PHYSICAL FACTORS:

CLIMATE
Climate is the average weather taken, usually over a 30-year time period, for a particular region. Climate is not the
same as weather, but rather, it is the average pattern of weather for a particular region. Weather, on the other
hand, describes the short-term state of the atmosphere.
Information on the local climatetemperature, insolation (solar radiation), wind, and precipitationis critically
important for the energy design of buildings. It can also be used in planning appropriate landscape plantings on a
site.
The Climate of the Philippines is *tropical and *maritime. It is characterized by relatively high temperature, high
humidity and abundant rainfall. It is similar in many respects to the climate of the countries of Central America.
Temperature, humidity, and rainfall are the most important elements of the country's weather and climate.
*tropical climate is a climate typically found within the Tropics.
*oceanic climate (also known as marine, west coast and maritime) is the climate typical of the west coasts at the
middle latitudes of continents, and generally features warm (but not hot) summers and cool (but not cold) winters,
with a relatively narrow annual temperature range.
Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country can be divided into two major seasons: (1) the
rainy season, from June to November; and (2) the dry season, from December to May. The dry season may be
subdivided further into (a) the cool dry season, from December to February; and (b) the hot dry season, from March
to May. Based on temperature, the seven warmest months of the year are from March to October; the
winter monsoon brings cooler air from November to February. May is the warmest month, and January, the coolest.
Tacloban has a tropical rainforest climate, also known as an equatorial climate and is usually (but not always) found
along the equator. Tropical rainforest climate is a type of tropical climate in which there is no dry season all
months have mean precipitation values of at least 60 millimeters (2.4 in). Tropical rainforest climates have no
pronounced summer or winter; it is typically hot and wet throughout the year and rainfall is both heavy and
frequent. One day in an equatorial climate can be very similar to the next, while the change in temperature between
day and night may be larger than the average change in temperature between "summer" and "winter".
A. Prevailing Winds
The prevailing wind is the wind that blows most frequently across a particular region. Different regions on Earth
have different prevailing wind directions which are dependent
upon the nature of the general circulation of the atmosphere
and the latitudinal wind zones. Prevailing winds are winds that
blow predominantly from a single general direction over a
particular point on the Earth's surface. The dominant winds are
the trends in direction of wind with the highest speed over a
certain point. These prevailing winds, as theyre often called,
are the result of the air being moved by convection currents
combined with the Earths rotation. In general, easterly flow
occurs at low and medium latitudes globally. In the midlatitudes, westerly winds are the rule and their strength is
largely determined by the *polar cyclone. In areas where winds
tend to be light, the sea breeze/ land breeze cycle is the most
important to the prevailing wind; in areas which have variable
terrain, mountain and valley breezes dominate the wind
pattern. Highly elevated surfaces can induce a *thermal low, which then augments the environmental wind flow.
*Polar cyclones are large areas of low pressure.
*Thermal lows, or heat lows, are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics
during the warm season, as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments.
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Wind roses are tools used to determine the direction of the prevailing wind. Knowledge of the prevailing wind
allows the development of prevention strategies for *wind erosion of agricultural land, such as across the *Great
Plains. Sand dunes can orient themselves, or perpendicular to, the prevailing wind regime within coastal and
desert locations. Insects drift along with the prevailing wind, while birds are able to fly more independently of it.
Prevailing winds in mountainous locations can lead to significant rainfall gradients within the topography, ranging
from wet across windward-facing slopes to desert-like conditions along their lee slopes.
*Great Plains is the broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, that lies west
of the Mississippi River tall grass prairie states and east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada.
*Wind erosion is a serious environmental problem attracting the attention of many across the globe. It is a
common phenomenon occurring mostly in flat, bare areas; dry, sandy soils; or anywhere the soil is loose, dry,
and finely granulated.
In general, the following prevailing winds across the Earth may
be identified, although variations arise due to the positions and
differential heating rates of the continents and oceans.
Latitude
90-60N
60-30N
30-0N
0-30S
30-60S
90-60S

Direction
NE
SW
NE
SE
NW
SE

Common Name
Polar Easterlies
Southwest Antitrades
Northeast Trades
Southeast Trades
Roaring Forties
Polar Easterlies

Wind generally blows from high pressure to low

pressure, but does not take the most direct north-south route
between the pressure belts on account of the Earth's rotation,
which deflects airflow by means of the Coriolis force: as air
moves away from the mid-latitudes toward the poles and
toward the equator, it doesnt move in a straight line relative to
the earths surface, rather, it moves in a slightly curved direction
as a result of the Earths rotation.
Prevailing winds in the Indian Oceans, for example, are
northeasterly. During the summer months however, a larger
low-pressure system develops over southern Asia due to
continental heating. Winds in this region now reverse to form
the Southwest Monsoons, which bring a prolonged wet season
to Southeast Asia and the subcontinent of India.
B. Solar Orientation
Sun Angles
Solar orientation influences three aspects of site planning: orientation of the building to control
solar heat gain or heat loss, the location of outdoor spaces and activities, and the location of the
building entries. Prior to design, the path of the sun should be located so you know its angle at
various times of the day during the seasons. In the northern hemisphere, the suns angle is lowest
on December 22 and highest on June 21. In the northern latitudes, its angle is smaller all year long
then in the southern latitudes.
During the cold months, the sun rises and sets south of an East-west line through the site, and,
depending upon the site location; during the summer it rises and sets north of the same line. On the
vernal equinox (March 21) and the autumnal equinox (September 21) it rises and sets due East and
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West. Some representative values for solar altitude (angle above the horizon) and azimuth (angle
north or South from an East-west line) are shown in Table 1 for various latitudes and cities.
The orientation of a building-that is, the direction of its length faces-has a profound effect on energy
gains and losses and on the comfort of the users. For example, for a 40-degree latitude, a southern
exposure in the cold season receives about three times the solar energy as the East and west sides,
while in the summer the east and west facades of a building receive about twice the energy as the
north and south combined.
For most northern hemisphere locations, the best overall orientation for a building is to have its
principal faade facing south or slightly east or west of south. An orientation about 25 degree east of
south is considered ideal to balance the desired heat gains in the cold season months and to
minimize the excessive heat gains on the east and west facades during the summer. Overhangs can
be used to control the sun in the summer but let it strike the building and glass areas in the cold
months for passive solar heating. See figure below. Deciduous trees can also be used to shield low
building form the sun in the summer while allowing sunlight through in the cold months.
On east and west facades, however, vertical sun baffles are more effective than overhangs because
the sun is at a lower angle during the morning and afternoon hours in the summer. Louvers can also
be used to shield a building and its interior form the sun. Either exterior or interior louvers or shades
are effective, but exterior louvers are more efficient since they block the sunlight before it enters
the space.
TABLE 1
Solar Angles for Representative Latitudes and Cities

Latitude
30
34
40
42
48

Nearest City
Houston
Los Angeles/Atlanta
Denver
Chicago/Boston
Seattle

Solar altitude, noon, in degrees

Dec. 22
Mar/Sept. 21
June 21
37
32
26
24
18

60
56
50
48
42

84
79
73
71
66

Azimuth at sunrise/Sunset
27
28
30
32
34

All angles are approximately to the nearest degree.

