor the various cabin
support systems, the passenger and cabin crew related functions.
The Forward Attendant Panel (FAP) is connected to the DIRs through ARINC 429 data
buses. Through these buses, the FAP transmits data for controlling and monitoring of
the cabin systems and receives data from the active DIR for signalling. The FAP
transmits its BITE information too.
The FAP has links with following CIDS components to control and monitor their
performances: A discrete signal is transmitted to the Emergency Power Supply Units (EPSU)
for activation of the emergency lighting.
Discrete signals connect the type B DEUs for evacuation activation, reset and
indication.
The water quantity transmitter provides potable water quantity indication.
The vacuum system controller provides the waste quantity indication.
Discrete signals for lavatory lighting, passenger reading lights and cabin
attendant work lights and for activation of the lavatory water heater.
Activation signal for heating of drain mast.
Figure 11 FAP interfaces

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The FAP consists of: The Programming and Test Panel (PTP) for system indications, programming
and testing the CIDS.
Key board to controls the cabin systems.
The Cabin Assignment Module (CAM) is the memory module which stores all
the cabin related programmable information.
Figure 12 FAP and PTP
The PTP contains an alphanumerical data display and it provides the relevant
information sent by the DIR.
Additional Attendant Panel (AAP)
The AAPs have an RS 232 data bus input/output to send and receive data through the
related DEU B.
It has BITE system to detect internal and external failures. The BITE result is
transmitted to the DEU B.
Figure 13 - Connections between DEU-B and AAP

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The AAP is used to:

To activate EVAC, indication and to reset the system.
Reset pax call.
Indication of lavatory smoke and reset function.
To control the cabin illumination.
To activate lavatory water heaters.
Figure 14 - AAP
Attendant Indication Panel (AIP)

The AIPs are installed at each cabin attendant station which has a handset. Through the
related DEU B the AIP is supplied with 28VDC and controlled via an RS 232 data bus.
Each AIP has a BITE to detect internal failures. The result is transmitted to the related
DEU B.
The display area for indication of alphanumerical messages is divided into two rows.
Each of these rows has 16 characters. The upper line of the display is used for
indications related to the cockpit and cabin handset operation.
The lower line is divided into 5 sections where text strings can be combined to give
passenger call and smoke detection information.
The lower line can also be used in its full width to indicate special system information
(e.g. PA IN USE). Each individual text is laid down in the CAM and therefore can be
programmed accordingly.
The back-lit display is off until a command is received from DEU B. The AIP is a display
panel with two indicator lights (red and green), which are used to ensure a far-reaching
call function, when a related message is displayed. The operation of the indicator lights
can be programmed through CAM for each different system functions.
Figure 15 - AIP
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Area Call Panel (ACP)

The Area Call Panels (ACPs) are typically installed on right and left hand sides of the
ceiling at each end of the cabin zone.
The fields are used as cabin attendants attention getters and either they can be
programmed to flash or illuminate steadily. The lights can be seen from the front or rear
of the ACP.
The ACP has four separately controlled fields; each field contains coloured Light Emitting
Diodes (LEDs). A call via cabin or cockpit interphone will come on pink on the indicator,
a blue light indicates pax seat call and an amber light indicates a lavatory call.
Each ACP links with discrete connections to a nearby DEU-B. The DEU B switches the
LEDs. Any field or combination of fields can be illuminated.
Figure 16 - ACP
Figure 17 - Locations of ACP

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CIDS Data Bus

Each data bus uses a two wire twisted and shielded cable. The passenger related
systems data buses are connected with DEU A and for the crew related systems data
buses are linked to DEU B. The active DIR controls these CIDS data buses.
Each data bus cable is terminated with resistors for cable impedance matching and
called as Bus Termination Resistors (BTR).They are only available in the last DEU
connection box.
Figure 18 - CIDS data bus
The CIDS data bus interface is a bidirectional serial-digital data-bus, and connected
through the connection boxes of all the DEUs. If one the data bus gets interrupted a
related message is shown on the PTP/FAP and on the CMC/MCDU.
Figure 19 - Connector Box

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What is the purpose Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS)?
What are the main components employed in the Cabin Intercommunication Data System
(CIDS)?
What is the purpose of CIDS Director?
What are the types of signals used by CIDS director to interface with its components?
Which DEU controls the passenger related systems?
What is the purpose of Forward Attendant Panel (FAP) in the CIDS?

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CIDS FUNCTIONS
The CIDS provides following functions to accomplish functional control, the testing and
the monitoring of the cabin intercommunication data support systems.
Communication.
Indicating.
Control.
Other Functions (zone programming, Cabin layout selection).
Figure 20 - Functions of CIDS
Communication Functions
The following communication links are achieved through CIDS.
Passenger Address and Integrated pre-recoded announcement/boarding
music.
Cabin interphone.
Service interphone.
Crew signalling and alerting.

