Soil Stabilization

Group 9- Saurav Bhattacharjee, Rajneesh Bahari, Satyendra Kumar Patel, Utkash Bajpai &
Pushpendra
A seminar report submitted for the evaluation of project titled Soil Stabilization as a part of the
semester course work of CE661A

Introduction:
Soil stabilization is alteration of soil to modify its properties like compressibility, shrink-swell
behavior, volume changes and to improve its strength and durability. Stabilization can be done by
various methods like mechanical stabilization, addition of admixtures, chemical stabilization.
Chemical stabilization of soil can be done through cement, lime, fly-ash, bitumen or their various
combinations. Nowadays, polymer-stabilization and electrical stabilization have also been
introduced to serve special purposes.
When soil absorbs significant amount of water, it falls prey deformation and erosion. On the
other hand, if it cannot support certain static or dynamic load, it also deforms. Therefore, soil
stabilization includes processes for making soil incompressible and impermeable to certain limit.
If the soil is to behave as a good base for road or building, it has to be stable. Impermeability can
be supported by some mechanical measures, but fully accomplished by chemical ones.
Incompressibility can be achieved by physical or chemical improvements of soil or both. Hence,
types of soil stabilization can be divided into mechanical and chemical processes.

Mechanical Stabilization
Mechanical types of soil stabilization include physical measures for soil improvement (most
utilized are drainage and compression). There are four different mechanisms of compression,
i. Vibration
ii. Impact
iii. Kneading and ,
iv. Pressure.
These different types of soil stabilization are found in the two principle types of compaction
forces:
1. Static compaction uses deadweight of the machine as downward force on the soil surface.
To alter the intensity of compactive force, weight of the machine has to be decreased or

increased. Static compression is only applied to upper soil layers.

2.

Vibratory compaction uses engine-driven mechanism for applying downward force in

addition to the machines static weight.

Mechanism of these is in the form of rotating eccentric weight or piston/spring combination that
enforces rapid sequence of impacts to the surface. Drainage involves underground systems of
pipes and pumps to extract extra water from soil. Common drainage methods are well-point
systems, deep-well drainage, vacuum dewatering, dewatering by electro-osmosis, etc.

Chemical Stabilization
Following are the various chemical soil stabilization methods and materials:
1. Soil Stabilization with Cement:
The soil stabilized with cement is known as soil cement. The cementing action is relied on to be
the result of chemical reactions of cement with siliceous soil during hydration reaction. The vital
factors controlling the soil-cement are nature of soil content, conditions of mixing, compaction,
curing and admixtures applied.
The appropriate proportions of cement needed for different types of soils may be as follows:

Gravels 5 to 10%

Sands 7 to 12%

Silts 12 to 15%, and

Clays 12 20%

The quantity of cement for a compressive strength of 25 to 30 kg/cm2 should usually be

sufficient for warmer climate for soil stabilization.
If the layer of soil having surface area of A (m2), thickness H (cm) and dry density rd (tonnes/m3),
has to be stabilized with p % of cement by weight on the basis of dry soil, cement mixture will
be,

100 p
100+ p
and, the amount of cement required (in units of tonnes) for soil stabilization is given by,

AH r d
p
(
)
100 100+ p

( )

Lime, calcium chloride, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) and fly ash are some of the
additives commonly used with cement for cement stabilization of soil.
2. Soil Stabilization using Lime:
Slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) is proven to be very effective in treating heavy plastic clayey
soils. Lime may be used singly or in combination with cement, bitumen or fly ash. Sandy
soils can also be stabilized with these combinations. Lime, till date, has been mainly used
for stabilizing the road bases and subgrade.
Lime changes the nature of the adsorbed layer and results in pozzolanic action. Plasticity
index of highly plastic soils are reduced by the addition of lime with soil. There is a
substantial increase in the optimum water content and a decrease in the maximum
compacted density and the strength and durability of the soil increases.
Normally 2 to 8% of lime may be required for coarse grained soils and 5 to 8% of lime is
required for plastic soils. The amount of fly ash as admixture may vary from 8 to 20% of
the weight of the soil.
3. Soil Stabilization With Bitumen:
Asphalts and tars are bituminous materials which are used for stabilization, generally for
construction of pavements. Bituminous materials when added to a soil, it induces both cohesion
and reduced water absorption. Depending upon these actions and the nature of soils, bitumen
stabilization is classified in following types:

Sand bitumen stabilization

Soil Bitumen stabilization

Water proofed mechanical stabilization, and

Oiled earth.

