Understanding Emotional Change in

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy:

Facilitating Positive Emotions
Johnny S. Kim and Cynthia Franklin

Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) has been criticized for neglecting the emotional
processes of clients; however, a review of the literature contradicts this argument and
indicates that the use of positive emotions in the change process of SFBT has been
present since its early development. This article reviews how emotional processes have
been conceptualized within SFBT and shows how SFBT scholars and therapists have
used positive emotions in building solutions with clients. This article also reviews
Fredricksons broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions and shows how the
research within positive psychology provides additional empirical evidence for the
significance of positive emotions in the change processes of psychotherapy in general
and SFBT in particular. Finally, this article illustrates specific ways that SFBT elicits
positive emotions, further showing how solution-building conversations may increase
positive emotions in clients.
Key words: broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions; positive emotions;
solution-focused brief therapy
Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) is a strengths-based, future-focused therapeutic model that was developed under the leadership of two social workers,
Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg, and a team of interdisciplinary colleagues
at the Brief Family Therapy Center in Milwaukee (de Shazer, 1985; de Shazer et
al., 1986). The SFBT approach to helping clients provides a set of therapeutic
techniques for building client competencies and helps clients discover workable
solutions to their mental health problems (Berg & De Jong, 2008). An emphasis
of SFBT is on the process of developing a future solution rather than the past
Johnny S. Kim, PhD, is associate professor, Graduate School of Social Work, the University of Denver, CO. Cynthia Franklin, PhD, is Stiernberg/Spencer family professor in Mental Health, the University of Texas at Austin. Parts of this paper were presented at the National Association of Social
Workers 2012 Conference, Restoring Hope: The Power of Social Work, in Washington, D.C.
2015 Lyceum Books, Inc., Best Practices in Mental Health, Vol. 11, No. 1, Spring 2015

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manifestation of the problem, with the focus being on identifying past successes
and exceptions to the problem, as well as identifying new and novel ways of
responding in future efforts to solve problems (Franklin et al., 2001).
Orchestrating a positive, solution-focused conversation is unique to SFBT and
is sometimes referred to as solution talk. The aims are to create a context for change
where hope, competence, and positive expectancies for change increase and a
client can co-construct with the therapist workable solutions to his or her problems. Goals are also believed to be important to the change process and are created
by the therapist and client working together. Thus, it is critical that therapists foster an open and collaborative working relationship with clients (Dielman &
Franklin, 1998; Lethem, 2002; Lipchik, 2011).
Since its development in the early 1980s, SFBT has attracted increased interest
within the fields of social work and marriage and family therapy and across disciplines (de Shazer et al., 2007; Trepper, Dolan, McCollum, & Nelson, 2006). During the past decade, the outcome research on SFBT has also advanced significantly
(Gingerich, Kim, Geert, Stams, & Macdonald, 2012; Kim, 2008a), resulting in
SFBT being evaluated and recognized as an evidence-based practice for mental
health and substance abuse problems (Kim, Smock, Trepper, McCullom, &
Franklin, 2009). One of the strengths of the SFBT approach is that it has proven
to be very adaptable and transportable to a variety of therapeutic contexts including behavioral health and counseling clinics, school counseling and mental
health services, organizational consulting, management, child protective services,
and coaching. [See Franklin, Trepper, Gingerich, & McCollum (2012) for reviews
of the many ways that SFBT has been adapted and used in various settings.]
Although SFBT has advanced in its recognition as a useful therapeutic and
counseling approach, the theory behind SFBT and the process research that
explains mechanisms for how SFBT may work to produce changes within clients
has not advanced nearly as much. Most recently, microanalysis research has contributed the most to our knowledge of how the change process of SFBT may work.
This research has examined the types of therapy conversations that happen in
SFBT in comparison to those associated with other therapies (Bavelas, De Jong, &
Korman, 2008; Bavelas, McGee, Phillips, & Routledge, 2000; Tomori & Bavelas,
2004). For example, SFBT has been shown to concentrate more on strengths in
clients and to use co-construction of meanings in therapy conversations to facilitate solutions with clients (Bavelas, 2012; McGee, Del Vento, & Bavelas, 2005).
Microanalysis studies examining therapeutic conversations also demonstrate that
therapists employing SFBT as opposed to other therapies use more of the clients
exact words, use more positive words, and make more positive reflections with
clients.
Despite such efforts to understand the therapeutic process of SFBT, knowledge
about the possible theoretical and therapeutic mechanisms for change within
SFBT is in its infancy relative to actual empirical studies that examine these mechanisms. In the most recent review of SFBT process research, however, McKeel
(2012) noted the lack of information on how SFBT techniques create client hope

Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

27

and optimism. There is definitely a need to identify mechanisms for how change
may happen within SFBT. In particular, one approach that shows promise is to
examine how focusing on strengths and solutions may increase positive emotions
and thereby affect a clients ability to discover new ways to resolve presenting
problems. With the recent popularity of positive psychology and studies on positive emotions such as hope, there is an opportunity to reexamine how SFBT works
in relationship to this research, in particular, the role positive emotions play in the
change process of SFBT.
This article will review how emotional processes are conceptualized within SFBT, focusing on theoretical explanations and examples that demonstrate
how positive emotions are an integral part of the SFBT change process and are
an important resource for client change. This article will also discuss how
Fredricksons (1998) broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions adds to the
knowledge base about the SFBT change process, potentially providing additional
theory and empirical evidence for SFBT therapists and researchers trying to
understand how SFBT may be useful to clients. Research evidence from the
broaden-and-build theory that explains how positive emotions may make people
better problem solvers, for example, has potential to be used in future efforts to
study how the change processes of SFBT may work. Finally, this article illustrates
specific ways that SFBT elicits positive emotions, further showing how solutionbuilding conversations may increase positive emotions in clients.
Positive Emotions and Solution-Focused Brief Therapy
The empirical research on positive emotions has been increasing over the last
two decades (e.g., Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005) and at the same time many
disciplines that train therapists have been shifting their focus from client deficits to
client strengths (Kim, 2008b; Seligman, 1999). Positive emotions theory argues
that positive emotions are not simply the absence of negative emotions (e.g., anger,
sadness, frustration, or hopelessness) or just a good feeling a client has, but rather
that they can serve as a therapeutic value in clinical practice (Fitzpatrick &
Stalikas, 2008a). Most of the research and discussion in therapeutic practice
viewed positive emotions as a desired outcome (i.e., I want to be happy again)
and neglected the possibility of positive emotions serving as a vehicle for change
(Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b).
Although the clinical significance of focusing on client strengths and positive
emotions is a fairly new development within the empirical research literature, the
therapeutic literature is replete with descriptions about the important role that
positive emotions play within SFBT (e.g., Berg & De Jong, 1996, 2008; Berg &
Dolan, 2001; Kiser, Piercy, & Lipchik, 1993; Kondrat & Teater, 2012; Lipchik,
2011). For example, positive expectancy, hope, faith, courage, and trust are positive emotions that have been discussed as being important within the SFBT practice literature. Very early in the development of SFBT, de Shazer (1985) discussed
the importance of increasing positive expectancy (i.e., hope) and suggested that