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Passenger Address (PA) and Integrated Pre-recoded Announcement/Boarding Music

It supplies one way voice communication to make announcements from the cockpit or
from a cabin crew station to the passengers. These announcements are initiated from the
cockpit using either a handset or acoustic devices.
The CIDS can be interface with or pre-recorded voice announcements and boarding
music system.
The cockpit handset is directly connected with active DIR. Pressing the Press To Talk
(PTT) switch and talk onto the handset, the announcement is broadcasted over all PA
loudspeakers via DEU A or passengers headsets via In Flight Entertainment system
(IFE).
The amplifiers are part of the DEU A and individually assigned for passenger or
attendant operation.
The other acoustic devices are connected to DIR via Audio Management Unit (AMU).The
PA transmission key located on the Audio Control Panel (ACP) must be pressed and held.
It comes on green and connects the microphone audio to the PA system. "PA ALL IN USE"
indication appears on all AIPs.
Also the cabin attendants can make announcements via cabin crew stations handsets.
The cabin attendants announcements transmit via DEU B to DIR, then broadcasted over
all PA loudspeakers via DEU A or passengers headsets via In Flight entertainment
system (IFE).
It is possible to override an established PA announcement either from another cabin
station with a higher priority (ex:- chief pursers station) or from cockpit.
Figure 21 - PA system
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Cabin Interphone
The cabin interphone system is used for communication between all cabin crew stations
or between the cockpit and the cabin crew stations.
From the cockpit the communication is established via the cockpit handset or via
acoustic device and the cabin the communication is established via any cabin crew
station handset.
As the communication links are established independently, a certain number of
communication links can exist in parallel. Also, conference modes are possible, where
more than two interphone sources take part same time.
Calls from the cockpit are initiated from the CALLS panel which is connected to the
DIRs. The call pushbuttons on the CALLS panel allow the crew to select the attendant
station. Connection of the cockpit to the cabin interphone system is done using the
CAB key and knob on the Audio Control Panels (ACP).
A call started from cockpit to cabin crew or from between crew stations, it activates an
aural HI-LO chime at respective crew station loudspeaker to alert the crew member. Also
visual indications are presented on respective AIP and Area Call Panel.
Communication between two attendants handsets can be established via respective
DEUs-B. To initiate a call, take the handset off the hook and then select the required
station on the keyboard. When the communication link is established, the relevant
station/s DEU/s will initiate the visual indications and aural HI-LO chime. All
attendants stations in the cabin have a RESET key to reset the interphone function, and
proceeds to a new dialling.
The emergency call or cockpit call overrides all communications between cabin stations.
Figure 22 - Cabin Interphone System

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Service Interphone
The service interphone system is used for communications between the service
interphone station or between the cockpit and the cabin crew stations. The service
interphone jacks are located within the major service areas.
This system is available automatically if landing gear down and locked or manually by
pressing the OVERRIDE pushbutton.
Operation from the Cockpit
The acoustical equipment in the cockpit transmits the audio signals to the Audio
Management Unit (AMU), through the audio lines. The AMU transmits the signals to the
DIR. The DIR transmits the signals to the attendant stations through DEU B and to the
service interphone jacks through audio lines.
Operation from the Attendant Station
The operation starts by pushing the INTPH key on the attendant handset. The audio
signals are fed into the CIDS DIRs through the DEU B.
The CIDS DIR transmits the audio signals to the cockpit acoustical equipment through
the AMU and the service interphone jacks through the audio lines.
Operation from a Service Interphone Jack with a connected Boomset
The boomset transmits the audio signals to the CIDS DIR through the audio lines. The
CIDS DIR transmits the audio signals to cockpit acoustical equipment through the AMU,
the attendant stations through DEU B and the service interphone jacks through the
audio lines.
Figure 23 - Service Interphone

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Crew Signalling and Alerting

There are different kinds of cockpit and cabin crew signalling and alerting functions
depending on the situation. This function is to inform the cockpit crew about the cabin
status, such as the "area ready" function during takeoff/landing phase. It is activated
through Flight Attendants Panels (FAP) the signal which is then displayed on the ECAM.
The optional Emergency Crew Alerting System is used to indicate an unusual behaviour
in cabin or cockpit. This function is initiated by alert pushbutton from cabin or from
cockpit. It activates visual and aural warnings in the cockpit as well as cabin.
When the Emergency-Evacuation signalling (EVAC) system is activated either from the
cockpit or from FAP, the system provides aural and visual signals to al crew members
giving all necessary preparations for an evacuation from the aircraft.
Figure 24 - Alerting system

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Indicating and Control Functions

The CIDS provides information of performance and operational requirements of the
interfaced system on the FAP display. Also these systems can be controlled via keys on
the FAP.
Indicating Functions
The following basic systems are connected with CIDS to monitor these systems and
provide indications of their performances on the FAP.
Emergency lighting power supply.
Ice protection and control.
Doors/slides.
The number of different systems can be customised with CIDS according to the
requirements.
Emergency Lighting Power Supply
The CIDS interface with the emergency lighting system for monitoring the system and to
carry out battery capacity test.
Ice Protection and Control
CIDS monitors and controls the protection against the freezing of the potable/waste
water system. The system has a flexible heater foil is bonded to the drain mast tubes and
temperature controlled through a sensor.
Doors and Slides
The door and escape-slide control system monitors the door and escape slide bottlepressure reservoir at the emergency exits. On the ground and in flight the status is
permanently monitored and reported to the FAP and to the CMS.

