February 2011

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic

Phased Array

Prepared by:
Applications Department
February 2011
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Outline
Conventionnal Ultrasonic Testing
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing
Imaging and views
Calibrations
Basics of TOFD

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February 2011

Goal and Motivation

Train the attendees to better understand the veo
and UT Studio software
Provide trainees with a good understanding of
Phased Array UT
Provide trainees with hands-on experience
Provide trainees with a good understanding of the
competition and market place
Overview of PA applications

Conventional Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Concepts
Conventional ultrasound has been commercially available
for about 50 years. The technology has almost remained
unchanged for that period of time.
Single crystal (or two)
Single beam for inspection
Single pulser/receiver (spike or square)
Single angle using a mountable wedge for refraction
A-scan signal representation, B-scan on some units
Aperture and frequency define the acoustic field
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Conventional Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Concepts

Amplitude

Sound waves are mechanical vibrations propagating into

the piece under test. Waves are generated by exciting a
piezoelectric transducer. When a change (boundery) in
the medium occurs, waves are reflected back to the
transducer and converted into an electric signal
displayed as an A-scan.

Time or sound path

Conventional Ultrasonic Testing

Sound Field Characteristics
The resulting ultrasonic beam is composed of three main
components.

Far Field

DOF

Near Field
Depth of Field

Near Field: Unstable sound field.

Far Field: Gradual decay of sound
field energy.
Focal spot, also known as DOF
region. Region with the highest
energy.

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Source Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_sensor

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February 2011

Conventional Ultrasonic Testing

Sound Field Characteristics
The characteristics of the sound field are mainly driven
by the probe aperture and frequency.
Increasing Aperture
Increase near field lenght
Narrow beam width
Shorten DOF

Increasing Frequency
Increase near field lenght
Narrow beam width
Increase resolution
Shorten DOF

Conventional Ultrasonic Testing

Focusing
By focussing a sound beam, it is possible to achieve a
higher sensitivity (energy concentration) and resolution
(smaller beam width). Focussing can be achieved by
using curved radiator or more commonly by using curved
lens.
Focusing Rules
A plane radiator can only be focused to a distance
shorter than its near-field length.
When focusing, the near-field is compressed into the
space between the radiator and the new focus.

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February 2011

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Concepts
For Phased Array, the physics remains exactly the same
than with conventional UT. The main differences come
from the fact that the crystal is splitted into multiple
ones and each of these crystals are driven by a pulserreceiver circuitry.

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Concepts and Advantages
With PA we have the ability to control the beam. It gives
the ability to steer and focus the beam. This is achieve
by controlling the electronic delay applied to each
crystal. This is the equivalent of using a focusing lens in
conventional UT.
Main Advantages

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No safety issue
Full waveform recording
Automated reporting
Covers all angles of conventional UT and more
Combines various techniques (UT, TOFD, PA)
Higher Probability of Detection (POD)c

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Beam Steering
Beam steering is the ability of controlling the angle at
which beams are fired.
Delays

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Beam Steering
Maximum Beam Steering Angles
As a rule of thumb, beam steering is limited to 20
each side of the natural refraction angle.
The steering angles limits can be defined as the
maximum and minimum refracted angles in the test
piece that can achieve a 6 dB drop between two
adjacent side drilled holes.
6 dB

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February 2011

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Beam Focusing
Beam focusing is the ability of concentrate the beam to a
size smaller than the aperture.
Delays

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Beam Focusing
Maximum Focal Distance
It is very important to remember that focusing is only
effective within the near-field length.
Focusing beyond the near field is equivalent to work
with the natural focus point.
The aperture is of key importance when focusing.
10 elmts

16 elmts

32 elmts

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Beam Focusing Photoelastic visualization

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Beamforming
One Particular Beam = One Focal Law

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Sectorial Scan
The Sectorial scan or S-scan:
A different focal law per angle.
Give the ability to cover a whole weld volume
without any probe movement.
Useful for inspection of complex geometries.
Can be used as a screening tool with no focusing or
as a sizing tool using its various focusing patterns.

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Type of Scan Sectorial Scan

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Sectorial Scan Second skip inspection
Example of weld examination in second skip.