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the perception that change is possible is a critical part of the SFBT processes that
help clients change. Visser and Schlundt Bodien (2009) set out to provide evidence
for de Shazers assertion that clients are able to find solutions to problems and start
solution-building conversations when they are able to describe their positive
behaviors and expect positive changes to occur. They offer a conceptual model
illustrating how positive expectations and behaviors elicited from subtle interventions interact with each other and lead to the change processes that are inherent
in SFBT.
Insoo Kim Berg also frequently discussed the importance of fostering hope in
clients and described how solution-focused conversations create a sense of competence important for helping clients change (e.g., Berg & De Jong, 2008; Berg &
Dolan, 2001). Steve de Shazer and colleagues (2007) further commented that,
One of the most important aspects of SFBT is the general tenor and stance taken
by the therapist. The overall attitude is positive, respectful and hopeful (p. 4). Hope
has also been suggested as a common factor that is important to therapeutic
change, and the techniques of SFBT, in particular, have been suggested to utilize
this common factor (Miller, Duncan, & Hubble, 1997; Snyder, Michael, & Cheavens,
1999). Reiter (2010) explained the importance of the positive emotion of hope in
SFBT: The more that people expect a hopeful outcome, the more they will increase
their agency thinking and, subsequently, their pathways thinking (p. 136). In
other words, the more clients and practitioners expect a hopeful outcome, the more
clients will believe that they can solve their own problems. Furthermore, a new
sense of choice and personal empowerment will help them broaden their attention
toward alternative ways to develop a solution and consequently expand their
options and plans for ways to solve their problems.
Early in the development of SFBT, Kiser, Piercy, and Lipchik (1993) also noted
how positive emotions were integrally a part of helping clients create solutions for
their problems. These authors illustrated numerous ways that therapists could
increase positive emotions to facilitate solutions with clients. For example, one of
the SFBT techniques suggested by Kiser and colleagues for increasing positive
emotions is translating emotional states into more concrete behavioral states so
that a clients situation may be viewed differently and more positively, thus opening up options for change. In this case, a therapist might say, So, when you are
less angry with your husband, what will be happening with you? Another
approach suggested by Kiser and colleagues is joining with the negative emotion
of clients in a paradoxical way so that a client may reverse his or her thinking and
feeling about the situation and be propelled to become more positive. For example,
the therapist would say, What do you imagine things will be like at their worst?
or alternatively, Have you hit rock bottom yet? Using future-oriented questions
and incorporating emotions into goal settingasking clients to focus directly on
positive emotionsis another therapeutic approach recommended by Kiser and
colleagues.
When focusing on generating more positive emotional states, the solutionfocused therapist also purposefully asks clients to reverse negative emotional

Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

29

states. For example, if a client said, I am angry. I want to stop yelling at my son,
the therapist might respond, How will you feel differently when you are not
yelling at your son so much? (Kiser et al., 1993, pp. 236238).
As indicated in the above examples, formulating answers to solution-focused
questions requires clients to think about their relationships and talk about their
experiences in different ways, turning their problem perceptions and negative
emotions into positive formulations for change. In research studies, Bavelas and
colleagues (Bavelas, 2012; Bavelas, De Jong, & Korman, 2008; Tomori & Bavelas,
2004) discovered that there is a unique method to the therapeutic conversations
that happen in SFBT and that these conversations are different from what occurs
in other therapy models. During therapeutic conversations SFBT therapists listen
carefully to each formulation made by clients for specific words and openings in
the conversations where they can punctuate client words and experiences and ask
questions in unique ways to highlight strengths and solutions instead of problems. Although microanalysis research does not specifically address changes in
client emotions resulting from these types of therapeutic conversations, other
process research suggests that clients may feel more hopeful and optimistic after
receiving one or more sessions of SFBT. These findings need to be further investigated in more rigorous research studies (McKeel, 2012).
Theoretical Controversies over the Use of Emotion in
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy
Both SFBT developers and scholars agree that there is a role for emotions, in
particular positive emotions, within the change processes of SFBT. Nevertheless,
the role that emotions play in client change has been a point of controversy
among SFBT developers. For example, SFBT has been criticized for neglecting the
emotions of clients by converting emotional references into contextual and behavioral descriptions [e.g., What will your friend notice about you when you are feeling calm and are less anxious? How will your behavior be different when you are
not so worried about your friend? (de Shazer et al., 2007)]. Lipchik, Kiser, and
Piercy were among the early developers of the SFBT approach and called for better integration of emotional processes and therapeutic alliance into the cognitive
and behavioral descriptions often associated with SFBT techniques. They were
also the most vocal proponents for explaining the role of positive emotions in the
SFBT change process and defended SFBT against critics who suggested that
clients emotional experience is not an important part of the change process in
SFBT (Kiser, Piercy, & Lipchik, 1993; Lipchik, 2011).
Theoretical differences appear to have heightened the controversies over the
role of emotional processes in client change. Solution-focused brief therapy was
developed in a context in which therapists and researchers were trying to discover
effective brief therapy techniques based on clinical observations of therapy sessions. Theoretical explanations for how these change techniques work and guiding theories were determined in a descriptive manner as developers discussed the