*Azimuth in this table is degrees from an east-west line. They are the same for sunrise
and sunset. For sunrise on December 21, the azimuth is South of East and for sunset it is
the same angle only south of west.

In addition to building position, solar orientation can also influence outdoor activities. In
hot, humid climates it is better to locate such activities as patios, outdoor restaurants,
and the like where they receive shade form the building or trees. In more temperature
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climates, the same spaces are best located where they can take advantage of the
warming effects of solar radiation in the winter, spring, and fall. In cold climates building
entries are best placed on the South where direct sun melts ice and snow in the winter.
In addition, the orientation of a building, and location of windows, plazas and other
elements can either take advantage of cooling breezes in hot, humid climates during the
summer or shield the building and occupants from cold winds in December. In most
temperate climates prevailing wind patterns often change with the seasons so a wind
analysis is required to determine the direction of summer and cold month winds.
Shielding a building as much as possible from December winds can reduce the heat loss
through the walls, while providing for natural ventilations can help cool the building
during the summer. Windbreaks can be formed with vegetation, buildings or other
manmade site elements such as screens and fences.

Solar Shading
1.) Shading by Structural Elements
This influence affects the facades of buildings. They are being designed to intercept
exteriorly the rays of the sun in summer. Of the many heat-contributing sources,
direct solar heat gains are one of the greatest causes of discomfort to occupants.
2.) Powered Louvers to Diminish Heat Gain
If a building is arranged to intercept the intense rays of the sun before they pass
through its glass walls instead of toward, the air-conditioning heat gain load can
often be cut in half. In approximate terms, the external shading rejects about 80% of
the fierce attack of solar energy while the internal shading accepts and retardates
80% of it.
Shading inside the window using heavy drapes: shading placed outside the window.
In this bank building, in spite of the advantages of full air-conditioning, heatresistant glass and the use of fully closed inside drapes, employees move their as far
as possible away from the hot exterior walls. Two 50-ton compressors running
continuously failed to keep the building comfortable. The heated drapes become an
unwanted radiant-heating system.

C. Temperature
Temperature is an objective comparative measure of hot or cold.

Annual mean temperature around the world

Ranges of Variations
There are different factors that will affect the temperature of a place. In different
locations on earth are different temperature measured. In different altitude there are
also different temperature measured. In different time of the day there are also
different temperature measured. From the figure above it is obvious that the hottest
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places on earth are located on or near the equator. In the time of the day, the
temperature begins to increase during noon then, in around 1:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. the
temperature will be on the hottest temperature.

Maximum and Minimum Temperature

The minimum temperature is the lowest temperature recorded during a
specified period of time while the maximum temperature is the highest temperature
recorded during a specified period of time. Common time periods is 6, 12 and 24 hours.
D. Humidity
Talks about how much moisture is in the air relative to the maximum amount that the air
could hold. In buildings, humidity is an important determinant of comfort and a condition
that needs to be considered in selecting cooling strategies and equipment. In low-humidity
areas, for example, evaporative coolers provide a cost-effective air conditioning strategy,
but they dont work well in humid climates. Humidity can be expressed as a percentage
(Relative Humidity), in gram per cubic meter (Absolute Humidity), and as a ratio (Specific
humidity).
Ranges of Variations
Same as the temperature there are also different factors that will affect the
humidity of a place. In different locations on earth are different temperature
measured. In different altitude there are also different temperature measured. In
different time of the day there are also different temperature measured. The most
humid places on earth can be found on or near the equator also. You might wonder
why. It is because of the very hot temperature a large amount of water vapor is
being produced, in the hottest time of the day. So, when the temperature goes
down during afternoon to evening to early morning humidity increase in the
presence of fog and dews. Places with very high humidity makes someone feel.
Places with high RH (very moist air) will make people feel chilled in cold weather and
hot and sticky in warm weather. Places with low RH (very dry air) can cause dryness
and discomfort in the nose and make skin feel dry and itchy.
Maximum and Minimum Humidity
The maximum humidity is the highest temperature recorded during a
specified period of time while the minimum humidity is the lowest temperature
recorded during a specified period of time. Common time periods is 6, 12 and 24
hours.
Temperature of Tacloban:
1. On average, the temperatures are always high.
2. A lot of rain (rainy season) falls in the months: January, February, March, April,
May, June, July, August, September, October, November and December.
3. On average, the warmest month is August.
4. On average, the coolest month is January.
5. December is the wettest month.
6. April is the driest month.
E. Precipitation
Precipitation is defined as any kind of water that falls from clouds as a liquid or a solid.
Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines. Rainfall distribution
throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending upon the direction of
the moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain systems.
Along with knowing total precipitation, it is important to understand how that precipitation
typically falls (Is it seasonal, with 90% usually falling in the winter wet season? Does it arrive
in a few deluges interspersed by long periods of drought?) Knowing the expected quantity
and nature of precipitation will help you decide on appropriate plantings around the
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planned building(s) and also help you establish priorities regarding water conservation, gray
water use for landscaping, and rainwater harvesting. In arid regions, for example,
xeriscaping, which is landscaping and gardening that reduces or eliminates the need for
supplemental water from irrigation, will be a higher priority than in wetter areas. Rainwater
catchment makes sense in areas with moderate rainfalllittle enough that water is a highly
valued resource, but enough (and spread out enough) that it can be depended on for the
planned uses. According to some experts, rainwater harvesting makes the most sense when
precipitation is between 15 and 30 inches (40-80 mm) per year. If storm events are severe
but spread far apart, the landscape plan needs to address storm water management and
infiltration very carefully to avoid significant downstream impacts. Finally, in colder climates,
expected winter snowfall needs to be considered relative to building design and plantings.
Average precipitation, on the other hand, is the long-term average in depth (over space and
time) of annual precipitation in the country. The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines
varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually.
AVERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL
FOR PHILIPPINES FROM 1900-2012

The average rainfall for the year 2015 is 2,294 millimeters (90.3 in), with the most rainfall on
average in December with 305 millimeters (12.0 in) and the least on average in April with
119 millimeters (4.7 in).
TOPOGRAPHY
Topography is a detailed map of the surface features of land. It includes the mountains, hills, creeks, and
other bumps and lumps on a particular hunk of earth.
A. Legal property description including limits of property, easement, right of way, and north indication.
A legal description of property is a way to define or accurately pinpoint where a particular piece of property
is located. Some legal descriptions are very simple and involve a Lot and a Block and a Subdivision name.

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Example of Legal
Property Description:

B. Topographic Maps and Aerial Photos

Topographic maps and aerial photos is a type of map characterized by large-scale detail and quantitative
representation of relief, using contour lines but, historically, using a variety of methods.