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Vacuum System / Water and Waste System

The CIDS interface the water/waste system via vacuum system to display the potable
and waste water tanks filling level on the FAP.
Figure 25 - Indication on Water & Waste systems
Control Functions
The CIDS fulfils several control functions related to:
Passenger service system.
Cabin illumination.
EVAC.
Passenger lighted signs.
The number of different systems can be customised with CIDS according to the
requirements.
Passenger Service System
The passenger service system is used for operation of the passenger reading lights and
the passenger call activation/deactivation. The controlling switches available for
passenger to control these functions.
Also CIDS interface with In-Flight Entrainment (IFE) system to control music, video and
games which are accessible at each passenger seat.
Cabin Illumination
The CIDS controls the illumination of the different cabin areas independently. The
system has three illumination levels (BRIGHT, DIM 1 and DIM 2) and can be controlled
by pushbutton switches on the FAP.
Figure 26 - Cabin lights control

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EVAC
When the Emergency-Evacuation signalling (EVAC) system is activated either from the
cockpit or from FAP, the system provides aural and visual signals to al crew members
giving all necessary preparations for an evacuation from the aircraft.
The cockpit EVAC panel directly connected to active DIR, so relevant data is passed to
DEU A and DEU B to alert the cabin attendants.
If the system is activated through the FAP or AAP, the data flow is through the relevant
DEU B and then to active DIR for system activation.
Figure 27 - EVAC operation
Passenger Lighted Signs

The passenger lighted-signs system controls the No Smoking (NS), Fasten Seat Belt
(FSB), Return to Seat (RTS) and EXIT Signs in the cabin and lavatories.
The NO SMOKING ON/AUTO/OFF switch in the cockpit controls the NS Signs. They
come on manually in the ON position and automatically in the AUTO position if the
landing gear is down and locked or slats are extended and oil pressure is high.
When the active DIR receive these signal from respective sensors or computers the
relevant data is passed to the all DEU A to activate the applicable passenger sign.

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If there is a rapid decompression occurs, the Cabin Pressure Controller (CPC) provides a
discrete signal to DIR and activates the NS, FSB and EXIT signs to come on
automatically. A passenger attention LO chime is heard through the passenger
loudspeakers.
Figure 28 - CIDS passenger light signs
Other Functions
The other functions like software loading, cabin section layouts, cabin programming
functions, loudspeakers level adjustment and FAP set-up are offered by CIDS.
The system reconfiguration is achieved through Field Loadable Software (FLS). These FLS
can be loaded in the OBRM of DIRs or via Cabin Assignment Module (CAM) on FAP using
flash memory cards.
Software Loading
Via a dedicated FAP menu page, the software loading function is available for software
loadable CIDS components (Directors, Decoder/Encoder Units etc...). This function is
only available on ground.
Layout Selection
The CIDS is designed in such way that, it is not necessary to make complex and time
expensive hardware changes, if the cabin layout has to be reconfigured. It is only to
change the software database.
The CIDS cabin layout selection function gives the choice of predefined and modifiable
cabin layouts which are loaded in the CAM. This function is protected by an access code
and is only available on ground.

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Cabin Programming
The configuration of cabin zones can be changed via a dedicated programming page on
the FAP. Through this page following cabin programming modes are available on ground
or in flight. They can be protected by an access code.
No Smoking Zones Programming.
Non Smoker Aircraft Programming.
Loudspeakers Level Adjustment
This function is used for manual adjustment of the cabin loudspeakers level for
announcements and chimes. This is protected by an access code and available on
ground or in flight.
What are the functions available in the Cabin Intercommunication Data System (CIDS)?
Which DEU transmits the cabin attendants announcements?
What is the purpose of Service Interphone system?
Which component provides the indications of system performances in the CIDS?
What are the systems which are controlled by the CIDS?
What other functions available in the CIDS? And explain each function briefly.

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CIDS WARNINGS
CIDS warnings are annunciated in the cockpit as well as on FAP, if DIR detects a failure
in the system during the flight. However the warnings are inhibited during the flight
phase of 3, 4, 5, 7 and 8.
All BITE results are stored in the DIRs BITE dedicated memory with failure indication
shown on the Programming and Test Panel (PTP) and illumination of CIDS caution light
on FAP. Same time the BITE information is fed to CMS to store on the CMU memory.
Some failures or combination of failures cause immediate indication on ECAM and single
chime activation.
CIDS warnings on Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM)
When a CIDS caution message is displayed on the ECAM, the detailed failure message is
memorised in the PTP and available on ground on request. The caution messages on the
ECAM will displayed on request. The DIR continues to send CIDS caution message to the
system until the fault is corrected. The CIDS caution message on the ECAM is displayed
even if one DIR fails.
CIDS warnings on FAP and PTP
The CIDS caution light can be reset in flight, but comes on again on the ground (landing
gear down and locked) if the failure is still persist.
When a CIDS caution light illuminates, the respective failure message is displayed on the
PTP.
Figure 29 - CIDS warnings

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Where the CIDS warnings annunciated if Director detects a failure in the system during
the flight
What is the purpose of the BITE dedicated memory in the CIDS Director?

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This Page is Intentionally Left Blank

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11.21 INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Table of Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................3
Data communication Service..........................................................................................4
Passenger Visual Information System (PVIS).................................................................10
Passenger Information Network....................................................................................14
Information System Introduction..................................................................................17
Cockpit Information Systems .......................................................................................18
Maintenance Information Systems ...............................................................................32