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Sectorial Scan Focalisation Patterns
Three focalisation patterns are
available on the veo unit.
1. Constant Path
For generic focusing or
fusion face.
2. Constant Depth
For corrosion/erosion/
lamination detection.
3. Constant Offset
For crack detection in pins,
detection of indication in
weld center.

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Sectorial Scan Constant Path Focusing

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Sectorial Scan Constant Depth Focusing

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Sectorial Scan Constant Offset Focusing

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Linear Scan
The Linear scan or L-scan, also called E-scan:
The same focal law is sweep along the array.
Ability to perform a fast rastering without any probe
movement.
Useful for inspection of weld bevel/fusion face and
corrosion mapping.
Precise resolution along the array axis

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Type of Scan Linear Scan

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Linear Scan Example of Corrosion

Delays

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Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Linear Scan Delamination in Composite

Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing

Sectorial Scan vs Linear Scan
S-scan
The whole array
aperture is used to
generate each beam
One different focal law
per angle.
Varying angle
3 focalisation patterns

L-scan
A subset of the
aperture is used, called
active aperture.
The same focal law is
multiplexed across a
group of active
elements
Constant angle
Only one focalisation
pattern
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Imaging and Views

Color Encoding
An A-scan waveform represents the reflections from one
sound beam position in the test piece. Imaging
capability is provided for the rectified A-scan signal by
color encoding the amplitude.

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Imaging and Views

Projected views Extraction Box
In addition to the S-scan and L-scan views, the veo has
the capability of displaying projected views. These views
are generated by the extraction box.

Extraction
box

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Imaging and Views

Projected views Top View
The top view is a 2D projection seen from a plan view.
Scan Axis

Depth Axis

Index Axis

Index Axis

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Imaging and Views

Projected views End View
The End-view is a 2D projection seen from the back of
the probe for all angles within the extraction box.
Scan Axis
DepthAxis

Depth Axis

Index Axis

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Imaging and Views

B-Scan View

Depth Axis

The B-scan view is a 2D projection seen from the back of

the probe at one angle.

Sound Path
Axis

Scan Axis

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Calibrating the Scan

Calibrate
The Calibrate tab allows access to
calibration wizard. In stop mode,
you can clear existing calibrations,
while in play mode you can
create/modify them.
The items in this menu are sorted
in the order the calibrations
should be performed. If you are
using a multi-scan setup, each
scan must be calibrated
independently.

Stop Mode

Play Mode

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Calibrating the Scan

Calibrate
The table below is a summary of the wizards available along with the
scan type they apply to.

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Calibrating the Scan Velocity Wizard

Calibrate
The first wizard to start with
is the velocity wizard. The
velocity wizard shall be used
when the velocity is
unknown. Otherwise, the
velocity can be entered
manually in the Part tab.
Scan Selection
For multi-scan setup, the
first step is to chose the scan
that needs to be calibrated.
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Calibrating the Scan Velocity Wizard

Calibrate
Reflectors Selection
Select the type of reflectors
used to calibrate the
velocity.
Tip:
Ideally, choose a block with
reflectors that do not
require probe movement or
a minimal probe movement.

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Calibrating the Scan Velocity Wizard

Calibrate
Reflectors Position
According to the selected
reflectors, set the distance
at which they should be
found.
Tip:
Chose reflectors that have a
separation distance long
enough to obtain accurate
results.
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Calibrating the Scan Velocity Wizard

Calibrate
Scan Settings
Make sure that the Range
Path is long enough to
detect both reflectors.
Typically, the middle angle is
chosen to calibrate the
velocity.

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Calibrating the Scan Velocity Wizard

Calibrate
Reflector 1
Make sure that the peak is
within the gate and then
maximize the reflector.
The gate is automatically
positioned by the software,
but some adjustments are
sometimes required.
Tips:
The gate can be set from the menu or by pressing
and then use
click wheel to move it freely. The worst case is to use 2 SDH and add
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couplant in between 2 reflectors.

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February 2011

Calibrating the Scan Velocity Wizard

Calibrate
Reflector 2
Make sure that the peak is
within the gate and then
maximize the reflector.
Tip:
Properly maximizing the
indication is crucial to get an
accurate result.