Contours and Spot Elevations

Contour lines are imaginary lines in plan view that connect points of equal height above a datum
or benchmark.
Each contour line represents the form in which the site acquires over a specified elevation that
is why we have surveyors and topographic surveys vs. metes and bound surveys.
Contour lines are continuous and never intersect each other. They change in shape, but never in
elevation.
Elevation of a point on a map or
chart, usually indicated by a dot
accompanied by a number
indicating the vertical distance of
the point from the reference
datum; spot elevations are used
principally to indicate points
higher than their surroundings.

Various ground shapes as represented by contour lines and site sections

o
o
o

contour lines spaced far apart indicate a flat surface

contour lines spaced evenly describe a constant slope
contour lines spaced close together designate a steep rise/fall in elevation
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Other examples:

Without the elevation numbers you could not tell these forms apart

Slopes: Percentage, Aspects and Orientation

-Slope is the measure of steepness or the degree of inclination of a feature relative to the
horizontal plane. Gradient, grade, incline and pitch are used interchangeably with slope. Slope is
typically expressed as a percentage, an angle, or a ratio. The average slope of a terrain feature
can conveniently be calculated from contour lines on a topography map. To find the slope of a
feature, the horizontal distance (run) as well as the vertical distance (rise) between two points
on a line parallel to the feature needs to be determined. The slope is obtained by dividing the
rise over run. Multiply this ratio by 100 to express slope as a percentage. The slope angle
expressed in degrees is found by taking the arc tangent of the ratio between rise and run.

Escarpments
It is a steep slope or long cliff that occurs from faulting and resulting erosion and separates two
relatively level areas of differing elevations.

Erosion Channels
It is the natural process by which water, wind, waves and other natural actions wear away the
earths surface. Vegetation clearing and livestock grazing lead to increased erosion and cause
the soil to wash into rivers and creeks.

Extent, location, and general configuration of rocks, ledges, outcrops, ridges, drainage lines,
and other unique features

Visual Characteristics

Potential problem areas during construction: situation, erosion, etc.

C. Analysis of physical features, including major focal and vantage points and their relationships within,
into, and out from site.

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D. Existing Access and Circulation

It is the Linkage and movement pattern, Connection to activity centers, Circulation Accessibility &
Potential of change.

Vehicular
When vehicle access is required for development (i.e., for off-street parking, delivery, service,
drive-through facilities, etc.), access shall be provided by one of the following methods. These
methods are options to the developer/subdivider, unless one method is specifically required.
Access and Circulation:
Option 1. Access is from an existing or proposed alley or mid-block lane. If a property has access
to an alley or lane, direct access to a public street is not permitted.
Option 2. Access is from a private street or driveway connected to an adjoining property that
has direct access to a public street (i.e., shared driveway). A public access easement covering
the driveway shall be recorded in this case to assure access to the closest public street for all
users of the private street/drive.
Option 3. Access is from a public street adjacent to the development parcel. If practicable, the
owner/developer may be required to close or consolidate an existing access point as a condition
of approving a new access.
Ratings for Natural, Environmental and Physical Factors
o Evaluation (for Accessibility Network Criteria):
1 Accessed by taxis and private vehicles
2 Accessed by PUVs, taxis and private vehicles
3 Accessed by jeepney, PUVs, taxis, and private vehicles
4 Accessed by public bus, jeepney, PUVs, taxis, and private vehicles
5 Near an airport terminal and accessible through public, buses, jeepneys, PUVs, and
private vehicles
Street system

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Street Capacity

Pedestrian
To ensure safe, direct and convenient pedestrian circulation, all developments, except single
family detached housing (i.e., on individual lots), shall provide a continuous pedestrian and/or
multi-use pathway system. (Pathways only provide for pedestrian circulation. Multi-use
pathways accommodate pedestrians and bicycles.)
Access and Circulation:
Continuous Pathways- The pathway system shall extend throughout the development site, and
connect to all future phases of development, adjacent trails, public parks and open space areas
whenever possible. The developer may also be required to connect or stub pathway(s) to
adjacent streets and private property.
Safe, Direct, and Convenient Pathways- Pathways within developments shall provide safe,
reasonably direct and convenient connections between primary building entrances and all
adjacent streets
Connections within Development- For all developments subject to Site Design Review, pathways
shall connect all building entrances to one another. In addition, pathways shall connect all
parking areas, storage areas, recreational facilities and common areas (as applicable), and
adjacent developments to the site, as applicable.
Street Connectivity Pathways- For pedestrians and bicycles, it shall be provided at or near
midblock where the block length exceeds the length required by Section 3.1.200 J. Pathways
shall also be provided where cul-de-sacs or dead-end streets are planned, to connect the ends
of the streets together, to other streets, and/or to other developments.

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E. Vegetation
Good design integrates vegetation and natural features into the design. The vegetation - consist of trees,
flora and fauna present on the site. Vegetation and natural features should me marked onto the site
plan so that it will assist during the design stage:
1. Size of the trees - diameter or spread of the branches
2. Location of trees
3. Type of trees
4. Heights of the trees
Site surrounding: Aerial Photo

The types and locations of plant materials affect:

1. the sites micro-climate
2. Solar radiation, wind, humidity, air temperature
3. the definition or visual screening or exterior spaces
4. the absorption or dispersion of sound
Plant Material

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Page 12 of 32

Visual quality:
o Landscape special character
o Spatial pattern of the site
o Visual quality and character
o Visual disturbance

Ratings for Natural, Environmental and Physical

Factors
Evaluation (for Existing Vegetation Criteria):
1 The site has no existing vegetation
2 The site has 10% existing vegetation
3 The site has 20% existing vegetation
4 The site has 30% existing vegetation
5 The site has 40% existing vegetation
F. Existing Water Bodies
Location, size, depth, direction of flow
Water quality: clean, polluted, anaerobic conditions, etc.
Use: seasonal, year-round
Wetlands: ecological Features
Variations: expected water levels, tides, wave action
Coastal views
G. Drainage Canals
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from an area. Many
agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies.
Drainage canals may be important components of upland development. Their potential to shunt
polluted storm water runoff and fresh water directly into tidal waters requires intermediate connection
to retention ponds or wetlands. This allows natural filtration and assimilation of pollutants and
dampening for freshwater surges prior to discharge into tidal waters. Other guidelines for housing
developments and/or transportation projects may apply.
Sustainable drainage
o Drainage systems can contribute to sustainable development and improve urban design, by
balancing the different issues that influence the development of communities. Approaches to
manage surface water that take account of water quantity (flooding), water quality
(pollution) and amenity issues are collectively referred to as Sustainable Drainage Systems
(SuDS).
o SuDS mimic nature and typically manage rainfall close to where it falls. SuDS can be designed to
slow water down (attenuate) before it enters streams, rivers and other watercourses, they
provide areas to store water in natural contours and can be used to allow water to soak
(infiltrate) into the ground or evaporated from surface water and lost or transpired from
vegetation (known as evapotranspiration).
o SUDS are technically regarded a sequence of management practices, control structures and
strategies designed to efficiently and sustainably drain surface water, while minimizing pollution
and managing the impact on water quality of local water bodies.
o SUDS are more sustainable than traditional drainage methods because they:

