Operations Management

Topic 6
Quality Control

Economy and Business Organization Department

Planificacin Agregada

Index

Quality control
Seven Ishikawas tools
Pareto chart / Cause-and-effect diagram / Check sheets /
Histogram / Scatter diagram / Control chart / Stratification

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

Analysis of the process capacity
Acceptance sample
Sampling by attributes
Sampling plan. Characteristic curve.
Bibliography

Quality Control

Quality control

Evaluates the results of the process by comparing to the ideal

results. If there is any difference between them, then the objective
is to minimise it.
Apart from separating correct products (the ones that comply
specifications) from defective products that must be redone,
includes the prevention concept (actions to guarantee the expected
results).
All the efforts dedicated to obtain products or services that
comply design specifications at minimum cost.

Quality Control

Ishikawas basic tools

Pareto chart
Cause-and-effect diagrams
Check sheets
Histograms
Scatter diagram
Stratification
Control chart

Quality Control

Pareto chart

Based on the idea that, in general, most defects in an

article can be attributed to a reduced number of causes
(Pareto Law 20-80)
Classifies few vital causes from the rest of trivial
causes.
Pareto diagrams identify the causes of a quality problem
rapidly and easily.

Quality Control

Pareto chart. Example

A company produces an article which presents several

manufacturing defects. The objective is to remove them.
Management wishes to know which are the causes of
most defective items.

Defect type

Quantity of

Accumulated

% defective

defective

quantities

products

articles
Grated surface
Arm rupture
Spots
Adjustment
Tension
Others
Total

Quality Control

198
53
28
11
2
8
300

%
accumulated

198
251
279
290
292
300

66,00
17,67
9,33
3,67
0,67
2,67
100,00

66,00
83,67
93,00
96,67
97,33
100,00

100,00

250

80,00

200

60,00

150
40,00

100

Otros

Causes

Tensin

0,00
Ajuste

0
Manchas

20,00
Rupturas
brazo

50

% accumulated

300

Rallado
superficial

prod.

Quantity of defective

Pareto chart. Example

If the two main causes of the problem are removed (grated

surface and arm rupture), 84% of defective articles are avoided.

Quality Control

Cause-and-effect diagram

Cause-and-effect diagram, also known as Ishikawa diagram

or fishbone, is used to classify and clear the causes that originate
an effect.
It is necessary to identify and face the causes (and NOT the
effects) to solve a problem.
The basic structure of these diagrams is a central arrow and the
studied effect is placed on the right. Consequently, firstly the
quality problem must be defined and the effect that measures it.
Then the causes are classified.

Quality Control

Cause-and-effect diagram

The causes are placed tidily in the main branches:

Machines

Personnel

Effect

Methods

Materials

Inside these main branches, causes are placed in little branches.

A brainstorming session can be performed previously to identify
the causes.

Quality Control

Cause-and-effect diagram. Example

Machines
Deformation

Personnel

Training

Stability

Tools

Abilities

Operation

Abrasion
Inspection

Procedure
Work

Concentration

Illness

Variable
dimension

Position
Adjustm.
Angle

Variety

Experience Tirednes
s
Health

Motivation

Diameter

Shape

Raw material
Components
Materials quality

Orden
Methods

Materials

Storage

Final comment: the identified and classified causes are potential causes. This diagram is the
starting point to verify and confirm the real causes.

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10

Check sheets

Check sheets are printed sheets that allow data

collection in a simple and precise way so that collection
tasks are easier for the operators.
The fundamental objectives are: To ease data collection
and organize data for further analysis.
There are different type of templates according to its
application.

11

Quality Control

Check sheets for defective articles

Theyre used to detect the type of defects and their frequency percentages
in defective products in order to reduce them.
Plantilla de inspeccin
Cdigo del Producto: 25312-A

Fecha: 12-marzo-97
Operario:
Lote:

Proceso: inspeccin final

Defectos: rallado, incompleto, deformado
Tipo

Total

Rallado

IIII

IIII

IIII

Fisuras

IIII

IIII

IIII

Deformado

IIII

IIII

IIII

Incompleto

IIII

Otros

IIII

Observaciones:

Quality Control

IIII

IIII

IIII

III

IIII

IIII

37

II

14
23
5
8

III
Total

87

12

Sheets for defects location

Sketches of the
manufactured piece
where defects are
located. They allow to
detect if defects are
always placed in the
same place.