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List of Figures
Figure 1 Airshow seat display ......................................................................................3
Figure 2 - CNS architecture............................................................................................4
Figure 3 - CNS Interfaced Systems .................................................................................5
Figure 4 - Typical Fax machine ......................................................................................6
Figure 5 - Satellite Telephone/Fax system ......................................................................7
Figure 6 - Satellite Coverage...........................................................................................8
Figure 7 - Interfaces of PVIS.........................................................................................11
Figure 8 - Airshow windows .........................................................................................12
Figure 9 - CPMU ..........................................................................................................15
Figure 10 - Information System....................................................................................17
Figure 11 - ATIMS Architecture ....................................................................................19
Figure 12 - ATIMS Components....................................................................................19
Figure 13 - ATSU .........................................................................................................20
Figure 14 - Data Control Display Unit ..........................................................................21
Figure 15 - ATC MSG Pushbutton Switches..................................................................21
Figure 16 - ATSU reset switch ......................................................................................22
Figure 17 MCDU and DCDU ......................................................................................23
Figure 18 ATIMS Components and Interfaced Units ...................................................24
Figure 19 - ATIMS Functions .......................................................................................26
Figure 20 A typical message on DCDU .......................................................................27
Figure 21 FANS Concept............................................................................................29
Figure 22 - FANS Architecture .....................................................................................30
Figure 23 - Typical Maintenance Information Page .......................................................32

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INTRODUCTION
The Cabin Network Services (CNS) is a part of the Aircraft Information Network System
(AINS) which provides passengers with: Data communication service.
o
Wireless Ethernet/E-mail services.
Telephone and Fax facilities.
Visual information service such as Airshow.

Passenger Information Network
Figure 1 Airshow seat display

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DATA COMMUNICATION SERVICE

The communication between the end user and the aircraft network server system is
handled by data links. This service provides wireless ethernet/ email service, telephone
and fax facilities in the aircraft cabin area.
Wireless Ethernet/E-mail services

The flight and cabin crew, the passengers and the maintenance personnel can use the
CNS system to connect devices like laptops to the LAN. They can use E-mail services or
airline specific applications.
To get access to the network, the wireless device sends an Authentication Management
Frame with the station identification or Service Set ID (SSID) to the Cabin Wireless LAN
Unit (CWLU). The CWLU recognises the SSID of the client and sends back a frame that
authorises the wireless device to communicate with the CWLU.
The components of CNS are: Ethernet Switch Unit (ESU).
Cabin Network Server Unit (CNSU).
Cabin Wireless LAN Unit (CWLU).
Antenna CWLU.
Cabin Connector.
Figure 2 - CNS architecture

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Interface systems of CNS

CNS interfaces with following systems:
Forward Attendant Panel (FAP).
In-Flight Entertainment System (IFE).
Aircraft Information Network System (AINS).
Landing Gear Control and Interface Unit (LGCIU).
Cabin Telephone Unit (CTU).
Centralised Maintenance Computer (CMC).
Figure 3 - CNS Interfaced Systems

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Passenger Air to Ground Telephone/Fax System

The Passenger Air-to-Ground Telephone System (PATS) enables the passengers (and the
cabin crew) to facsimile by global public-service telephone network during flight.
For transmission to the ground, the PATS uses the aircraft Satellite Communication
(SATCOM) system.
Its performance is equal to the usual office FAX-machines. The interconnection with the
Satellite Data Unit (SDU) allows a worldwide FAX service.
The Fax-machine is a user equipment to establish voice and data connections to the
public telephone network. The Fax-machine provides the normal telephone functions
with additional features like credit card reader and LCD display.
The Fax-machine is installed in the Video Control Centre and consists of five
components:
System Control/Interface Module.
Standard FAX-Engine.
Credit Card Reader Module (optional).
Power Supply Module.
Input Scanner Module.
Figure 4 - Typical Fax machine

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The Telephone system is connected to the Satellite Communication System (SATCOM) via
the Passenger Entertainment System Controller (PESC) and the Cabin Telecommunication
Unit (CTU).
Figure 5 - Satellite Telephone/Fax system

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The System Control/Interface Module has the master control of communication between
the fax engine, the optional credit card reader module and the bearer system. This
module shall also transmit, receive and process data and signal information between the
bearer system and the fax terminal.
The optional credit card reader module performs redundancy checks on the card data
and checks card validity before initiating the call setup procedures.
The power supply module is the interface between the aircraft power source and the
Airborne Facsimile Terminal. This module provides all the needed internal voltages for
the other modules.
Figure 6 - Satellite Coverage

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What are the services provided to passengers by the Cabin Network Services (CNS)?
What is the purpose of wireless ethernet/ e-mail services?
What are the systems interfaced with Aircraft Telephone / Fax system?

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PASSENGER VISUAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (PVIS)

The Passenger Visual Information System (PVIS) supplies the passengers with in-flight
visual information. The PVIS gives real-time flight and destination data to the passengers
through the Passenger Entertainment System (PES) Video display units.
This data is given to the passengers as aircraft position data on maps and as aircraft
status data as text.
The modes of Airshow operation are set from the Cabin Management Terminal (CMT).
The PVIS gives following information to passengers: Flight status (e.g. altitude, outside temperature, ground speed, longitude and
latitude A/C position).
Maps with the aircraft flight course.
Airport gate maps and other related details.
Real-time video and audio details of the countries along the flight path.
The main computer of the PVIS is the PVIS Processor Unit (Digital Interface Unit-DIU).
The video sequences are stored on the CDs and are accessed and shown automatically in
relation to the position of the aircraft. The information is provided to the passengers via
display units. The display units either mounted on cabin overhead panels or seat
mounted.
The Processor Unit has data bus interfaces with:
Flight Management Guidance and Envelope Computer (FMGEC).
o
This is an unidirectional data bus (receive only) and gives the PVIS flight
mission data.
Air Data Inertial Reference System (ADIRS)

o
This interface has two unidirectional data buses (receive only). One for the
air data (outside temperature, ground speed) and other transmit the
inertial reference data.
Passenger Entertainment System Video (PES Video)

o
This is a bidirectional data bus twisted shielded pair for video line from the
DIU to the Video Control Unit (VCU). The DIU has a Built-In Test
Equipment (BITE) and buffers all external systems. The BITE results are
transmitted to the Video Control Unit (VCU).
Central Maintenance Computer (CMC)

o
The DIU is connected to the Onboard Maintenance System (OMS) through

a unidirectional data bus to receive CMS data.
Cabin and Passenger Management System (CPMS)

o
This interface has a bidirectional data bus. This bus changes the data to
permit control of the PVIS from the CPMS.
Multipurpose Disk Drive Unit (MDDU)

o
This permits flight data to be up-loaded or downloaded.