Page 13 of 32

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Manage runoff volumes and flow rates from hard surfaces, reducing the impact of urbanization
on flooding
Protect or enhance water quality (reducing pollution from runoff)
Protect natural flow regimes in watercourses
Are sympathetic to the environment and the needs of the local community
Provide an attractive habitat for wildlife in urban watercourses
Provide opportunities for evapotranspiration from vegetation and
surface water
Encourage natural groundwater/aquifer recharge (where
appropriate)
Create better places to live, work and play.
SUDS may also allow new development in areas where existing
sewerage systems are close to full capacity, thereby enabling
development within existing urban areas.
Sustainable drainage is moving away from the traditional thinking
of designing only for flooding to balancing the impact of urban
drainage on flood and water quality management and amenity.
SUDS may also allow new development in areas where existing
sewerage systems are close to full capacity, thereby enabling
development within existing urban
areas.

Sustainable drainage is moving away

from the traditional thinking of
designing only for flooding to
balancing the impact of urban
drainage on flood and water quality
management and amenity.

Sustainable drainage is a concept that

includes long term environmental and
social factors in decisions about
drainage. It takes account of the
quantity and quality of runoff, and the
amenity and aesthetic value of surface
water in the urban environment. Many
existing urban drainage systems can
cause problems of flooding, pollution
or damage to the environment and are
not proving to be sustainable in the
context of wider challenges from
climate change and urbanization.

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H. Existing Waterway Easements

Surface
subsurface
I.

Surface Drainage
Patterns on and off the site (locations of streams and washes)
The two main types of surface drainage are random and parallel. Each includes lateral ditches
that permit water to flow from the drainage system to a suitable outlet. The pattern you choose
depends upon the soil type and topography of the land.
a. Random- random ditch pattern is adapted to slowly permeable soils having depressional
areas that are too large to be eliminated by land smoothing or grading. Field ditches connect the
major low spots and remove excess surface water from them.
b. Parallel- this pattern is suitable for flatter, poorly drained soils that have numerous shallow
depressions. In fields that can be cultivated up and down slope; parallel ditches are installed
across the slope to break the field into shorter units of length to make it less susceptible to
erosion.

Proximity to floodplains
o Maximum flood levels
The most severe flood that may be expected from a combination of the most critical
meteorological & hydrological conditions that are reasonably possible in a drainage basin. It
is used in designing high-risk flood protection works and sitting of structures and facilities
that must be subjected to almost no risk of flooding.
o Frequently flooded areas
Local watershed areas, amount of runoff collected, and location of outfalls
o

A watershed is an area of land that drains all the streams and rainfall to a common outlet such
as the outflow of a reservoir, mouth of a bay, or any point along a stream channel. The word
watershed is sometimes used interchangeably with drainage basin or catchment.

When rain or snow falls onto the earth, it just doesn't sit there, it starts moving according to
the laws of gravity. A portion of the precipitation seeps into the ground to replenish Earth's
groundwater. Most of it flows downhill as runoff. Runoff is extremely important in that not
only does it keep rivers and lakes full of water, but it also changes the landscape by the action
of erosion. Flowing water has tremendous power

An outfall is the discharge point of a waste stream into a body of water; alternatively it may
be the outlet of a river, drain or a sewer where it discharges into the sea, a lake or the like.

Swampy and concave areas of land without positive drainage and other obstacles that may
interrupt or obstruct natural surface drainage
Potential areas for impoundments, detention/ retention ponds
Concentrated runoff can be directed to a pond where it is stored temporarily by means of a
limited outflow device. A permanent with a design storm detention zone is often used for this
purpose. The pond is usually located on a drainage way and can be part of an open-space
system. Detention ponds offer opportunities for fishing, boating, and skating, and their shores
can become temporarily inundated after heavy rain falls. Detention ponds can function as
habitat for wildlife, although mosquito control, eutrophication, and concerns of safety may
require careful monitoring. Siltation of detention ponds should be minimized upstream by some
means.

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GEOTECHNICAL/ SOILS
It is defined as the top layer of the earth's crust. It is formed by mineral particles, organic matter, water, air
and living organisms. It is in fact an extremely complex, variable and living medium.
Soil is the pulverized upper layer of the earth, formed by the erosion of rocks and plant remains and
modified by living plants and organisms. Generally, the visible upper layer is topsoil, a mixture of mineral
and organic material. The thickness of topsoil may range from just a few inches to a foot or more. Below
this, is a layer of mostly mineral material, which is above a layer of the fractured and weathered parent
material of the soil above. Below all of these layers is solid bedrock.
Soil is the mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and the countless organisms that together
support life on Earth. Soil is a natural body known as the pedosphere and which performs four important
functions: it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water storage, supply and purification; it is a
modifier of Earth's atmosphere; it is a habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil.
A. Basic Surface Soil Types:
1.) Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock
and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser
than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e. a soil
containing more than 85% sand-sized particles (by mass).
2.) Clay is a fine-grained natural rock or soil material that
combines one or more clay minerals with traces of metal
oxides and organic matter. Clays are plastic due to their
water content and become hard, brittle and nonplastic
upon drying or firing. Geologic clay deposits are mostly
composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable
amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure. Depending on the content of the soil, clay can
appear in various colours, from white to dull gray or brown to a deep orange-red.
3.) Silt is granular material of a size somewhere between sand and clay,
whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or
as sediment mixed in suspension with water in a body of water such as
a river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water
body.
4.) Rock or stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more
minerals or mineraloids. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere,
is made of rock. Three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous,
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
5.) Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that
is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles)
of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. The ratio of clay to other
minerals is variable. Shale is characterized by breaks along thin laminae
or parallel layering or bedding less than one centimeter in thickness,
called fissility. Mudstones, on the other hand, are similar in composition
but do not show the fissility.
6.) Gravel is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle size range and
include size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments.

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Types of gravel include:

o Bank gravel: naturally deposited gravel intermixed with sand or clay
found in and next to rivers and streams. Also known as "Bank run" or
"River run".
o

Bench gravel: a bed of gravel located on the side of a valley above

the present stream bottom, indicating the former location of the
stream bed when it was at a higher level.

Creek rock: this is generally rounded, semi-polished stones,

potentially of a wide range of types, that are dredged or scooped
from river beds and creek beds. It is also often used as concrete
aggregate and less often as a paving surface.

Crushed stone: rock crushed and graded by screens and then mixed
to a blend of stones and fines. It is widely used as a surfacing for
roads and driveways, sometimes with tar applied over it. Crushed
stone may be made from granite, limestone, dolomite, and other
rocks. Also known as "crusher run", DGA (Dense Grade Aggregate)
QP (Quarry Process), and shoulder stone.