13

Quality Control

Check sheets to control the distribution of the production

process
Plantilla de inspeccin
Fecha:
Medidor:
Observaciones:
Frecuencias
15
20
25
30
35

Cdigo del Producto:

Proceso:
Lote:
Dimensin
300-309
310-319
320-329
330-339
340-349
350-359
360-369
370-379
380-389
390-399
400-410
420-429
430-439

5
II
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
III
I

10

II
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
III

IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII

IIII
II
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII

40

I
III
IIII
IIII
IIII

IIII
IIII
IIII

IIII
IIII
I

III

45

Total
2
7
21
17
23
38
34
31
17
8
3
1

Theyre used to collect data of continuous variables such as weight,

diameter, volume, Then, it is possible to draw an histogram to
study the distribution of the production process, and calculate the
average and dispersion.
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14

Histogram

An histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution

of data. Data is organised to study frequency of ocurrence.
Example:
Consider 100 measurements of the diameter of a cylindrical
piece. The number of measurements n should be (at least)
between 50 and 100 to study a certain characteristic.
Firstly, data is divided in 10 groups of 10 measurements. For
each set of data, we determine the maximum and minimum
values.

15

Quality Control

Histogram. Example

Data
7,38
7,31
7,35
7,40
7,35
7,29
7,53
7,38
7,51
7,33

7,39
7,42
7,33
7,36
7,35
7,29
7,26
7,34
7,52
7,44

7,41
7,43
7,23
7,36
7,38
7,42
7,36
7,42
7,45
7,34

7,19
7,39
7,58
7,38
7,46
7,53
7,42
7,45
7,36
7,34

7,26
7,28
7,39
7,48
7,36
7,38
7,39
7,35
7,38
7,33

7,52
7,33
7,45
7,39
7,39
7,35
7,34
7,38
7,37
7,33

7,39
7,32
7,35
7,44
7,19
7,39
7,34
7,38
7,39
7,37

7,20
7,37
7,29
7,36
7,28
7,39
7,27
7,44
7,46
7,36

7,41
7,36
7,42
7,42
7,41
7,28
7,39
7,29
7,42
7,37

7,40
7,26
7,35
7,28
7,38
7,41
7,20
7,38
7,30
7,41

Max

Min

7,52
7,43
7,58
7,48
7,46
7,53
7,53
7,45
7,52
7,44

7,19
7,26
7,23
7,28
7,19
7,28
7,2
7,29
7,3
7,33

Secondly, the amplitude of all data is determined:

Maximum value Minimum value = 7,58 7,19 = 0,39
This value is divided by k = 10 to obtain the number of classes (number of
groups or bars) of the graphic:
h

Quality Control

Max Min 0,39

0,039 0,04 0,05

k
10
16

Histogram. Example.
The interval h is the unit to adjust the horizontal axis (bar width).
In this case we consider 0,05.
The number of classes k depends on data collection:
Data collection n
< 50
50 - 100
100 - 250
> 250

Number of classes k
57
6 10
7 12
10 20

The value that limits the first bar is fixed taking into account the
extreme of the amplitude + half of the accuracy of collected data.
In this case, the minimum value is 7,19 accuracy of real data is
0,01. Consequently, the limits of first bar is : 7,19 - 0,01/2 = 7,185
Rest of limits of bars will be: 7,185 - 7,235; 7,235 7,285; 7,285
7,335; ...

17

Quality Control

Histogram. Example

Then, the frequencies table must be calculated accounting data that

belongs to each interval:
Frequency table

Class
n
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Limits
Classes
7,185 7,235
7,235 7,285
7,285 7,335
7,335 7,385
7,385 7,435
7,435 7,485
7,485 7,535
7,535 7,585
7,585 7,635

Aver.
value
7,21
7,26
7,31
7,36
7,41
7,46
7,51
7,56
7,61

Frequencies
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII
II
I

IIII
IIII
IIII
IIII

I
IIII
IIII

IIII
IIII

IIII
IIII

IIII
IIII

IIII

Frequency
4
5
11
29
35
9
4
2
1
N=
100

These data allows to draw the histogram. In Cartesian axis, horizontal axis
represents a quality characteristic and the vertical axis represents the frequency
(number of data inside one bar).

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18

Histogram. Example
40

Frequencyas

35
30

Lower specification limit

Upper specification limit

25
20
15
10

Each bar limit is a

class.
Bar width is a
class interval.
The central value
is the average
value.