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results that they were observing with clients (Lipchik, Derks, LaCourt, & Nunnally,
2012). This allowed for a type of emergent approach by which the developers
allowed more open-ended explorations of possible theoretical mechanisms and
resulted over time in divergent ideas about how to ground SFBT in theory. A divergence of opinions over theory, for example, can be seen in SFBT developers conceptualizations of how emotions work in the change processes within SFBT.
Most of the theoretical controversies appear to be related to the functions of
emotions and their role in behavioral and cognitive change. For example, SFBT
developers have debated the exact definitions of emotions and the phenomenology
of emotional experiences and they have further disagreed about how emotional
experiences may be best addressed within SFBT [see Miller & de Shazer (2000) and
Piercy, Lipchik, & Kiser (2000) for examples of these debates]. These debates and
a lack of empirical investigations on how SFBT facilitates emotional changes have
resulted in different theoretical understandings of how emotional processes work
in SFBT.
Theories Guiding the Emotional Change Processes within
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy
Miller and de Shazer (2000) differentiate SFBT from the processes often associated with emotional change in more traditional psychotherapies. Relying on
philosophical writings of Wittgenstein and theories from phenomenological traditions within sociology, these authors argue for a contextual and social constructionist view of emotions, rejecting the idea that emotional change is absolutely
necessary for achieving behavioral change in clients. In more recent literature, de
Shazer and colleagues (2007) further clarified their position on emotional
processes in SFBT, emphasizing the solicitation of positive emotions and explaining how these positive emotions are important to constructing solutions with
clients:
Clearly then, SFBT deals with emotions in ways that emotions are not dealt
with traditionally. But this does not mean that emotions are either ignored
or minimized. Rather, the approach focuses on the outside, observable factors
and context that define emotions. Furthermore the approach helps clients
focus on the hard work of remembering better feelings by helping to keep
these feelings connected to the contexts that are their home in everyday life.
SFBT does not view emotions as problems to be solved but rather views them
as some of the many resources that clients have for constructing something
better. In other words, helping clients construct situations where they
feel better, and where they can remember that they feel better is one part
of successfully constructing and reinforcing solutions. (de Shazer et al., 2007,
p. 149)
The implications of this viewpoint are that human emotions are to be seen as
a resource for change. Emotional descriptions and reactions are highly dependent

Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

31

on social relationships and different behavioral contexts. Thus, it is most effective

for therapists to work with these interactions when considering emotional change.
Although the solicitation of positive emotions is beneficial in helping clients construct solutions, emotional change is not the main reason that clients are able to
create solutions to their problems.
Other authors have attempted to integrate knowledge from systems theory,
interpersonal theory, and contemporary ideas from research on emotion and neuroscience to explain the importance of emotional processes within SFBT (Kiser et
al., 1993; Lipchik, 2011; Lipchik et al., 2005; Piercy et al., 2000). These authors
suggest that emotions, cognition, and behavior interrelate in ways that influence
one another in a reciprocal fashion. In this view, emotional experiences may have
a powerful influence over cognitions and behavior and shape the perceptions of
clients; in turn, cognition and behavioral contexts may also influence emotional
states. This systemic view further suggests that therapists can work directly with
the emotional experiences of clients, including their negative emotions, to
increase positive emotions in the same way that one may work with increasing
positive behavior or cognition through solution talk to bring forth solutions.
These authors appear to favor directly addressing emotions and, in particular,
negative emotions of clients and believe that this is a helpful process that may
lead to cognitive and behavioral change. Additionally, SFBT techniques may be
used to increase the positive emotions of clients and this may help clients build
solutions just as the SFBT techniques may be used to amplify positive behavior
and cognitions.
Bannink (2007) further argues for a cognitive and behavioral view of emotional
change within SFBT. She contends that a change in behavior appears to be the best
way to modify emotional knowledge and emotional change in SFBT and can be further explained through a process similar to the Bio-Information Theory of Lang
(1985). Bannink states that, According to Langs theory a change in the emotional reaction to certain events and situations implies changing the associative
networks that lie at the basis of those emotional reactions (2007, p. 92). These
associative networks are changed through similar processes that are used within
behavioral analysis and cognitive behavior therapy. The difference is that, within
SFBT, behavioral analyses are made of the exceptions rather than the problem
behavior; this leads to helping clients amplify positive behaviors and cognitions and
in turn to positive changes in emotions. The implications of this viewpoint are that
the focus on exceptions and discussing and repeatedly imagining solutions and further experimenting with tasks based on possibilities for solutions help clients
change their cognitive and emotional reactions to problems, resulting in more competent behavioral responses. This concept is similar to that of an athlete who
repeatedly visualizes and practices psychological and behavioral skills for success.
When the athlete is confronted with the actual competition, this type of positive
mental rehearsal and cognitive preparation helps him or her improve performance.
Most recently, SFBT authors have suggested that knowledge gained from studies within positive psychology on emotional processes are consistent with SFBT