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Calibrating the Scan Velocity Wizard

Calibrate
Validate Result
The last step of the velocity
calibration wizard is to
validate the calculated
velocity.
If the calculated velocity
doesnt correspond to the
expected value, go back to
Reflector 1 step.
Tips:
When the velocity is known, it can be entered in the
Part tab.
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February 2011

Calibrating the Scan Wedge Delay Wiz.

Calibrate
The Wedge Delay wizard
aims to compensate for the
sound path variation in the
wedge. The calibration
ensures that indications are
displayed at the right depth.
Wedge delay calibration is
performed using only one
reflector.

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Calibrating the Scan Sensitivity Wizard

Calibrate
The Sensitivity Wizard aims
to compensate for the
sound attenuation due to
the wedge and the angle
variation in the S-scan. The
calibration ensure a uniform
amplitude response for each
focal law for a given
reflector.
Sensitivity calibration is
performed using only one
reflector.
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February 2011

Calibrating the Scan TCG Wizard

Calibrate
The TCG wizard aims to
equalize the amplitude level
of a given reflector size
along the sound path.
TCG equalizes the A-scan %
FSH of a reflector as well as
its representation in S-scan
or L-scan.

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Basics of TOFD
TOFD stands for Time Of Flight Diffraction. It was
originally developed as a sizing technique for the nuclear
industry in the 70s. The technique is now well
recognized by the industry and many codes and
standards are available.
The combination of Phased-Array and TOFD is becoming
a very popular and efficient inspection technique.

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Basics of TOFD
Advantages
Cover a wide area
Fast encoding speed
Accurate sizing capability in height
Permanent data recording
Detection and sizing almost orientation
independent

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Basics of TOFD
Limitations
Blind areas
Near Surface: The width of the lateral
wave can be a limitation on thin
components.
Back wall: The large signal reflected from
the back wall can hide indications.

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February 2011

Basics of TOFD
How does it work?
TOFD is based on signal diffraction.
Incident
wave

Diffracted
waves

Reflected
wave

FLAW

Diffracted
waves

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Basics of TOFD
How does it work?
TX

RX

Lateral wave

Back-wall reflection
BW

LW

Upper tip

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Lower tip

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Basics of TOFD
The Lateral Wave
The Lateral Wave travels at the compression velocity
speed.
Always arrives first.
On curves surfaces, will travel straight across the metal.
Not a true surface wave, but a bulk wave generated at
the edge of the wide beam generated by the send
transducer.
Becomes weaker with increased PCS.
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Basics of TOFD
Color Encoding
Imaging capability is provided for the non-rectified Ascan signal by color encoding the amplitude.
+

White

Time

Black

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Basics of TOFD
TOFD View
The TOFD view is a B-scan parallel or particular to the
beam axis.

Scan Axis

Beam Axis

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Basics of TOFD
Types of TOFD Scan
Two types of TOFD scan are possible.
Non-parallel
Movement of probes at right angles to direction of the
beam.

Parallel
Movement of probes in same direction as the beam.

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Basics of TOFD
Typical TOFD Scans Near Surface Crack

1
2

The crack blocks the Lateral Wave

And the lower tip appears on the A-scan

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Basics of TOFD
Typical TOFD ScansIncomplete Root Pen.
1

2
3
4

1 3

4 2

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

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Basics of TOFD
Typical TOFD Scans Lack of Root Pen.
1

1
2
3

2
3

Note the inverted phase between LW and defect

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Basics of TOFD

Typical TOFD Scans Lack of Fusion on

the Side Wall
1
1

2
3

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

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Basics of TOFD
Typical TOFD Scans Porosity
1
1

2
3

Porosity may image in many forms whether individual or

cluster
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Basics of TOFD
Typical TOFD Scans Transverse Crack
1

1
2

2
3

I n t he LW we can observe t he wide beam effect on

t he crack
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Basics of TOFD
Typical TOFD Scans Concave Root

1
1

2
2
3

Distortion of back-wall echo

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Basics of TOFD
Typical TOFD Scans LOF - Interpass

1
2
3

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