4. Other chemicals used:

Calcium chloride (CaCl2) being hygroscopic and deliquescent is used as a water retentive
additive in mechanically stabilized soil bases and surfacing. The vapor pressure gets

lowered, surface tension increases and rate of evaporation is lowered. The freezing point
of pure water gets lowered and it results in prevention or decline of frost heave.
The depressing the electric double layer, the salt reduces the water pick up and hence the
loss of strength of fine grained soils. Calcium chloride acts as a soil flocculent and
facilitates compaction. Frequent application of calcium chloride may be necessary to
make up for the loss of chemical by leaching action. For the salt to be well effective, the
relative humidity of the atmosphere should be above 30%.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the other chemical that can be used for this purpose with a
stabilizing action similar to that of calcium chloride.
Sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) is yet another chemical used for this purpose in combination
with other chemicals such as calcium chloride, polymers, chrome lignin (CLS-chrome
lignosulphate), alkyl chlorosilanes (HSiCl3, H2SiCl2, SiCl4), siliconites (CH6NaO3Si),
amines and quarternary ammonium salts, sodium hexametaphosphate ((NaPO 3)6),
phosphoric acid combined with a wetting agent. [3]

Some Special Methods

Polymer-Stabilization:
Polymers are large molecules which consist of long hydrocarbon chains. They are easily
modified, which results in potentially endless combinations of polymers. This results in
production of polymers with various properties. Therefore, polymers are used in different
industries. Various polymers have been proposed for polymer-soil stabilization, including
cationic, anionic, and non-ionic polymers. Most chemical stabilizers react with soil in one or
two ways: specific chemical reactions occur between soil particles and stabilizer, or the
stabilizer physically stabilizes through the use of binding agents. Polymers fall into the
second category.
The most commonly used polymer soil stabilization methods nowadays are applications of
vinyl acetate or acrylic based copolymers. These polymer emulsions usually consist of 4050% solid particles by weight of emulsion. Both vinyl acetate and the acrylic copolymers are
hydrophobic and showed moderate bonding efficiency in a range of soils in different case
studies. The optimum quantity resulted when polymer was added at rates high enough to
sufficiently coat all soil particle surfaces, but at rates low enough so that there is zero
additional particle separation.
Studies regarding polymer soil stabilization showed that polymer based stabilizers gained
strength over a lesser period of time than traditional ones in various soils. Soil treatment with
polymers provides highly improved strength and durability. [2]
Electrical-Stabilization:
Electrical stabilization of cohesive soil is done using a process known as Electro-osmosis. A
direct current (D.C.) is supplied through the clayey soil to migrate pore water to negative
electrode (cathode). The strength of such soil is increased significantly as water is removed
from it.

Cations (positive ions) are formed in pore water when the dissolved minerals enter into
solution. These cations move towards the negatively charged surface of clay minerals to
satisfy the electrical charge. As the water molecules act as dipoles, the cations also attract the
negative end of dipoles. When the cations move to the cathode, they take with them the
attached water molecules. The cathode is a well-point which collects the water, has to be
drained from the soil and discharges the water as in a conventional well-point system.
This method should be used only in exceptional cases when other method cannot be used. It
is normally used to drain water in a cohesive soil of low permeability (k= 10-5 to 10-8 m/sec).
[1]

Figure 1: Electrical Stabilization of Soil by Osmosis [1]

Soil Stabilization by Grouting

In this method, stabilizers are injected into the soil. This is not useful for clayey soils for their
low permeability, but suitable for stabilizing buried zones of relatively limited extent. This is
a costly method for soil stabilization. The grouting techniques can be classified as following:
[3]