5
0
7,15 7,21 7,26 7,31 7,36 7,41 7,46 7,51 7,56 7,61 7,70

Consider that the diameter tolerances are between 7,15 cm and

7,55 cm
In this case the process is off-centre. A certain number of pieces are
produced outside specifications limits.
19

Quality Control

Histograms. Examples

LTI

LTS

Case 1

LTI

LTS

Case 2

These two cases show the same frequency distribution BUT case 1
is centered inside the tolerance limits. Nevertheless, case 2 is an
off-centre distribution and shows that some articles are produced
outside specifications (grey bars).

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20

10

Histograms. Examples

Case 3

Case 4

Case 3 is a bell-shaped distribution that represents a variability due to

random causes. Ideal distribution.
Case 4 shows a right-skewed histogram. The right tail is longer and mass
of distribution is concentrated on the left. This indicates that data does NOT
follow normal law.
21

Quality Control

Histograms. Examples

Case 5

Case 6

Case 5 is a bimodal histogram because it presents two peaks. In some

cases indicates that data can be divided in two subsets of data that differ
from each other in some way.
Case 6 is distribution that shows a small peak on the right. This indicates
defects or errors because these data does not follow the general behaviour.
Probably an assignable cause can be determined.

Quality Control

22

11

Histograms. Functions

Its a tool used to:

1) Verify if production is inside specifications.
2) Determine the behaviour of the distribution of data by
observing the histogram shape.
3) Analyse if stratification is necessary due to interference
of different factors that can affect variability. In this case,
data are separated is subsets to differentiate causes of
dispersion and to identify the origin of the problem
easily.

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23

Scatter diagram

These diagrams are useful to analyse whether a quality

characteristic and a factor are related. Also theyre
called correlation diagrams.
Steps to make a scatter plot:
Identify the factors that seem to be correlated.
Take 50 pairs of data approximately.
Draw Cartesian axis to place the pairs of data.
The quality characteristic is located in Y-axis.

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24

12

Scatter diagram. Example

N

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

60,8
61,2
60,3
62,5
61,3
60,8
63,0
61,5
63,4
64,1
63,2
61,9
61,7
62,6
63,9
61,8
61,8
60,5
60,9
63,8
64,5
65,0
62,8
63,8
60,9

25,0
26,0
24,8
27,3
27,8
25,9
27,4
26,8
29,5
29,8
26,9
28,3
27,4
28,6
27,3
26,7
26,0
25,3
27,5
29,4
30,6
30,4
29,3
30,1
26,6

26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50

61,5
64,0
63,1
63,5
64,8
62,0
62,9
62,5
64,0
62,8
63,5
64,3
62,6
62,2
63,1
62,8
62,4
63,5
63,7
62,2
62,0
61,9
63,4
61,0
64,3

25,1
29,3
29,1
28,5
29,9
27,5
26,1
26,0
28,0
27,9
29,9
29,5
26,8
25,8
28,5
27,3
28,4
27,6
28,5
27,0
26,8
25,1
28,2
25,0
28,0

Variable X is
a possible
cause and Y
is the quality
characteristic
that seems
correlated.

25

Quality Control

Scatter diagram

Quality characteristic

31,0
30,0
29,0
28,0
27,0
26,0
25,0
24,0
60,0

61,0

62,0

63,0

64,0

65,0

66,0

Cause

Both variables present certain positive correlation. In other

words, the quality characteristic is related to the cause as
suspected.

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26

13

Scatter diagram

It is possible to calculate the correlation coefficient quantitively:

n

SXY
SXX.SYY

SXX

n
2

(X X)
i

i 1

X i2

X)
i

i1

i1

n
n

SYY

(Yi Y)2

i 1

i1

Yi2

Y)
i

i1

2
n

SXY

i1

(Xi X).(Yi Y)

i1

Xi.Yi

X ).( Y )
i

i1

i1

In the example:

SXX = 71,56; SYY = 122,53; SXY = 74,46;

r = 0,7952 (positive correlation)
The correlation coefficient takes values between -1 and 1. If the resulting
value is close to 1, this indicates there is a strong positive correlation. If the
value is close to -1, then the correlation is negative and if the value is close
to 0, then the correlation is weak.

Quality Control

27

Stratification

Its a method to identify the origins of variability of

collected data.
For example, when an article is manufactured by
different machines, by different operators or using
different materials, then its advisable to classify the data
by machinery, operators or materials. This way, its
possible to identify the origin of the problem. Maybe this
could not be detected if all data is mixed.