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The Processor Unit uses signals from above interfaced units to calculate:
The global position of the aircraft.
The altitude of the aircraft.
The distance to the destination.
The outside air temperature.
An estimate of the time until arrival at the destination.
The total flight time.
The local time at the destination.
Figure 7 - Interfaces of PVIS

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Figure 8 - Airshow windows

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What information supplied by Passenger Visual Information System (PVIS)?
What are the systems interfaced with the processor of PVIS?

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PASSENGER INFORMATION NETWORK

The Cabin Passenger Information network is installed to provide the cabin crew with
additional cabin control and monitoring functions. This improves the productivity of the
crew and enhances the passenger service. Also it reduces the cabin organisation
workload.
The main features of the system are:
Management of all cabin related data.
Support of passenger service and passenger information.
The system is managed by Cabin Passenger Management System (CPMS) which is based
on a modular concept, in order to provide the possibility for easy extension of the system.
All CPMS devices are linked to the Cabin Passenger Management-Bus (CPMB), which
handles the communication between all CPMS units.
The CPMS is a micro-processor controlled and monitored system. It has the processing
power and storage capability. Hence it is software controlled; it provides a high degree of
cabin configuration flexibility, allowing a lot of layout combinations.
Management of Cabin Related Data
The management of cabin related data comprises the establishment of reports, checklists
and instructions for cabin crew such as:-:
Cabin configuration reports (e.g. class-divisions, video-areas, seat-lockouts)
Cabin status reports (e.g. list of faults/damage, service/maintenance data)
Pre-flight, in-flight and post-flight cabin checklists
Administration of revenue reports (e.g. headset revenues, onboard sales, dutyfree/ticket sales)
Provisioning reports (catering)
Passenger lists/information (e.g. special meals, handicapped persons,
unaccompanied children)
Library of audio/video programs
Information about the destination
Requisition of ground support
Attendant flight reports
Information of the cabin crew by the ground base (via ACARS) and vice versa
Support of Passenger Service and Passenger Information
It comprises the subsequent features:
Information of connecting flights
Arrival information (e.g. time, destination, gate)
Indication of flight information via the integrated Passenger Visual
Information-System (PVIS) (e.g. flight route, air data)
Communication service (via ACARS) for reservation (e.g. airline, car, hotel)

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Cabin Passenger Management System (CPMS) Components

The CPMS comprises:
Cabin Passenger Management-Unit (CPMU).
CPMS Management Terminal (CMT).
Cabin Passenger Management-Bus (CPMB) with tapping connectors.
Cabin Passenger Management-Unit (CPMU)
The CPMU is the main controller to transmit formatted data to CPMS components and
also monitors their performances.
The CPMU serves as a file server and an interface buffer box for all external interfaces. It
has the capability to distribute all buffered data and video signals to the CMT for further
processing.
It is interfaced with other system computers using ARINC 429 bus to get related
information and visa- versa. .
CPMS Management Terminal (CMT)
The CMT, is a 80386DX/25MHz-PC with a Disk Operating System (DOS) and a colour
graphics LCD screen.
The CMT is the central unit of the CPMS and acts as the cabin crew main-workstation.
Cabin Passenger Management Bus (CPMB)
All CPMS units are connected to the CPMB, which contains a power line and 3 twistedshielded data lines. The 3 data lines are used for the data transfer between the
connected CPMS units. At the end of the CPMB a termination connector is installed to
for correct termination of the bus.
Figure 9 - CPMU

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What are the advantages of having the Cabin Passenger Information network system in
modern aircraft?
What are the information provided by Cabin Passenger Information network to the cabin
crew?
What are the components used on the Cabin Passenger Management System?

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INFORMATION SYSTEM INTRODUCTION

The information system is a new concept used in the modern aircraft to communicate
within the aircraft and between ground stations using data links. These systems manage
the data links and provide uplink and downlink messages. They may be controlled either
automatically or manually.
The Information Systems can be divided as follows:
Cockpit Information Systems (CIS).
o
Air Traffic and Information Management System (ATIMS).

Air Traffic Control (ATC).
Airline Information Services -Airline Operational Control (AOC)
applications.
o Future Air Navigation System (FANS).

