Thermodynamics

preventing perpetual motion since 1854.

Thermodynamics in a hurry
Temperature & the 0th law
Equations of state
Heat & the 1st law
phase changes & calorimetry
thermo processes & heat transfer
Entropy & the 2nd law
engines & refrigerators

Temperature heat
Heat (Q) = thermal energy [SI unit = J]
Temperature (T) = macroscopic state variable =
measure of avg. per-particle kinetic energy in a
substance [SI unit = K]
objects are at same temp. if no heat flows from 1 to
the other (i.e., thermal equilibrium)

Zeroth law of thermo.

If objects A & B are each in thermal equilibrium with
object C, then A & B are also in thermal equilibrium
with each other.
A & B are in thermal equilibrium iff they have the
same temperature.

Temperature
calculate temp. by measuring change in some other
macroscopic quantity
liquid volume thermometer
calibrate volume of liquid in ice bath (0C, 32F) and
steam bath (100C, 212F)
gas pressure thermometer
Assuming ideal gas, all gas pressures extrapolate back to
2
0.00 N/m at -273.15C

Temperature scales
Kelvin: 100 Kelvin between ice & steam (same as Celsius)
T = TC + 273.15
Fahrenheit: 180 degrees between ice & steam, plus 32 offset
TF = (9/5)TC + 32F
Often only need

T, which doesnt require offsets

T =

TC = (5/9)

TF

state variables
consider parameters which describe the state of a
substance, typically
pressure, p, volume, V, temp., T
one obvious change in macroscopic state is size
increase with temp.
over reasonable temp. range, objects tend to grow
in size linearly

Equations of state
expression describing how state variables relate to
one another
simplest is ideal gas law, a theoretical ideal wherein
gas is sparse
far from phase change
particles are points and chemically inert.

Ideal gas law

Consider a volume of gas with constant # of particles (N)

-1

at constant T, p V

(Boyles law)

at constant V, p T (Guy-Lussac law)

at constant p, V T (Charles law)

at constant p, V n (n = # of moles)

Putting it together, pV nT

Heat
thermal energy, Q
look at relationship between how much heat is added to a
system and the systems temp. change
Q = mc T
c = specific heat = heat capacity/mass of material
can be specified at constant pressure or constant volume
varies with temp., but thats usually ignored in intro phys.

Phase changes
when substance changes phase, all heat goes into that
process, NOT into temp. change.
Q = mL
Melting/vaporizing takes energy
Condensing/freezing releases energy