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techniques, the strengths perspective, and beliefs about how clients change (e.g.,
Bannink & Jackson, 2011; Glass, 2009; Lipchik et al., 2005; Liston-Smith, 2008).
This association of SFBT with positive psychology has been spurred on by a wave
of research (Linley, Joseph, Harrington, & Wood, 2006; Rashid, 2009) into the
effects of positive emotions (e.g., joy, happiness, hope, trust, and love) and has subsequently caused SFBT researchers and clinicians to turn their attention to how
positive emotions may help clients to change. The research and theory from positive emotions, however, have not been examined in detail in relationship to how
they might be used in future research studies to inform the change processes
within SFBT. In order to add to the literature on emotional processes within SFBT
and more specifically the role of positive emotions, this article will describe
Fredricksons broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (1998) and illustrate
how change processes of SFBT may work using this theory. In particular, the
authors believe that Fredricksons theory may provide some of the most compelling evidence for explaining how SFBT works and may be used in future
research studies to examine change processes within SFBT.
Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions
Since its introduction, the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions has
developed strong empirical support for its claim that positive emotions can help
generate change in clients (Fredrickson, 1998, 2009; Fredrickson & Branigan,
2005; Fredrickson & Joiner, 2000; Garland et al., 2010). The broaden-and-build
theory of positive emotions emerged because studies on the effects of positive emotions were neglected within psychological research. Fredrickson (1998) sought to
examine what role positive emotions play in individuals momentary thoughtaction repertoires and how this might guide specific interventions to improve psychological well-being. To help test the broaden-and-build theory, Fredrickson and
colleagues conducted several laboratory studies that found support for the broadening of thought-action repertoires, undoing of lingering negative emotions,
increasing resiliency, and improving psychological well-being [see Fredrickson
(2001) for review].
In an effort to apply the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions to clinical practice, Fredrickson (2001) hypothesized that interventions that help build
or reinforce positive emotions can help treat typical problems rooted in negative
emotions such as anxiety, depression, and aggression. Consistent with this
hypothesis, SFBT incorporates specific techniques and questioning that can help
create these positive emotions that will enhance clients intellectual and social
resources (Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b; Visser & Schlundt Bodien, 2009).
Fredrickson (2004) noted that an individuals emotion starts by appraising the
subjective significance of some antecedent event, which Lazarus (1991) referred
to as the person-environment relationship. Solution-focused brief therapy centers
on identifying and magnifying what clients are doing well in relation to solving
their own problems. The premise of SFBT is that the therapist will observe not

Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

33

what the clients are doing wrong, but rather what they are doing well, which can
help create positive emotions for them. Another example involves using compliments, which are an important part of working with clients and can be used to
build positive emotions (Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b).
Under the broaden-and-build theory, positive emotions further elicit thoughtaction repertoires that are broad, flexible, and receptive to new thoughts and
actions whereas negative emotions elicit thought-action repertoires that are limited, rigid, and less receptive. The broadening aspect of this theory posits that, after
a person experiences a positive feeling, he or she is more open and more receptive.
As Fitzpatrick and Stalikas (2008b) state, In an open state, they feel the urge to
contemplate new ideas, develop alternative solutions to problems, reinterpret their
situations, reflect on behaviors, and initiate new courses of action and creative
endeavors (p.139). This may be the key step in helping clients observe exceptions,
make new meanings, and do something different that is touted in SFBT practice literature (de Shazer, 1991).
In addition to broadening, this theory also posits that positive emotions help
build durable resources that can be drawn upon for future use. Whereas positive
emotions may be brief and fleeting, they have lasting positive effects on an individuals ability to function (Garland et al., 2010). Experiencing and accruing positive
emotions help increase clients personal resources and help them transform themselves into more creative, resilient, and knowledgeable individuals (Fredrickson,
2004). Also, because positive and negative emotions are opposites in a continuum,
an individual cannot experience both simultaneously. Therefore, it is this incompatibility between positive and negative emotions thought-action repertoires that
helps to explain how interventions such as SFBT that focus on building positive
emotions can help change an individuals negative emotions (Fredrickson, 2000).
Furthermore, one of the key aspects of positive emotion is the possibility of it negating or even reversing negative emotions, which often narrow an individuals
thought-action range (Fredrickson, 2001). Therefore, clients who experience positive emotions work toward change by replacing their negative perspective that limits their thoughts and behaviors (Fitzpatrick & Stalikas, 2008b). In other words,
they may be able to see more options for change and act upon a range of solutions
that they had not before considered.
Another aspect noted in the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions is
the idea that there is an upward spiral process that is set in motion as clients continue to experience positive emotions. This is counter to the downward spiral path
that can be activated by negative emotions and is often seen in clients who are
experiencing emotional and psychological distress. It is common for clients experiencing psychological problems such as depression or anxiety to dwell on negative thoughts and beliefs about themselves or a particular situation; these
thoughts then lead to dysfunctional behaviors and further perpetuate a downward spiral of psychopathology (Garland et al., 2010). With positive emotions,
the opposite can occur: Upward spirals of positive emotions help clients build
enduring resources of new thoughts, perspectives, and options (Fitzpatrick &

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Stalikas, 2008b). However, in order to counteract the negative emotions, clients

must experience a greater number of positive emotions. Research suggests that, at
minimum, a 3:1 ratio of positive to negative emotions experienced is necessary to
help generate sustained positive changes and undo the impact of negative distress
(Garland et al., 2010).
Solution-Focused Brief Therapy Techniques and Positive Emotions
The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions adds to our understanding
of how SFBT will create better client-therapist relationships and clinical engagement. Solution-focused brief therapy recognizes the potential impact of compliments and subsequent positive emotion on clients ability to focus on the positive.
As Garland and colleagues (2010) suggest, one possible way of raising overall positivity ratios is by focusing attention toward positive experiences and encouraging
positive aspirations or memories, which is also an important component in SFBT.
Figure 1 illustrates how SFBT change processes might be conceptualized using the
broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions.
Solution-focused brief therapy clinical techniques were developed to coach
clients in a solution-building process, which may be interactive with the thoughtaction repertoire process that has been described. Figure 1 depicts how the
solution-building process serves as the overarching framework for engaging the
client in an intervention and provides a method for behavioral and positive emotional change to happen. A process that takes place in a relationship between
client and therapist, solution building starts with a conversation about what the
client wants by identifying a very specific, self-determined goal. The solutionbuilding process proceeds to explore how the client is already competent to
achieve the goal and further co-constructs the conversation between the client
Figure 1