Maintenance Information System.
Figure 10 - Information System

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COCKPIT INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Up to now, flight crew are using HF and VHF voice communications systems to
communicate with air traffic controllers which are subject to atmospheric disturbances
and so, often difficult to understand.
Furthermore, the transmission networks become saturated due to increase of air traffic,
and to the limited capability to exchange complex data (routes, weather information).
Consequently, the Air Traffic and Information Management System (ATIMS) has been
developed to enable datalink communications and the exchange of complex data or
specific reports between the aircraft and the ground centres such as Controller-Pilot
Data Link Communications (CPDLC) (HF voice in backup) for air traffic management,
automatic reporting (position, intention) for air traffic surveillance.
Air Traffic and Information Management System (ATIMS)

ATIMS communicates via a datalink and the exchange of complex data or specific reports
between the aircraft and the ground centres. It automatically reports aircraft position for
air traffic surveillance and specific airline-aircraft communications (operational control)
to reduce airline operational costs and to improve operational flexibility.
ATIMS Architecture combines Communication, Navigation Surveillance systems together
via datalinks which allows the airspace to be used efficiently.
Communication
ATIMS extensive use of data communications, between aircraft and the airline and
between aircraft and Air Traffic Control (ATC).
These communications are available via VHF Data Radio (VDR), HF Data Radio (HFDR)
or via SATCOM for remote areas such as oceanic zones.
From ground, the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS)
network dispatches the data; therefore VHF and HF voice communications are used as a
backup.
Navigation
The navigation devices include Multi Mode Receiver (MMR), a receiver which integrates
ILS and GPS functions in a single unit. The MMR is also able to receive Microwave
Landing System (MLS) or Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) signals.
The Flight Management System (FMS) uses the data provided by MMR and other
conventional navigational aids. It improves the dimensional navigation accuracy (Lat.,
Long., Alt., time) and the aircraft is able to navigate in all airspace and any part of the
world.
Further, to enhance the airspace use, a Required Navigation Performance (RNP) concept
has been developed inside FMS. This concept defines the capability an aircraft must have
to navigate in a given airspace area.

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Surveillance
For surveillance, the concept of Automatic Dependant Surveillance (ADS) has been
developed. With ADS, an aircraft automatically transmits its position (and other data
relevant to trajectory and weather) to the ATC via VDR, HFDR or SATCOM.
Figure 11 - ATIMS Architecture
ATIMS Components
ATIMS consists of following components: Air Traffic Service Unit (ATSU).
Data Control and Display unit (DCDU).
ATC MSG illuminated pushbutton switches.
ATSU RESET switch.
Figure 12 - ATIMS Components

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Air Traffic Service Unit (ATSU)

The ATSU is the main component of the system. The ATSU uses the data transparent
protocol, defined in ARINC 429 Specification, when it communicates with the on-board
avionics systems to provide system information to ground station as well as to flight
crew.
These datalink applications concern operations related to the flight such as flight plans,
weather and behaviour of aircraft elements transmitted for maintenance reasons, fuel
quantity, personnel management, gate management etc...
The ATSU case (hardware) has minimum software and enables the uploading of the
following software through the Multipurpose Disk Drive Unit (MDDU) or the portable
data loader.
Figure 13 - ATSU
Data Control and Display unit (DCDU)

The information is displayed on the Data Control and Display unit (DCDU). It is managed
by the ATSU which processes and organises the data in the screen pages to be displayed.
The ATSU transmits display information to the DCDUs via the ARINC 429 high-speed
bus.
The DCDUs are dedicated to the ATC applications. They provide the flight crew with
display capabilities and control means, allowing the display of messages received from
ATC ground centre and the sending of answer and messages to the ground centre.
The ATSU/DCDU interface fulfils the following functions:
Display function.
Recall function.
Flight crew response function.
Initialisation function.
BITE function composed of DCDU test, error report, DCDU status report and
LRU identification functions.
Up to twenty nine messages are filed in the DCDU message file in chronological order.
The oldest message is the message number one.
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If the message file capacity is reached, the amber message FILE FULL is displayed in
the information area of the DCDU.
When an urgent or distress message is received, it is automatically displayed on the
DCDU.
Figure 14 - Data Control Display Unit
ATC MSG illuminated pushbutton switches

ATC MSG illuminated pushbutton switches provide the flight crew with a visual alert in
case of ATC message reception with an alert. Normally these switches are mounted on
the either sides of the glareshield panel. By pressing these pushbutton switches, the
alerts can be cancelled.
Some aircraft have aural attention getter "RING" tones on the loudspeakers.
Figure 15 - ATC MSG Pushbutton Switches

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ATSU RESET switch

ATSU Reset switch is to reset the Air Traffic Service Unit (ATSU) if required.
Figure 16 - ATSU reset switch
Other components interfaced with ATIMS

The ATIMS System is interfaced with the following peripherals units:
Central Maintenance System (CMS)
The ATSU is connected to the CMCs for maintenance purposes. The system BITE is
ensured by the ATSU. The ATSU/CMC interface supports exchanges of ARINC 619
messages related to the application hosted in the CMC. These messages are CMC
downlink reports or CMC uplink requests.
The ATSU sends status information to the CMCs concerning the availability of the
datalink communication with the ground and between ATSU and CMC. Also it sends the
part number and the software number of each component of the ATIMS system (ATSU
hardware case, ATSU loaded software...) to the CMCs.
It acquires A/C configuration parameters from the CMC pin programming to know
whether the optional systems (SDU, HFDR1, DMU, Cabin Terminals) are installed on
aircraft or not, also the Aircraft Registration Number (ARN) and Flight Number
mandatory for the air/ground communication functions.
Flight Management Guidance Envelope Computer (FMGEC)
FMGEC interface with ATSU to get flight management information acquired by ATSU
such as origin/destination airports, flight numbers fuel on-board.. It exchanges of
ARINC 619 messages for AOC remote application and for this ATSU acts like a router.
Communication systems
The system interfaces with VHF Data Radio (VHR), HF Data Radio (HFDR) and Satellite
Data Unit (SDU) via Radio Management Panel (RMP) to communicate with ground in data
and voice modes. Typically this interface is in accordance with ARINC 750 specifications.