Clay grouting

Chemical grouting

Chrome lignin grouting

Polymer grouting, and

Bituminous grouting

Soil Stabilization by Geo-textiles and Geo-fabrics

Geotextiles are porous fabrics made of synthetic materials such as polyethylene, polyester,
nylons and polyvinyl chloride. Woven, non-woven and grid form varieties of geotextiles are
available. Geotextiles have a high strength. When properly embedded in soil, it contributes to
its stability. It is used in the construction of unpaved roads over soft soils. Reinforcing the
soil for stabilization by metallic strips into it and providing an anchor or tie back to restrain a
facing skin element. [3]

Literature Review
Focus Area
Lime stabilization of
clay minerals and
soils [4]
(Montmorillonite,
Kaolinite)

Scientist Name
F.G. Bell (1996)

Stabilization of
residual soil with rice
husk ash (RHA) and
cement

E.A. Basha, R.
Hashim,
H.B. Mahmud,
A.S. Muntohar
(2005)

Stabilisation of
clayey soils with
high calcium fly ash
and cement

S. Kolias, V.
KasselouriRigopoulou, A.
Karahalios
(2005)

Findings
i. Till the lime fixation point, calcium ions initially
are combined with or adsorbed by clay minerals.
ii. Initial addition of lime contributes towards the
improvement of soil workability but not to an
increase in strength.
iii. Plastic limits of kaolinitic clays change to a
lesser extent than compared to montmorillonitic
clays.
iv. The addition of lime after lime fixation point
increases the strength of clay materials. The
response of Montmorillonitic clays is much more
rapid prior to lime stabilization, and so exhibit
earlier gains in strength than do kaolinitic clays.
v. The strength of soils is considerably enhanced by
the addition of lime. The optimum gain in strength
appears to be with 4-6% lime.
i. Cement and RHA reduce the plasticity of residual
soil. A considerable reducing is attained by cementstabilized soils.
ii. A decrement is seen in the Maximum Dry Density
of cement-stabilized residual soil with the increase
in cement content. By adding RHA and cement, the
Optimum Moisture Content is increased steeply.
iii. CBR value increment corresponds to the increase
in cement content. The maximum CBR of value as
much as 60% is found at combination of 4% cement
and 5% RHA.
i. The potential benefits that are outcomes of
stabilising clayey soils with the help of high calcium
fly ash depend on the type of soil, age and the
amount of stabilizing agent.
ii. A further addition of cement after high calcium
fly ash provides better setting and hardening and the
combination of these two binders can increase the
early along with the increase in final strength of the
stabilised material.

Behaviour of
cement-stabilized
fiber-reinforced fly
ash-soil mixtures

Shenbaga R.
Kaniraj, and
Vasant G.
Havanagi
(2001)

Engineering
Behavior of a Sand
Reinforced with
Plastic Waste

Nilo Cesar
Consoli, Julio
Portella
Montardo, Pedro
Domingos
Marques Prietto,
and Giovana
Savitri Pasa
(2002)

Investigation of
recycled gypsum in
conjunction with
waste plastic trays
for ground
improvement

Aly Ahmed,
Keizo Ugai,
Takeshi Kamei
(2011)