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28

14

Stratification. Example

Diagrama bivariant
700

Variable y

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
10,0 10,1 10,2 10,3 10,4 10,5 10,6 10,7 10,8 10,9 11,0
Variable x

Stratification is one of the seven basic Ishikawa tools.

Normally complements the rest of methodologies.
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29

Statistical Process Control

Statistical Process Control (SPC) is the application of

statistical techniques to measure and analyse the
variations of a production process.
Causes of these variations can be: random and
assignable.
Random causes:
They cannot be controlled and they appear at random.
They affect all production processes and always they
can be considered.

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30

15

Random and assignable causes

Assignable causes:
They can be studied and are the ones that contribute
most to the variability of the process.
Usually, theyre due to tiredness of workers, different
grade of experience/training, different behaviour of
materials, so that its NOT possible to obtain identical
products.
The same happens in service industries: a cook CANNOT
obtain two identical dishes or a lecturer CANNOT repeat
two identical classes,

31

Quality Control

Process capacity

Process capacity is defined as the variability amplitude of a

process when this is under control; in other words, when
variability is not due to assignable causes.
When a product is designed, the nominal value and a
tolerance margin is defined. The tolerances interval defines
the limits inside which the product is considered correct. This
interval of tolerances is limited by an upper tolerance limit
(LTS) and lower tolerance limit (LTI).
For example:

10 0,05 mm

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32

16

Control graphics

The objective of a control graphic is to differentiate

variations due to random causes or due to
assignable causes.
The vertical axis represents the range of the studied
quality characteristic. Also, the lower tolerance limit,
the upper tolerance limit and the average are
placed on the graphic.
The horizontal axis represents time.
This way, the evolution of the quality characteristic can
be observed vs. time. Also, it can be compared with
respect to established control limits.

33

Quality Control

Control graphics

LCS

Variation due to
assignable causes.

Normal variation
due to random
causes

VC
LCI

Variation due to
assignable causes

Tiempo

Types:
Control graphic by variables.
Control graphic by attributes.

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34

17

Control graphic by variables

Control graphic by variables: This means

that measurements belong to a continuous
quality characteristic such as weigth,
length, speed, density, volume,
In this case, the control graphics for the
average and range will be plotted.
To start with, at least 100-150 elements must
be measured (and grouped in samples of 4-5
units) to guarantee that the sample is
significant.
35

Quality Control

Control graphic by variables. Example

25 samples of 5
measurements.

Quality Control

Sample

Value1

Value 2

Value 3

Value 4

Value 5

Average

Range

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

15
16
13
15
14
16
15
15
14
14
12
15
15
16
13
18
14
15
16
14
14
13
13
14
17

14
14
15
15
13
15
14
14
16
18
13
15
18
15
16
17
12
13
14
16
18
19
14
12
14

13
12
15
14
16
15
15
15
14
14
12
12
15
15
16
15
14
14
14
18
13
15
15
11
15

14
13
11
15
14
15
16
15
14
14
12
15
14
13
15
13
14
14
12
14
13
14
14
16
13

14
15
12
18
14
16
15
16
13
13
15
11
14
15
16
14
17
15
15
19
18
14
18
12
17
TOTALS

14,0
14,0
13,2
15,4
14,2
15,4
15,0
15,0
14,2
14,6
12,8
13,6
15,2
14,8
15,2
15,4
14,2
14,2
14,2
16,2
15,2
15,0
14,8
13,0
15,2
14,56

2
4
4
4
3
1
2
2
3
5
3
4
4
3
3
5
5
2
4
5
5
6
5
5
4
3,72

36

18

Control graphic by variables. Example

n

Sample average:

For the first sample:

Sample range: R = Maximum Value Minimum value

For the first sample: R = 15 13 = 2
Global average for X and R:

X1 X2 ... Xn
X

i1

15 14 13 14 14
X1
14,0
5

X1 X2 ... Xk
X

i 1

R1 R2 ... Rk
; R

i 1

In the example:
X

14,0 14,0 13,2 ... 14,8 13,0 15,2

14,56
25

; R

2 4 4 ... 5 5 4
3,72
25

37

Quality Control

Control graphic by variables. Example

Graphic x
Central value : VC X 14,56
Upper control lim it :
LCS X A2.R 14,56 0,577 * 3,72 16,70644
Lower control lim it :
LCI X A2.R 14,56 0,577 * 3,72 12,414
Graphic R :
Central _ value : VC R 3,72
Upper control lim it :
LCS D 4.R 2,115 * 3,72 7,868
Lower control lim it :