Fine gravel: gravel consisting of particles with a diameter of 2 to 4

mm.

Lag gravel: a surface accumulation of coarse gravel produced by the

removal of finer particles.

Pay gravel: also known as "pay dirt"; a nickname for gravel with a
high concentration of gold and other precious metals. The metals are
recovered through gold panning.

Pea gravel: gravel that consists of small, rounded stones used in

concrete surfaces. Also used for walkways, driveways and as a
substrate in home aquariums.

Piedmont gravel: a coarse gravel carried down from high places by

mountain streams and deposited on relatively flat ground, where the
water runs more slowly.

Plateau gravel: a layer of gravel on a plateau or other region above

the height at which stream-terrace gravel is usually found.

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7.) Loam is soil composed mostly of sand, silt, and a smaller amount of clay. Its
composition is about 40%-40%-20% concentration of sand-silt-clay,
respectively. Loam soils generally contain more nutrients, moisture, and
humus than sandy soils, have better drainage and infiltration of water and
air than silty soils, and are easier to till than clay soils.
8.) Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals
calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). Most limestone is composed of skeletal
fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and mollusks.
B. Origin and Characteristics of Soil Deposits
Rock - Harder, consolidated material (Parent material for all soil)
Soil - Unconsolidated deposits of particulate material
Engineering Applications:
Hard materials are considered soils if they can be excavated by conventional construction equipment.
Rock is usually considered suitable for a foundation material and is used in rock fills for embankments.
Soil must be evaluated to determine its in situ condition to determine if it is suitable for a foundation.
C. Types of Rock
1.) Igneous Rock - from molten rock that has hardened during cooling
a.) Intrusive - formed slowly under high pressure, large crystals
b.) Extrusive - formed rapidly or under low pressure small crystals
2.) Sedimentary Rock - Deposits of soil particles, precipitate or organisms that are cemented together
a.) Sandstone - quartz or rock fragments
b.) Shale - composed of very fine grained material
c.) Limestone - crystalline calcium carbonate
d.) Dolestone - harder types of limestone 1
3.) Metamorphic Rock - Igneous or sedimentary rock that is changed
chemically by both high pressure and heat.
a.) Limestone to marble
b.) Sandstone to quartzite
c.) Shale to slate or schist
d.) Coal to diamond
Engineering Applications:
a.) Rock that weathers rapidly such as shale, claystone or slate may be a problem for foundations or
rock fills.
b.) Weak rock can pose problems in rock cuts and tunnels.
c.) Highly porous or highly fractured rock can cause a problem as foundations for water retention
structures.
d.) Some limestone is dissolved forming cavities in the subsurface.
D. Decomposition of Rock to Soil
1.) Igneous rocks
a.) Intrusive rocks (acidic) - decompose to coarse grained soils, sand and gravel
b.) Extrusive rocks (basic) - decompose to fine grained soils, clay and silt

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2.) Sedimentary rocks

a.) sandstone to sand and gravel
b.) shale to silts and clay
c.) limestone to silt and clay
3.) Metamorphic rocks - decompose to the soil that the parent rock would decompose to.
E. Soil Types According to Geologic Origin
Parent material is the underlying geological material in which soil horizons form. Soils typically inherit a
great deal of structure and minerals from their parent material, and, as such, are often classified based
upon their contents of consolidated or unconsolidated mineral material that has undergone some degree
of physical or chemical weathering and the mode by which the materials were most recently transported.
o Consolidated - parent materials that are predominantly composed of consolidated rock are
termed residual parent material. The consolidated rocks consist of igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rock.
Residual Soils - soil that originates from weathered rock and remains at its original site.
A profile of the subsurface will consist of a preponderance of soil near the ground surface
changing to more rock with depth until unweathered rock is encountered.
o

Unconsolidated - parent material is classified by its last means of transport. Material that was
transported to a location by glacier, and then deposited elsewhere by streams, is classified as
stream-transported parent material, or glacial fluvial parent material.
Transported Soils
a. Gravity - material moves down sides of hills
b. Wind Blown Deposits
o Sand - blown relatively short distances into dunes or ridges
o Silts (Loess) - blown large distances (hundreds of miles) to form large accumulations
Example - Mississippi river valley consisting of near vertical bluffs
c. Glacial Deposits - soil transported either directly or indirectly by glaciers. Glaciation large continental glaciers of up to thousands of feet thickness transported soil and
advanced over it compressing it. During the time of glaciation the mean sea level was
lowered by as much as 400 to 500 feet causing coastal deposits to become dried out
(desiccated).
1. Till - heterogeneous mixture of soil that was directly deposited by the
glacier (moraines).
2. Glacial Drift - material that was transported out as the glaciers melted
and receded (glacial outwash). The action of the water very often sorted
the soil particles out by size.
d. River Deposits (alluvial deposits) - soils carried by flowing water Sedimentation - occurs
as the soil settles out. Settling rate is dependent on the velocity. The particle size of the
soil being deposited is dependent on velocity. Therefore, larger particles settle first and
then smaller sizes after the fluid velocity decreases. This causes settling out of particles
according to particle size, or sorting out by size.
1. Alluvial Fans - rivers or streams will 'fan out' if there is an abrupt change
of slope. Coarse soil particles are deposited in the fans.
2. Flood Plain Deposits - as rivers flood from their banks and the flood
waters spread out, coarse particles are first deposited out forming
natural levees. The finer particles are deposited further from the river.
3. Meanders - natural tendency is for rivers and streams to form many
bends or meanders. As the water meanders, the velocity on the outside
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of the bend is larger than on the inside. Therefore the meander will
progress by erosion outward and deposition of coarse particles on the
inside of the meander.
4. Lake Deltas - velocity suddenly decreases causing deposition of coarse
particles.
e. Lake Deposits - Sand and gravel deposited along edges forming beaches due to wave
action. Fine size particles are deposited in the center. The fines are generally soft,
compressible deposits referred to as lacustrine deposits.
f. Marine Sediments - silt and clay combined with organisms to form weak deposits of clay.
These occur along many coastlines.
g. Beach Deposits - coarse materials deposited because of currents wave action.
h. Swamp and Marsh Deposits - contain large amounts of organics and silts and clay.
Usually black and has an odor. Will usually be soft and compressible and is not suited for
engineering purposes.
Engineering Applications:
a.) Weak or compressible soils are problem soils for foundations.
b.) Organic soils are problem soils for engineering purposes.
c.) Silts are frost susceptible soils which is a problem for roadway subgrades.
d.) Clays soils with a high fraction of particular mineral types will undergo large changes in
volume with change in water content.
e.) Soils that have a mixture of different soil sizes and rock, such as residual soils and till,
generally are difficult to work with and may be sensitive to changes in water content.
f.) Other problem soils include collapsible soils, erodible soils and laterites.
g.) Coarse soils that are well sorted are good sources for construction materials for fills and
concrete.
h.) Fine soils are used for hydraulic barriers to contain liquids.
F. Climate and weathering
Climate is generally considered the most important factor influencing physical and chemical weathering
processes.
Physical weathering is especially important during the early stages of soil development. Rock can
be disintegrated by changes in temperature which produces differential expansion and
contraction. Changes in temperature can also cause water to freeze.
Chemical weathering: the principal agent is percolating rainwater charged with carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. Parent material becomes hydrolyzed by the acidic solution to produce
minerals and to release cations.
G. Bearing Capacity of Soils
Bearing capacity is the power of foundation soil to hold the forces
from the superstructure without undergoing shear failure or
excessive settlement. Foundation soil is that portion of ground which
is subjected to additional stresses when foundation and
superstructure are constructed on the ground. The following are a
few important terminologies related to bearing capacity of soil.
Main components of a structure including soil

