Spring 2016, Assignment

Program
Semester
Subject code & Name
Credit
BK ID
Max. Marks

BCA(Revised Fall 2012)

4
BCA 4010 Computer Networking
4
B0956
60
Roll no. 1408001877

Name: Naveen Tirthani

Q1. > What is an OSI model? Explain all its layers with diagram.
A1. > Data Communication model was used before 1990s. In 1990s open
system Interconnection (OSI) was used. Later TCP/ IP protocol suit has been
developed such that it was easy to use and efficient to other. Established in
1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multination body
dedicated to worldwide arrangement in International standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network communication is the OSI model,
which was first introduced in 1970s.

Open System: A set of protocols that allow any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
Purpose of OSI Model: It shows hot to facilitate communication between
different systems without requiring changes to the logic of underlying
hardware and software.
The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and
designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
The OSI Model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems. It consist of
seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across the network.
The figure below shows the layers involved when a message is sent from
device A to device B. As the message travels from one device to another, it
may pass through several intermediate nodes or devices. These intermediate
nodes or device usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model
In OSI model transmission if data is easy. The various functions made as
groups and considered as layers. Each layer specifies some rules where each
adjacent layer should obey while communicating each other. In a single
machine each layer will communicate with each other by giving the services

and each machine will communicate with each other by set of rules called as
protocols.

Peer-to-Peer Processes
The peer to peer process communication is nothing but its direct
communication between two systems through physical layer. Assume that
peer A wanted communicate with peer B then higher layer A should
communicate with lower layer then pass to B in B it should communicate
with lower to higher then understand the message. At layer 1 the entire
package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving
device. At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer,
with each process receiving and removing the data meant for it. Here
unwrapping is nothing but removing the header information added by each
layer should be removed for further processing of data packets.

Interfaces between Layers.

Layers are more responsible for data packet transmission. Responsibility here
referred as functionality or services given by each layer. Each layer contains
set of rule for the functionality or services given by each layer. Each layer

contains set of rule for functionality under network. Services are given by
layers in both sides that is receiver and transmitter end.

Layer Organization
The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers
1,2, and 3 are the network support layers; they deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device to another. Layers 5, 6 and 7 can be
thought of as user support layers; they allow interoperability among
unrelated software systems.
Layer 4 links two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have
transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI layers
are almost always implemented in software, except for the physical layer
which is mostly implemented in hardware.

Layers in the OSI model

1. Physical Layer: This layer coordinates the functions required to carry
a bit stream over a physical medium. It deals with the electrical and
mechanical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It
defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
2. Data Link Layer: This layer transforms the physical layer, a raw
transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes the physical layer
appears error-free to the upper layer (to the Network layer). It is also
responsible for other functions such as framing, error control, flow
control, physical addressing, and access control mechanisms.
3. Network Layer: This layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). The
Data Link Layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two
systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that
each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two
systems are attached to the same link, there is no need for the
network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Other
responsibilities of the Network layer include logical addressing, and
routing.
4. Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for the process-to-process
delivery of the entire message. A process is an application program
running on the host. The Network layer oversees the source-todestination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize the
relationship between those packets. It treats each packet
independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message,
whether or not it does, The Transport layer, also ensures that the whole

message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error and flow
control at the source-to-destination level.
5. Session Layer: This layer acts as the network dialog controller. It
establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
6. Presentation Layer: This layer is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. The
specific responsibilities of this layer include Translation, Encryption,
and Compression.
7. Application Layer: This layer enables the user, whether human or
software to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support
for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer,
shared database management, and other types of distributed
information services. Specific services offered by the Application layer
include: Provision of Network Virtual terminals, File transfer, access,
and management, mail services, and directory services.

Data Transmission in OSI model

Under transmission data packets start from application layer to
physical layer both from sender to receiver side, each layer contributes
the rule like attaching its own formatted header to data packet and
forwards. The presentation layer may transform this item in various
ways, where they are actually transmitter to the receiving machine. On
the machine various header are stripped off one by one as the
message propagates up the layers until it finally arrives at the
receiving process/
The key idea throughout is although actual data transmission is
vertical, each layer is programmed as though it were really horizontal.

Q2. > What is Message and Packet switching?

A2. > Message switching was the precursor of packet switching, where
messages were routed in their entity, and one hop at time. Message
switching systems are nowadays mostly implemented over packet-switched
or circuit-switched data networks. Each message is treated as a separate
entity. Each message contains addressing information, and at each switch
this information is read and the transfer path to the next switch is decided.
Depending on network conditions, a conversation of several messages may
not be transferred over the same path. Each message is stored before being
transmitted to the next switch. Because of this it is also known as store-andforward network. Email is a common application for message switching. A
delay in delivering email is allowed, unlike real-time data transfer between
two computers.
Packet switching is a digital networking communication method that
groups all transmitted data into suitably sized blocks, called packets, which
are transmitted via a medium that may be shared by multiple simultaneous
communication sessions. Packet switching increases network efficiency,
robustness and enables technological convergence of many applications
operating on the same network

Q3. > List the design issues related to Data Link Layer.
A3. > The higher layers of OSI model consists of sessions, Presentation and
Application layers. These upper layers are providing user-oriented services.
They take the bare-bones, error-free channel provide by the transport layer
and add additional features that are useful to a wide variety of applications,
so that the writers of these applications will not each have to re-implement
these features over and over as part of each separate program.
The Session layer is developed by ISO. During the development of OSI, there
was considerable debate about the need for a session layer. Although a
majority of ISO committee eventually decided to include a session layer, it
should be clear from the brevity of this unit that the session layer is a thin
layer, with relatively few features compared to the lower layers.