Modification of
clayey soils using
scrap tire rubber and
synthetic fibers

Suat Akbulut,
Seracettin
Arasan, Ekrem
Kalkan

Influence of soil type

on stabilization with
cement kiln dust

Gerald A. Miller,
Shahriar Azad

iii. Some of the mechanical properties namely

strength (compressive, tensile and flexural),
modulus of elasticity and CBR are enhanced
considerably.
i. The fly ash-soil specimens compacted at the
Maximum Dry Density-Optimum Moisture Content
state exhibit brittle behaviour in unconfined
compression tests.
ii. The brittle behaviour in cement-stabilized
specimens is more noticed than in unstabilized
specimens. In both instances to ductile behaviour the
fiber inclusions change the behaviour.
i. The soil behaviour changes from ductile to a
noticeably brittle one. The increment in the values of
peak friction angle and the cohesive intercept is
noticeable by the cement content.
ii. The unconfined compressive strength and the
tensile strength were significantly increased by fiber
reinforcement of the cemented sand. The effect of
fiber being included on these properties was more
pronounced for the lowest cement content, but was
found to be independent of the fiber length.
i. Increasing of recycled gypsum content in soil
mixture is correlated with the insignificant increase
in dry unit & increase in the optimum moisture
content.
ii. With the increase of recycled gypsum content in
soil mixture the compressive and splitting strengths
increased. The gypsum waste plasterboard in ground
improvement had a more significant effect on the
compressive strength as it is compared to the
splitting tensile strength.
i. Tire rubber and synthetic fibers increased the
cohesion values. The maximum cohesion values
were observed for 10-mm long fibers. The value of
internal friction angle value is increased in a nonlinear way for each reinforced sample.
ii. The damping ratio and shear modulus were
increased by tire rubber, polyethylene, and
polypropylene fibers. The maximum values were
observed for 2% tire rubber fibers having length 10mm length, polypropylene fibers of 15 mm and,
0.2% polyethylene.
i. There is potential for the significant decrease in PI
and increase soil strength in a comparable short time
after the addition of CKD.

(CKD)

ii. The addition of CKD brings rapid increments in

the unconfined compressive strength for 7 to 14
days after compaction, and more slowly thereafter.
iii. With the increasing amounts of CKD, the
optimum moisture content and maximum dry unit
weight, increase and decrease, respectively.

Problem Identification
Problems in lime and cement stabilized soils
Sulphate attack leads to formation of ettringite which causes up-heaving in the stabilized soils
due to volume change. Therefore, before the application of cement and lime stabilization
techniques, the nature of sulphates present in the soils, soillime reactions, mechanisms involved
in ettringite formation (delitritious reaction) and its related problems should be understood.. It is
necessary to understand the various processes of sulphate attack causing the failures so that
suitable protective measures could be taken in time. Ettringite formation has adverse effect on
the engineering behavior of lime and cement treated clays.

Sulphate in soils
The presence of sulphates in the ground or mixing water may affect the cation exchange,
pozzolanic reactions of cement and lime treated soil systems. The above reactions depend on
type and concentration of metal ions present, and availability of alumina and silica that can
influence the engineering behavior of soil with time. Sulphates are present in the surface
sediments, more so in regions of limited rainfall from sodium (thenardite, NaSO4 (10H2O),
potassium (arcanite, K2SO4) and calcium (gypsum or selenite, CaSO4.2 (H2O) and magnesium,
(MgSO4. (7H2O).

Soillime-sulphate reactions
Limesoil reactions can be classified into short term and long term reactions. Short term
reactions include flocculation, lime migration, pH and cation exchange reactions and
carbonation, and above reactions affect the physical properties of the soil system such as
Atterberg limits and particle size distribution. The long term pozzolanic reactions include the
formation of various new reaction products, which result in the growth of aggregates and affect
the strength and compressibility of clays. The anions of sulphates combine with the available
calcium and alumina, and form insoluble ettringite in the soil system. The formation of ettringite
increases the porosity and simultaneously decreases the free moisture content during ettringite
nucleation and its subsequent growth. A simplified geochemical reaction reported by Hunter
(1988) for lime induced heave reactions can be summarized as follows:

CaO+H 2 O=Ca ( OH )2

Hydration of quicklime


2++2(OH)