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Flight Warning System

The FWCs are used to generate warning indications to the crew such as internal ATSU
alarm datalink alarm and communication system alarm, according to the flight phase
inhibition and the priority level.
The ATC MSG illuminated pushbutton switches use signal from FWCs to provide the
flight crew with a visual alert in case of ATC message reception.
Aircraft Condition Monitoring System (ACMS)
ACMS provides engine reports or APU reports to ATSU to be used as downlink reports
Clock
The clock provides the ATSU with date and time.
Multipurpose Control and Display Units (MCDU)
ATIMS uses the Multipurpose Control and Display Units (MCDU) for maintenance and
application purposes in addition to the DCDUs.
The MCDUs give access to specific Air Traffic Control (ATC) system pages in order to
enter parameters, justify responses and elaborate messages.
They perform the following functions:
Preparation and modification of all the messages initiated by the crew.
Justifications to negative replies or to a particular request.
Editing of text.
Configuration of applications (activation/initialization).
Configuration of systems (ATSU management, automatic or on-request
printing).
Figure 17 MCDU and DCDU

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Data Loading System

The ATSU uses the Data Loading System services for core application software and
database uploading. The loading can be done through a portable data loader or the
MDDU with the data loader selector switch on ATSU position.
Printer/ATIMS Interface
The ATSU acquires the printer status to determine whether it is operational or not.
Landing Gear/ATIMS Interface
The ATSU receives information from the Landing Gear Control Interface Unit (LGCIU) to
determine whether the aircraft is on ground or in flight
Cabin Terminals
The Cabin Terminals are composed of the Passenger Flight Information System (PFIS)
and the Cabin Passenger Management System (CPMS).
This interface supports for both systems the exchange of ARINC 619 messages hosted in
the Cabin Terminals. The Cabin Terminals host use the ATSU as an ACARS router.
Figure 18 ATIMS Components and Interfaced Units

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How does the modern aircraft communicate within the aircraft and ground stations)?
What are the systems integrated in the Air Traffic and Information Management System
(ATIMS)?
What are the components consist in the Air Traffic and Information Management System
(ATIMS)?
What is the purpose of Data Control and Display unit (DCDU)?

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ATIMS Functions
The concept of Communication Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) covers the main
evolutions of the way the airspace will be used in the years to come.
Using CNS concepts ATIMS provides:
Air Traffic Control
Airline Operational Control
Air Traffic Control Function

Air Traffic Control includes: CPDLC application for data link communications.
Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) application for the aircraft path
surveillance.
ATS facility Notification (AFN) application.
Also, ATIMS provides Airline Information Services which include the standard Airline
Operational Control (AOC) applications. These data link applications are used by the
airline for maintenance, flight operation and administrative purposes.
Figure 19 - ATIMS Functions

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CPDLC Application
The aim of this application is to provide dialog between ATC controllers and flight crew,
using datalink communication instead of voice communications.
Each CPDLC message is made up of a set of message elements which correspond to the
existing phraseology used by current ATC procedures.
The uplink and downlink messages are displayed on Data Control and Display unit
(DCDU).
Figure 20 A typical message on DCDU
ADS Application
The ADS function provides the ATC ground centre with aircraft surveillance data,
navigation and position-fixing systems including aircraft identification, through specific
reports determined by an ADS agreement.
The terms of the agreement are exchanged between the ground station and the aircraft
by means of a contract or a set of contracts. There are three types of contracts:
Periodic.
Event.
On-demand.
AFN Application
The purpose of this application is to establish the contact with the ATC ground centre,
then to provide the ATC centre with the aircraft registration, the datalink applications
available on the aircraft with the corresponding addresses.

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AOC applications
The Standard Airline Operational Control (AOC) applications are datalink applications
used by the airline for maintenance, flight operations and administrative purposes.
They are uploaded into the Air Traffic Services Unit (ATSU) by means of software disks
and composed to meet standards of airline requirements.
There are two types of AOC applications: Remote AOC application.
Hosted AOC application.
Remote applications
For the remote AOC applications, the ATSU routes data to and from AOC peripherals.
This routing is in charge of receiving ground messages and routing them to the right
AOC peripheral and acquiring messages or reports from these peripherals and sending
them to the ground.
The remote AOC applications are integrated with:
Flight Management, Guidance and Envelope Computers (FMGECs).
Central Maintenance Computers (CMCs).
Aircraft Condition Monitoring System (ACMS).
Cabin Management Terminals.
The CMCs, FMGECs, ACMS DMU and Cabin Terminals are named as remote AOC
peripherals.
Hosted applications
The hosted applications depend on airline definition and uploaded into the ATSU. These
applications include standard and customised functions. The main functions are:
Receiving the airline uplink messages and routing them to the corresponding
remote AOC peripheral.
Acquiring the downlink messages from the remote AOC peripherals and
sending them to the ground according to the airline routing policy.
The main ground users of these applications are the Airline maintenance centre, the
Airline flight operations and passenger services.