Session Layer Design Issues

The following are the design issues of the session layer:

Dialog Management
Synchronization
Activity Management

The Session layer offers services to the Presentation layer. The services are
offered through the service access points. These service access points are
called Session Service Access Points (SSAPs) and the protocol data units in
this case are called Session Protocol Data Units (SPDUs).
The main function of the session layer is to provide a way for the session
users to establish connections, called sessions, and transfer data over them
in an orderly way. A session might be used for a remote login from a terminal
to a distant computer, or for a file transfer, or for many other purposes.
Although connectionless primitives are available in the session layer, a
connectionless session cannot make any use of the user-oriented features
for which the session layer was designed. For this reason, we will focus on
the connection-oriented model.
A session bears a close resemblance to a transport connection, but the two
are not identical. Usually, when a request comes into the session layer to
establish a session, a transport connection must be established to carry the
connection. When the session is terminated, the transport connection is
released.
It is not allowed to multiplex several session onto a single transport
connection at the same time, whereas, the transport layer can multiplex
several transport connections onto a network connection. At any point of
time, each transport connection can conveys only one session.

Q4. > Briefly explain Point-to-Point Protocol.

A4. > Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a network-specific standard
protocol with STD number 51. Its status is elective, and it is described is RFC
1661 and RFC 1662. The standards defined in these RFCs were later
extended to allow IPc6 over PPP, defined in RFC 2472.
There are a large number of proposed standard protocols, which specify the
operation of PPP over different kinds of point-to-point links. Each has a status
of elective. We advise you to consult STD 1 Internet Official Protocol
Standards for a list of PPP-related RFCs that are on the Standards Track.
Point-to-point circuits in the form of asynchronous and synchronous lines
have long been the mainstay for data communications. In the TCP/IP world,
the de facto standard SLIP protocol has served admirable in this area, and is
still in widespread use for dial-up TCP/IP connections. However, SLIP has a
number of drawbacks that are addressed by the Point-to-Point Protocol.
PPP has three main components:
A method for encapsulating datagrams over serial links.

 A Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing, configuring, and testing

the data-link connection.
A family of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and
configuring different network-layer protocols. PPP is designed to allow
the simultaneous use of multiple network-layer protocols.

Q5. > Briefly explain five parts of Multipurpose Internet

Mail Extensions.
A5. > Electronic mail is probably the most widely used TCP/IP application.
However, SMTP is limited to 7-bit ASCII text, with a maximum line length of
1000 characters. MIME is a draft standard that includes mechanisms to
resolve these problems in a manner that is highly compatible with existing
RFC 2822 standards. Because mail messages are frequently forwarded
through mail gateways, it is not possible for an SMTP client to distinguish
between a server that manages the destination mailbox and one that acts as
gateway to another network. Because the mail that passes through a
gateway might be tunneled through further gateways, some or all of which
can be using a different set of messaging protocols, it is not possible in
general for a sending SMTP to determine the lowest common denominator
capability reason, MIME assumes the worst: 7-bit ASCII transport, which
might not strictly conform to or be compatible with RFC 282. It does not
define any extensions to RFC 2821, but limits itself to extensions within the
framework of RFC 2822. Therefore, a MIME message is one which can be
routed through any number of networks that are loosely compliant with RFC
2821 or are capable of transmitting RFC 2821 messages.
MIME can be described in five parts:
Protocols for including objects other than US ASCII text mail messages
within the bodies of messages conforming to RFC 2822. These are
described in RFC 2045.
General structure of the MIME media typing system, which defines and
intial set of media types. This is described is RFC 2046.
A protocol for encoding non-U.S. ASCII text in the header fields of mail
messages conforming to RFC 2822. This is described RFC 2047.
Various IANA registration procedures for MIME-related facilities. This is
described in RFC 2048
MIME conformance criteria. This is described in RFC 20410.

Q6. > Distinguish IPV4 and IPV6 addressing schemes.

A6. >

IPv4 Address

IPv6 Address

Internet address classes

IPv4 multicast addresses
(224.0.0.0/4)
Broadcast addresses : network
broadcast, subnet broadcast, allsubnets directed broadcast, limited
broadcast
Unspecified address is 0.0.0.0
Loopback address is 127.0.0.1
Public IPv4 addresses
Private IPv4 addresses (10.0.0.0/8,
172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16)
APIPA addresses (169.254.0.0/16)
Address syntax: dotted decimal
notation

Not applicable in IPv6

IPv6 multicast addresses(FF00::/8)

Address prefix syntax: prefix length

or dotted decimal(subnet mask)
notation

Not applicable in IPv6

Unspecified address is ::
Loopback address is::1
Global unicast addresses
Site-local addresses (FEC0::/10)
Link-local addresses(FECO::/64)
Address syntax: colon hexadecimal
format with suppression of leading
zeros and zero compression.
Embedded IPv4 addresses are
expressed in dotted decimal
notation.
Address prefix syntax: prefix length
notation only