A2,
D3
y
D4
parameters depend
on n, the number of
elements
of
the
sample:
n

A2

D3

D4

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

1,880
1,023
0,729
0,577
0,483
0,419
0,373
0,337
0,308

0,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,000
0,076
0,136
0,184
0,223

3,267
2,575
2,282
2,115
2,004
1,924
1,864
1,816
1,777

LCI D 3.R 0 * 3,72 0

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38

19

Control graphic by variables. Example

Graphic X

Averages

18,0
LCS = 16,71

16,0

VC = 14,56

14,0

LCI = 12,41

12,0
10,0
1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Samples

Graphic R

Averages

10
8

LCS = 7,89

6
VC = 3,72

4
2

LCI = 0

0
1

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Samples

39

Quality Control

Control graphic by variables. Example

Graphic X: shows variation of the average of the

process. Graphic R: shows variations of the process
dispersion.

Consequently, control graphics are very interesting because

they show variations of the average and dispersion at the same
time and indicate process anomalies.

In this example, both average and range graphics show

that the process is under control because:
1. All the points are inside the control limits.
2. Points do not follow any particular tendency.

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40

20

Control graphic by attributes

An attribute is a quality characteristic that cannot be

measured.
Control graphics by attributes classify the product as
Acceptable or Defective.
For example, if a piece presents spots, we wish to
know if the product shows this characteristic to
determine if it is acceptable or defective.

41

Quality Control

Control graphics by attributes

Since a defective products can have several defects, these graphics

monitor the number of detected defects or the number of defects.
According to this criteria and the sample, there are several types of
graphics.

Sample type
Type of control

Constant

Variable

Umber of defective products

Graphic np

Graphic p

Graphic c

Graphic u

Number of defects

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42

21

Acceptance sampling

The acceptance sampling determines the percentage of

products that verify specifications.
It is used to inspect elements that the company purchase to
suppliers (raw material, components,) or also pieces that
have been processed in one step of the process and are
evaluated before going into the next step.
This technique involves taking random lots of products,
measuring a certain characteristic and then comparing it with
a established standard. This is much cheaper than 100%
inspection.
The quality of the sample is used to judge the quality
of the complete production lot.
Sampling can be defined by variables or by attributes.

43

Quality Control

Simple sampling by attributes

The acceptance
sampling plan.

sampling

is

performed through

A simple sampling plan is defined by the sample size, n,

and by the acceptance number, c, ( maximum number of
defects that can be found in the sample before rejecting the
lot),...
If the inspected sample has a number of defects < c , the lot is
accepted.
If the number of detected defects is higher, then the lot is
rejected or then its performed a 100% inspection.

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44

22

Simple sampling by attributes. Example

Consider that we wish to accept all production lots whose

number of defective products < 2,5% and reject the rest.
Imagine a lot of 1.000 pieces that has a 4% of defective
products.
The inspection has taken a sample of 20 pieces and none is
defective Lot is accepted.
In this case, the sampling plan gives a wrong result. The 20
pieces sample could have showed at random, one, two,
three,defective pieces.
This fact is fundamental in sampling plans. Its possible to
reject good production lots or accept defective lots.

45

Quality Control

Simple sampling plan by attributes. Characteristic curve.

Acceptance probabilityPa(w)

0,05 =Producer risk for AQL

0,9
0,8

Pa (AQL)

0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4

0,10 = Consumer risk for LTPD

0,3
0,2

Pa (LTPD)

0,1

Defects percentage w

0
AQL
Correct lots

Quality Control

Each sampling plan

has associated a
characteristic curve
that describes the
ability of the plan to
distinguish between
correct lots and
defective lots.

LTPD
Indifference zone

Defective lots

Indicates the
probability that the
plan accepts lots of
different qualities.

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23

Characteristic curve. Concepts.

AOQ, Average Output Quality: AOQ = w . Pa (w)

AQL, Acceptable Quality Level:
Maximum number of defective articles inside a lot so that it is
considered acceptable.
Lowest level of quality that the company accepts.
Lots with this level of quality will be accepted.

LTPD, Lot Tolerance Percent Defective:

Level of quality of a defective lot.
Lots with this quality level will be rejected.