Ultimate Bearing Capacity (qf) : It is the maximum pressure that a foundation soil can withstand
without undergoing shear failure.
Net ultimate Bearing Capacity (qn) : It is the maximum extra pressure (in addition to initial
overburden pressure) that a foundation soil can withstand without undergoing shear failure.
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qn = qf - qo Here, qo represents the overburden pressure at foundation level and is equal to D for
level ground without surcharge where is the unit weight of soil and D is the depth to foundation
bottom from Ground level.
Safe Bearing Capacity (qs) : It is the safe extra load the foundation soil is subjected to in addition to
initial overburden pressure. o n s q F q q = + Here. F represents the factor of safety.
Allowable Bearing Pressure (qa) : It is the maximum pressure the foundation soil is subjected to
considering both shear failure and settlement.
Foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with soil. Foundation transfers the
forces and moments from the super
structure to the soil below such that the
stresses in soil are within permissible
limits and it provides stability against
sliding and overturning to the super
structure. It is a transition between the
super structure and foundation soil.
Modes of shear failure Depending on
the stiffness of foundation soil and
depth of foundation, the following are
the modes of shear failure experienced
by the foundation soil.
1. General shear failure (Ref Fig.
7.1a)
2. Local shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1b)
3. Punching shear failure (Ref Fig. 7.1c)

H. Factors influencing Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity of soil depends on many factors. The following are some important ones.
o Type of soil
o Shape of footing
o Unit weight of soil
o Depth of water table
o Surcharge load
o Eccentricity in footing load
o Depth of foundation
o Inclination of footing load
o Mode of failure
o Inclination of ground
o Size of footing
o Inclination of base of foundation
I.

Determination of Bearing Capacity from field tests

Field Tests are performed in the field. You have understood the advantages of field tests over laboratory
tests for obtaining the desired property of soil. The biggest advantages are that there is no need to extract
soil sample and the conditions during testing are identical to the actual situation. Major advantages of
field tests are;
o Sampling not required
o Time consuming
o Soil disturbance minimum Major
o Heavy equipment to be carried
disadvantages of field tests are
to field
o Laborious
o Short duration behavior

J.

Bedrock
In stratigraphy, bedrock is consolidated rock underlying the surface of a terrestrial planet, usually
the Earth. Above the bedrock is usually an area of broken and weathered unconsolidated rock in the
basal subsoil. The surface of the bedrock beneath soil cover is known as rockhead in engineering
geology and identifying this, via excavations, drilling or geophysical methods, is an important task in

Page 21 of 32

most civil engineering projects. Superficial deposits (also known as drift) can be extremely thick, such that
the bedrock lies hundreds of meters below the surface.
A solid geologic map of an area will usually show the
distribution of differing bedrock types, i.e., rock that would
be exposed at the surface if all soil or other superficial
deposits were removed.
Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to
identify the master soil horizons, and lowercase letters for
distinctions of these horizons. Most soils have three major
horizonsthe surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B), and the
substratum (C). Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the
surface, but such a horizon can also be buried. The master
horizon, E, is used for subsurface horizons that have a
significant loss of minerals (eluviation). Hard bedrock, which
is not soil, uses the letter R.

Depth to Bedrock
Depth to bedrock can be a critical parameter in
geotechnical investigations. Bedrock influences the stability of structures built above it, particularly in
earthquake prone areas, and its depth can strongly impact initial construction costs based on
rippability and excavation volume. Shallow bedrock can be a benefit where solid foundation shoring
is needed and minimal soil removal is required. Deeper bedrock can be a liability where lateral
variations in soil characteristics are present which can cause footing and slab failures if not
accommodated.

Bedrock Classification
Classification of bedrock geology
Because till is often derived from local bedrock, bedrock geology can often be used as a good
indicator of till composition and texture in cases where no other information exists.
Grouping of bedrock types used for the CWAP are shown below:
1.) Intrusive

2.) Ultramafic

3.) Metamorphic

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4.) Sedimentary
a.) Sedimentary (Mesozoic or older)

b.) Sedimentary (Cenozoic or younger)

5.) Sedimentary

6.) Volcanic (andesite or rhyolite)

A dark, fine-grained, brown or grayish volcanic rock that is
intermediate in composition between rhyolite and basalt.

7.) Volcanic (basalt)

Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained,
igneous rock composed mainly of
plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. It
most commonly forms as an extrusive
rock, such as a lava flow, but can also
form in small intrusive bodies, such as an
igneous dike or a thin sill.

8.) Volcanic

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Interpretation
The rock types are grouped below according to occurrence, similarities in resistance to erosion,
weathering, and products of weathering:
o Rock types in groups 1, 3 and 8 are generally resistant to erosion. Colluvium derived from
these rock types typically consist of large angular boulders. Soils and tills derived from these
rock types are likely to be sandy to silty in texture, with abundant coarse fragments.
o

Rock types in groups 2 and 9 contain minerals with high concentrations of iron and
magnesium (mafic minerals). Although they are relatively resistant to physical erosion and
can produce large blocky boulders of colluvium, they decompose readily through oxidation to
form soils with high clay content. Tills derived from rock types of group 2 and 9 are likely to
be fine-textured (silt or clay).

Metamorphic rocks of group 4 (also called metasediments) are relatively erodible due to the
presence of abundant parallel planes of weakness (foliation planes) that cut through the rock,
and to the presence of micaceous minerals (such as biotite and muscovite) which weather to
form clay. Colluvium derived from rock types of group 4 is generally small and platy. Till and
soil derived from group 4 rock types are likely to be fine textured (silt to clay) and micaceous.

Rock types in group 5a are relatively resistant to erosion, particularly where they are of
Mesozoic age or older. Colluvium derived from these rock types often consists of large blocky
boulders. Soils and tills derived from rocks of group 5a are generally coarse-textured (sandy).
Younger sedimentary rocks (group 5b) are often poorly lithified and can be highly erodible.
Such rocks are common in most of the Tertiary coal basins of interior B.C. Soils and tills
derived from rocks of group 5b are likely to be coarse textured (sandy).