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Future Air Navigation System (FANS)

The air transport industry has developed a new concept for air traffic management that
involves significant changes to airplanes, infrastructure, and ground systems. This
system is known as Future Air Navigation System, which is becoming increasingly
attractive as an option for coping more efficiently with current traffic levels, as well as
with the increased traffic levels anticipated in the future.
Operator benefits offered by FANS include reduced fuel burn and flight time through
direct routing, and increased payload capability for takeoff-weight-limited flights. If FANS
were implemented, operators would be able to take advantage of several needed
improvements:
Reduced separation between airplanes (laterally and longitudinally)
More efficient route changes.
Satellite communication.
No altitude loss when crossing tracks.
More direct routings
Figure 21 FANS Concept

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FANS Architecture
FANS is an advanced version of ATIMS which adopts an additional feature called Air
Traffic Management (ATM), and combines with Communication, Navigation and
Surveillance (CNS) systems together via datalink.
The Air Traffic Management (ATM) optimizes the use of four dimensional airspace
(including time) to improve the efficiency of airline operations and ATC.
The CNS/ATM acronym states what is behind its concept. This is expected to result in a
reduction of separations between aircraft and more generally in improved ATC routings
taking into account factors including the overall traffic, ATC restrictions or constraints.
In contrast, through a satellite data link, airplanes equipped with FANS can transmit
automatic surveillance reports with actual position and intent information at least every
one to five minutes.
The position is based on the highly accurate Global Positioning System (GPS). Digital
data communication between the flight crew and the air traffic controller drastically
reduces the possibility of error and allows greatly reduced airplane separations.
Figure 22 - FANS Architecture

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What are the functions available in the Air Traffic and Information Management System
(ATIMS)?
What are the advantages of Future Air Navigation System (FANS)?
What is the additional feature available in the Future Air Navigation System (FANS)?

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MAINTENANCE INFORMATION SYSTEMS

The Maintenance Information System is a software application designed for line
maintenance, hangar maintenance and engineering staff. It is delivered packaged by the
aircraft manufacturer with the content of Maintenance and engineering documentation.
The software application contains:
Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM).
Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC).
Trouble Shooting Manual (TSM).
Aircraft Wiring List (AWL).
Aircraft Wiring Manual (AWM).
Aircraft Schematic manuals (ASM).
Electrical Standard Practices Manual (ESPM).
Power Plant Illustrated Parts Catalogue (PIPC).
The modern aircraft these manuals are available on-board at the Maintenance Access
Terminal (MAT). The tool is part of the On-board Maintenance System (OMS) cluster.
It is capable of analysing an aircrafts fault history and consequently identifying and
prioritising preventive maintenance actions. This feature is designed to minimise pilot
reports and consequently departure delays.
The system presents enhanced search and navigation functions, based on standard
hyperlinks technology, and additional module for business function like TSP or Trouble
Shooting Package (enhanced navigation through Trouble Shooting Symptoms lists),
Dynamic Wiring (graphical tool to calculate a wire path throughout the Aircraft).
Figure 23 - Typical Maintenance Information Page

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What are the information available in the Maintenance Information System?
What are the features offered by the Maintenance Information System to the
Maintenance staff and to the Pilots?

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Instrument Systems Pitot Static (ATA-31)

Instrument Systems Gyroscope (ATA-31)

Instrument Systems Compasses (ATA 31)

Instrument Systems Other (ATA-31)

Avionic Systems Communications ATA-23)

Avionic Systems Navigation Systems (ATA-34)

Avionic Systems Autoflight (ATA-22)

On Board Maintenance Systems (ATA-45)

Integrated Modular Avionics (ATA 42)

Cabin Systems (ATA 44)

Information Systems (ATA 46)

Training Material Only

B1-11f Aeroplane Systems

To describe the nature or basic qualities of.

To state the precise meaning of (a word or sense of a word).

Specify in words or writing.

To set forth in words; declare.

To establish the identity of.

Represent in words enabling hearer or reader to form an idea of an object or

To tell the facts, details, or particulars of something verbally or in writing.

Make known in detail.

Offer reason for cause and effect.

Training Material Only

B1-11f Aeroplane Systems

AC 43.13-1B/ AC 43.13-2A Combined Aircraft Inspection and Repair

Avionic systems Operation and Maintenance, James W. Wasson

Training Material Only

B1-11f Aeroplane Systems

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Training Material Only

B1-11f Aeroplane Systems

Instrument Systems Pitot Static (ATA 31)

Instrument Systems Gyroscopic (ATA 31)

Identify the following gyroscopic instruments, state their purpose and

Instrument Systems Compasses (ATA 31)

Instrument Systems Other (ATA 31)

B1-11f Aeroplane Systems

Avionic Systems Communications (ATA 23)

Define the fundamentals of aircraft communication systems and identify

Avionic Systems Navigation Systems (ATA 34)

Fundamentals of operation of aircraft navigation systems and identify typical

Avionic Systems Autoflight (ATA 22)

Define the fundamentals of operation of aircraft auto flight systems and

Training Material Only

B1-11f Aeroplane Systems

B1-11.f Aeroplane Systems-Instruments

TOPIC 11.5.1.1: INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS- PITOT STATIC (ATA 31)

Issue B: January 2008

B1-11.5.1.1: Instrument Systems- Pitot Static (ATA 31)

B1-11.f Aeroplane Systems-Instruments

Issue B: January 2008

B1-11.5.1.1: Instrument Systems- Pitot Static (ATA 31)

B1-11.f Aeroplane Systems-Instruments

Issue B: January 2008

B1-11.5.1.1: Instrument Systems- Pitot Static (ATA 31)

B1-11.f Aeroplane Systems-Instruments

Issue B: January 2008

B1-11.5.1.1: Instrument Systems- Pitot Static (ATA 31)

B1-11.f Aeroplane Systems-Instruments

Issue B: January 2008