Ca(OH)2=Ca

Ionization of calcium hydroxide; pH rises to 12.3

2
OH 6

S O4 3 .26 H 2 O
Al
2+26 H 2 O=Ca

+3(S O4 )
2++2 Al ( OH )3 +4 OH
6 Ca
Formation of ettringite

Precautionary or remedial measures

The preventive measures to be adopted to prevent ettringite formation in lime and cement
stabilized clays are given below.
1) The use of sulphate resisting cement limits available quantity of alumina for ettringite
formation. Sulphate resistance of concrete can be achieved by using low permeability
concrete, cement with low calcium aluminate (C3A) and then adding admixtures such as
slag or fly ash (Rolling et al., 1999).
2) Use of admixtures such as ground blast furnace slag or fly ash with cement helps to
prevent sulphate attack on concrete (DePuy, 1994).
3) The use of industrial product like ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as a
binder with cement has been proved to increase the durability and resistant to alkali
attack, chloride and sulphate resistance with time. Partial replacement of lime with GGBS
increases the characteristics of limegypsum treated soils. The addition of GGBS and
lime successfully controls the material plasticity and its expansion potential in lime
treated soils (Wild et al., 1998). Proper control should to be taken to ensure that the
amount of lime added is sufficient to stabilize the soil, and no excess lime should be
available. Substitution of lime with an industrial by-product, GGBS reduces soils
swelling potential of soils containing gypsum.
4) Barium chloride reduces the swelling characteristics of lime treated calcium bentonite.
(Raja (1990). The addition of barium compounds prior to lime treatment was reported by

Ferris et al. (1991). The use of barium hydroxide in limekaolinitesulphate mixture

eliminates the ettringite formation (Tsatsos and Dermatas) (1998).
5) Addition of lithium salts and application of double lime method are some of the
protective measures proposed by researchers (Mitchell and Dermatas, 1992; Petry and
Little, 1992; McCallister and Tidwell, 1997). In the case of double lime application
method, first lime and soil are mixed with water, stockpiled for one month (for the
completion of ettringite formation) and then proceed with usual stabilization method such
as placement, compaction and curing. Thus, there is depletion of sulphate and alumina,
which results in the earlier formation of ettringite in lime or cement treated soils and
prevent heaving conditions after placing at site.
6) Ettringite formation can be prevented by providing very good surface drainage and utility
trenches with impermeable synthetic liners along the slope and construction joints and
adequately sealing the stabilized base.

Discussion/Proposal
References
1. http://civil-engg-world.blogspot.in/2008/12/electrical-stabilization-of-soil.html,
04.04.2016.
2. https://globalroadtechnology.com/polymer-soil-stabilization/, 03.04.2016.
3. http://theconstructor.org/geotechnical/soil-stabilization-methods-and-materials/9439/,
04.04.2016.
4. Bell, F.G., Lime Stabilization of clays, Engineering Geology, Elsevier, Vol. 42, Issue 4,
July 1996, pp. 223-237.
5. Basha, E. A. et al., Stabilization of residual soil with rice husk ash and cement,
Construction and Building Materials, Elsevier, Vol. 19, Issue 6, July 2005, pp 448-453.
6. Kolias, S. et al., Stabilization of clayey soils with high calcium fly ash and cement,
Cement and Concrete Composites, Elsevier, Vol. 27, Issue 2, February 2005, pp. 301-313.
7. Kaniraj, S. and Havanagi, V. (2001). "Behaviour of Cement-Stabilized Fiber-Reinforced
Fly Ash-Soil Mixtures." Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
Vol. 127, Issue 7, July 2001, pp. 574-584.
8. Consoli, N. et al., "Engineering Behavior of a Sand Reinforced with Plastic Waste."
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Volume 128, Issue 6 (June
2002), pp. 462-472.

9. Ahmed, A. et al., Investigation of recycled gypsum in conjunction with waste plastic

trays for ground improvement, Construction and Building Materials, Elsevier, Vol. 25,
Issue 1, January 2001, pp. 208-217.
10. Akbulul, S. et al., Modification of clayey soils using scrap tire rubber and synthetic
fibers, Applied Clay Science, Elsevier, Vol. 38, Issue 1-2, December 2007, pp. 23-32.
11. Miller, G. A., Azad, S., Influence of Soil Type on Stabilization with Cement Kiln Dust,
Construction and Building Materials, Elsevier, Vol. 14, Issue 2, June 2000, pp. 89-97.