Quality Control

47

Characteristic curve. Concepts.

From the producer perspective, a good sampling plan is one that

has a low probability to reject correct lots.

Producer risk ():

Probability that the lot is rejected even though the number of
defective products is lower than AQL.
From customers or consumers perspective, the sampling plan,
should have a low probability to accept defective lots:

Consumer risk ():

Probability that the lot is accepted although the number of defective
products LTPD

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Sampling plan. Considerations.

Normally, the sampling plans are designed considering a producer

risk of 5% ( = 0,05) and a consumer risk of 10% ( = 0,10).
The selection of specific values AQL, LTPD, and is an economic
decision based on costs, company policies or contract requirements.

49

Quality Control

les
Tab

Valores de LTD / NAC para:

c

Quality Control

Valores de LTD / NAC para:

= 0,05 = 0,05 = 0,05

= 0,01 = 0,01 = 0,01

= 0,10 = 0,05 = 0,01 n . NAC

0 44,890 58,404 89,781
0,052

= 0,10 = 0,05 = 0,01 n . NAC

0 229,105 298,073 458,210
0,010

10,946

13,349

18,681

0,355

26,184

31,933

44,686

0,149

6,509

7,699

10,280

0,818

12,206

14,439

19,278

0,436

4,890

5,675

7,352

1,366

8,115

9,418

12,202

0,823

4,057

4,646

5,890

1,970

6,249

7,156

9,072

1,279

3,549

4,023

5,017

2,613

5,192

5,889

7,343

1,785

3,206

3,604

4,435

3,286

4,520

5,082

6,253

2,330

2,957

3,303

4,019

3,981

4,050

4,524

5,506

2,906

2,768

3,074

3,707

4,695

3,705

4,115

4,962

3,507

2,618

2,895

3,462

5,426

3,440

3,803

4,548

4,130

10

2,497

2,750

3,265

6,169

10

3,229

3,555

4,222

4,771

11

2,397

2,630

3,104

6,924

11

3,058

3,354

3,959

5,428

12

2,312

2,528

2,968

7,690

12

2,915

3,188

3,742

6,099

13

2,240

2,442

2,852

8,464

13

2,795

3,047

3,559

6,782

14

2,177

2,367

2,752

9,246

14

2,692

2,927

3,403

7,477

15

2,122

2,302

2,665

10,035

15

2,603

2,823

3,269

8,181

16

2,073

2,244

2,588

10,831

16

2,524

2,732

3,151

8,895

17

2,029

2,192

2,520

11,633

17

2,455

2,652

3,048

9,616

18

1,990

2,145

2,458

12,442

18

2,393

2,580

2,956

10,346

19

1,954

2,103

2,403

13,254

19

2,337

2,516

2,874

11,082

20

1,922

2,065

2,352

14,072

20

2,287

2,458

2,799

11,825

21

1,892

2,030

2,307

14,894

21

2,241

2,405

2,733

12,574

22

1,865

1,999

2,265

15,719

22

2,200

2,357

2,671

13,329

23

1,840

1,969

2,226

16,548

23

2,162

2,313

2,615

14,088

24

1,817

1,942

2,191

17,382

24

2,126

2,272

2,564

14,853

25

1,795

1,917

2,158

18,218

25

2,094

2,235

2,516

15,623

50

25

Bibliography:

Castn, J.M.; Guitart, L. y Nez, A. (1999): Direcci de la Producci

II. Barcelona: Edicions de la UOC.
Chase & Aquilano. (1992): Direccin y Administracin de la Produccin y
de las Operaciones. U.S.A.: Addison-Wesley Iberoamericana.
Domnguez Machuca, J.A. et al. (1994): Direccin de Operaciones.
Aspectos tcticos y operativos en la produccin y los servicios. Madrid:
McGraw-Hill.
Fernndez Snchez, E. y Vzquez Ords, C.J. (1994): Direccin de la
Produccin. II. Mtodos Operativos. Madrid: Editorial Civitas.
Heizer, J. y Render, B. (2001): Direccin de la Produccin. Decisiones
estratgicas (Sexta edicin). Madrid: Prentice-Hall.
Ishikawa, K. (1985): Gua de control de calidad. Nueva York: UNIPUB.
Juran, J.M. y Gryna, F.M. (1993): Manual de Control de Calidad. Madrid:
McGraw-Hill.

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