Limestone, dolostone, and marble (group 6) are composed primarily of calcium carbonate.
These rock types are generally resistant to physical erosion, commonly producing large blocky
colluvium. However, these rock types are highly susceptible to chemical weathering and
break down to produce fine-textured (silty), calcareous soils and tills.

Group 7 rock types are characteristically fine grained and have abundant parallel planes of
weakness (bedding planes) through them. Because of these physical characteristics, these
rock types are generally susceptible to erosion. Colluvium produced from these rock types is
typically small and platy. Till and soil derived from rocks of group 7 are typically fine textured
(silt and clay).

o Rock types of group 10 are generally fine textured, easily erodible and highly susceptible to
weathering. Volcanic tuffs, lahars and pyroclastic rocks of Eocene and Miocene age are very
common in the Cariboo, Prince George and Kamloops Forest Regions. These volcanic rocks, in
particular, are often altered to clay. Soils and tills derived from these rocks are also generally
clay-rich.
K. Seismic Conditions
Regional Physical Planning in Seismic Areas
Regional physical planning in seismic areas is performed in the same way as for non-seismic areas.
Regional physical planning in seismic areas is not based exclusively on seismological engineering aspects,
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but these factors are considered together with other basic aspects of regional planning.
Urban planning and designing in seismic areas
One of the basic elements is the seismic urban micronizing map with its appendices.
This set of maps gives a clear picture of:
o The detailed distribution of seismic risk in each terms of each zone and sub- zone within the
urban area; and
o The suitability of the terrain for construction in different zones and sub- zones of the urban area,
i.e the bearing capacity of the ground, the water level, flood areas, unstable terrain, possibility of
landslides, seismically active faults, etc.
L. Environmental Hazards
Lead: Highly Toxic Metal
Lead is a naturally occurring, bluish-gray, highly toxic metal found throughout the environment and
created by human activities such as burning fossil fuel, mining, and manufacturing. It has many different
uses, including use in the production of batteries, ammunition, metal products like solder and pipe, and
devices to shield X-rays. Because of health concerns, lead from paints and ceramic products, caulking, and
pipe solder has been dramatically reduced in recent years. Paint with a high concentration of lead can
often be found in and around homes and businesses built before 1978. The primary sources of lead
exposure to humans in the daily environment are deteriorating lead-based paint and lead-contaminated
dust. (Lead paint in good condition is not a cause for concern unless it's loose, flaking, or forming dust.)

A close-up of lead-based paint

Molds
Molds and mildew are simple, microscopic fungi that grow on surfaces where there is an organic food
source. Many of the construction materials used, such as wood, carpet, glue, and cellulose-based objects
like ceiling panels and drywall, are hosts for indoor mold growth.
Human response to mold exposure varies widely. More than 100,000 species of mold exist, but only a
small number are suspected of having the potential to negatively affect human health if touched, inhaled,
or ingested. Health experts agree that mold should not be allowed to continue to grow and proliferate on
indoor surfaces, and should be remediated immediately upon visual identification.
Complaints about mold contamination increased dramatically in the 1980s, when construction techniques
emphasized airtight buildings to promote energy efficiency. The problem was that buildings were not
allowed to breathe, which is necessary to keep moisture in the buildings from reaching a level where
mold can grow. The new discipline called "building science" has greatly evolved to incorporate
environmental control systems, construction methods, and building materials that create a healthier,
more sustainable, and more energy-efficient building environment. This has led to new approaches to
stop moisture intrusion and ventilate structures.

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UTILITIES
*Utilities can hugely impact the cost of the project and therefore the viability of the project.
Does the site have utilities? Does the municipality have water and sewer lines going to the site -probably in the road
right of way? Or does it not if youre in a more rural setting you might have to have wells or septic systems that are
sort of stand-alone systems. About electricity, does their electrical power line is nearby or transformers nearby. If
there arent and theres a great deal cost to get the electricity to the site, thats something they can make or
possibly break a project and might not continue on with it because the feasibility just isnt logical given where the
utilities actually are. So understanding how utilities will impact some of your design decision making. Understanding
utilities is in fact understand site planning.
Determine the location of existing utilities prior to beginning design. These may include, but are not limited to,
sanitary sewer lines, storm sewers, water lines, gas, electricity, steam, telephone, and cable television. If possible,
the building should be located to minimize the length of utility lines between the structure and the main line.
Other utilities, such as water and electricity, do not depend on gravity so there is a little more flexibility in locating
the building relative to these services. However, the total distance should still be minimized. In the case of electrical
services, the location of the main electric lines may dictate the location of the transformers and service entry of the
building.
It is important to determine the existing availability of utilities on site in terms of adequacy and efficiency. This
includes:
o Sanitary / sewage system
o Water supply
o Electric power supply
o Drainage
Most water system will supply domestic, industrial and fire stand-by supply from a distribution system. Storm drains
collect surface water and conduct it to rivers, creeks, or other bodies of water.
A. Potable Water
Piped water supplies are ordinarily used for:
Potable water for homes, schools, industries, etc.
Fire Fighting
Non agricultural irrigation (lawns and gardens)
In many cases, all three uses are supplied by a single system of piping, although there are cases where all three
are supplied by separate systems:
Potable water is water which is fit for consumption by humans and other animals. It is also called drinking water,
in a reference to its intended use. Water may be naturally potable, as is the case with pristine springs, or it may
need to be treated in order to be safe. In either instance, the safety of water is assessed with tests which look
for potentially harmful contaminants.
Because water quality is important, many nations strive to protect the safety of their water and to increase
access to potable water. Some countries have laws governing water safety, with severe penalties for polluters.
Analyzing the site could be big part in site planning. It is understanding the site and the impact of the site on
your design process as well as the physical details of the design. From the regulatory issues, climate issues, what
the soils are like, where the utilities are, is it a feasible project, etc.

Sources of Water:
Alternative sources of potable water for any building project include (1) public water supply systems, (2) onsite wells of various kinds, and (3) surface reservoirs and ponds, Selection of the source depends on location
and project size. In arid areas, public systems that draw their water from distant sources may be the only
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alternative. In more humid regions, especially away from urbanized areas, on-site sources may be the only
alternative. In general, public sources, where available will be the least costly and complex and their use will
often be mandated by local officials. Selection of the type of on-site sources will depend on geologic
opportunity.

Low-Yield Systems:
For small projects requiring only a limited water supply, there are several possible sources, including wells,
springs, cisterns and surface impoundments (or catchments). The choice of system generally depends on
regional geohydrologic conditions, with wells (where they are feasible) usually being the most cost- effective
alternative.

B. Electricity
Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical energy, from generating power plants to electrical
substations located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local wiring between high-voltage substations
and customers, which is typically referred to as electric power distribution. Transmission lines, when
interconnected with each other, become transmission networks. Most transmission lines are high-voltage threephase alternating current (AC), although single phase AC is sometimes used in railway electrification systems.
High-voltage direct-current (HVDC) technology is used for greater efficiency at very long distances (typically
hundreds of miles (kilometers)), in submarine power cables (typically longer than 30 miles (50 km)), and in the
interchange of power between grids that are not mutually synchronized. HVDC links are also used to stabilize
and control problems in large power distribution networks where sudden new loads or blackouts in one part of a
network can otherwise result in synchronization problems and cascading failures. Electricity is transmitted at
high voltages (115 kV or above) to reduce the energy losses in long-distance transmission.
Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground power transmission has a significantly
higher cost and greater operational limitations but is sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.
Electric power can also be transmitted by underground power cables instead of overhead power lines.
Underground cables take up less right-of-way than overhead lines, have lower visibility, and are less affected by
bad weather. However, costs of insulated cable and excavation are much higher than overhead construction.
Faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. Underground lines are strictly limited by their
thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re-rating than overhead lines. Long underground AC cables
have significant capacitance, which may reduce their ability to provide useful power to loads beyond 50 mi (80
km). Long underground DC cables have no such issue and can run for thousands of miles.
C. Gas
Most filling stations are built in a similar manner, with most of the fueling installation underground, pump
machines in the forecourt and a point of service inside a building. Single or multiple fuel tanks are usually
deployed underground. Local regulations and environmental concerns may require a different method, with
some stations storing their fuel in container tanks, entrenched surface tanks or unprotected fuel tanks deployed
on the surface. Fuel is usually offloaded from a tanker truck into the tanks through a separate valve, located on
the filling station's perimeter. Fuel from the tanks travels to the dispenser pumps through underground pipes.
For every fuel tank, direct access must be available at all times. Most tanks can be accessed through a service
canal directly from the forecourt.
Older stations tend to use a separate pipe for every kind of available fuel and for every dispenser. Newer
stations may employ a single pipe for every dispenser. This pipe houses a number of smaller pipes for the
individual fuel types. Fuel tanks, dispenser and nozzles used to fill car tanks employ vapor recovery systems,
which prevents releases of vapor into the atmosphere with a system of pipes. The exhausts are placed as high as
possible. A vapor recovery system may be employed at the exhaust pipe. This system collects the vapors,
liquefies them and releases them back into the lowest grade fuel tank available.

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The forecourt is the part of a filling station where vehicles are refueled. Fuel dispensers are placed on concrete
plinths, as a precautionary measure. Additional elements may be employed, including metal barriers. The area
around the fuel dispensers must have a drainage system. Since fuel sometimes spills on the ground, as little of it
as possible should penetrate the soil. Any liquids present on the forecourt will flow into a channel drain before it
enters a petrol interceptor which is designed to capture any hydrocarbon pollutants and filter these from
rainwater which may then proceed to a foul sewer, stormwater drain or to ground.
D. Telephone
A telephone line or telephone circuit (or just line or circuit within the industry) is a single-user circuit on a
telephone communication system. This is the physical wire or other signaling medium connecting the user's
telephone apparatus to the telecommunications network, and usually also implies a single telephone number
for billing purposes reserved for that user.
Telephone lines are used to deliver landline telephone service and Digital subscriber line (DSL) phone cable
service to the premises. Telephone overhead lines are connected to the public switched telephone network.
These wires were typically copper, although aluminum has also been used, and were carried in balanced pairs
separated by about 25 cm (10") on poles above the ground, and later as twisted pair cables.
Modern lines may run underground, and may carry analog or digital signals to the exchange, or may have a
device that converts the analog signal to digital for transmission on a carrier system. Older houses often have 4conductor telephone station cable in the walls color coded with Bell System colors: red, green, yellow, black as
2-pairs of 22 AWG (0.33 mm) solid copper; "line 1" uses the red/green pair and "line 2" uses the yellow/black
pair. Inside the walls of the housebetween the house's outside junction box and the interior wall jacksthe
most common telephone cable in new houses is Category 5 cable4 pairs of 24 AWG (0.205 mm) solid copper.
E. Cable Television
Cable television is a system of delivering television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF)
signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses through fiber-optic cables. This contrasts with
broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a
television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service,
and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables.
A cable channel (sometimes known as a cable network) is a television network available via cable television.
When available through satellite television, including direct broadcast satellite providers such as DirecTV, Dish
Network and BSkyB, as well as via IPTV, it is referred to as a satellite channel. Alternative terms include nonbroadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts.
The abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or
Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception
was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were
constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.

Distribution
In order to receive cable television at a given location, cable distribution lines must be available on the local
utility poles or underground utility lines. Coaxial cable brings the signal to the customer's building through a
service drop, an overhead or underground cable. If the subscriber's building does not have a cable service
drop, the cable company will install one. The standard cable used in the U.S. is RG-6, which has a 75 ohm
impedance, and connects with a type F connector.
The cable company's portion of the wiring usually ends at a distribution box on the building exterior, and
built-in cable wiring in the walls usually distributes the signal to jacks in different rooms to which televisions
are connected. Multiple cables to different rooms are split off the incoming cable with a small device called
a splitter.
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There are two standards for cable television; older analog cable, and newer digital cable which can carry
data signals used by digital television receivers such as HDTV equipment.
F. Sewage System
Sewage is a water-carried waste, in solution or suspension, that is intended to be removed from a community.
Also known as domestic or municipal wastewater, it is more than 99% water and is characterized by volume or
rate of flow, physical condition, chemical and toxic constituents, and its bacteriologic status. It consists mostly of
greywater , blackwater; soaps and detergents. Whether it also contains surface runoff depends on the design of
sewer system.
The minimum slope of the building sewer is 0.5 to 2.0 percent depending on the size of the pipe; a greater slope
is required for smaller pipes. In some cases, the run of the building sewer will have to be longer than the
shortest distance between the building and the main line simply to intercept the main line at a point low enough
to allow for proper slope.
Sanitary sewers and storm sewers usually take precedence in planning because they depend on gravity flow.
The invert or lowest elevations of the existing public sewer line should be established, since the effluent must
flow from the lowest point where the sewer system outside the building is known as the building sewer. The
actual connection of the building sewer to the main line must occur above the invert of the main line at any
given point in order not to interfere with the free flow.
Effective sewage disposal includes physical disposal of the sewage into the environment without adverse health,
odor, aesthetic, or nutrient (fertilization) effects.
All currently permissible sewage disposal system include some method of for separation of solids from
wastewater, for oxidation of putrescible substances dissolve in the wastewater, for destruction of pathogens,
and ultimately for discharge of the resulting effluent to the ground, to a waterbody, or to the atmosphere.
Alternative methods of sewage disposal on a tract of land include: (1) discharge to a municipal sewer system and
(2) various kind of on-site disposal systems. Selection of method depends on location, geohydrologic conditions,
and density of development.
G. Storm Drainage

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