SFBT Change Process

Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

35

and social worker toward identifying behaviors and envisioning steps that can
happen in the future for the goal to be realized in the clients day-to-day life (Berg
& De Jong, 1996). This process might include the client amplifying behaviors and
social interactions that are already present and/or adding newly identified behaviors and interactions that are needed to achieve the goal. Solution building also
elicits commitment from the client to enact the solutions that are identified and
uses compliments and reflections about the clients competent behaviors to reinforce the clients resiliency to sustain his or her commitment and persistence
toward the accomplishment of the goal.
Solution-focused brief therapy techniques coach clients to identify small
behavioral steps (behavioral changes box) that they are already competent to take
and that will make a difference in their presenting problems. As clients see ways to
change their situation and further follow through with this change process, they
feel more hopeful and competent (positive emotions box). This increase in positive
emotions also interacts with the clients behaviors to provide motivation to follow
through on homework tasks and continue amplifying behaviors that are working.
This in turn results in new ways to think and behave (thought-action repertoire
box) and in greater resiliency to keep enacting solutions (solution-building process
box).
Solution-focused brief therapy techniques are most often discussed as methods
to use in a behavioral change process to help clients set goals and envision steps to
solve their problems. As discussed in the SFBT literature for the past twenty years,
however, these same clinical techniques may also increase the positive emotions in
clients (Berg & De Jong, 1996; Berg & Dolan, 2001; Kiser et al., 1993; Lipchik,
2011). The miracle question, for example, is one of the most well-known solutionfocused therapy change techniques. This technique asks clients to shift thinking
and feeling as they visualize and describe a future where the problem no longer
exists. Typically, the miracle question asks, Suppose that one night, while you
were asleep, there was a miracle and this problem was solved. How would you
know? What would be different? How will your husband know without your saying a word to him about it? (de Shazer, 1988, p. 5).
The miracle question has many functions including providing a way to help
clients to describe a concrete goal; it is especially useful when people have difficulty
describing exceptions to their problem patterns. When asking the miracle question, the solution-focused therapist asks clients to describe differences that would
occur when emotional problems were solved. This helps clients shift negative
meanings concerning emotional reactions toward more hopeful and positive
interpretations, thus potentially decreasing negative emotions and interpretations
of behavior. This is a less explored aspect of the miracle question that is part of the
change process that helps clients to shift from negative to positive emotions. For
example, clients are offered opportunities to discover how they may become more
competent, hopeful, and optimistic as they begin to visualize and talk about how
their lives will change. They may also be asked to describe in vivid detail the parts
of their lives where pieces of the miracle may already be happening. This is

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followed by a therapist identifying, with clients, the next steps from the miracle
picture and asking clients for a commitment to take those steps, with an expectation for follow-through. As clients follow through with the next steps, they become
more hopeful and competent and find new resilience to solve their problems.
Best Practices
Despite the SFBT focus on the importance of positive emotions, SFBT developers and therapists have not shown agreement on how to understand emotional
processes within SFBT. Instead, there have been a number of theories and debates
about how emotions and/or positive emotions work in the SFBT change process.
The SFBT literature on emotion is rich in theoretical ideas, but weak in empirical
investigations resulting in anecdotal discussions of SFBT change processes and
techniques. The authors of this article suggest that research into the broadenand-build theory of positive emotions may be laying the groundwork for additional empirical investigations about the role of positive emotions within SFBT
that may involve moderating roles and/or factors that have not yet been examined
in other studies. The authors also believe that SFBT has many advantages that
may enhance positive psychology research because it provides several therapeutic
techniques and proven conversational processes that can potentially enhance
strengths and competencies of clients to solve problems.
Therapeutic techniques for increasing positive emotion are fairly new to positive
psychology and are being invented; however, techniques for increasing strengths of
clients including positive emotion are not new to SFBT, but have existed for many
years and have been successfully applied in diverse practice settings. The fact that
SFBT has now accrued an increasing amount of outcome research (Gingerich
et al., 2012; Gingerich & Peterson, 2013) makes it even more important to begin
to investigate how SFBT methods work and how they may also have potential for
shifting the negative emotional experiences of clients toward positive emotions. For
example, in a review of controlled outcome studies, Gingerich and Peterson found
that SFBT was effective in treating depression in adults; therefore, it may be important to understand how this change process happens.
This is especially important because SFBT has focused on clinical practice and
effective change techniques and its theoretical underpinnings are not as clearly
stated as its change techniques. The lack of research on SFBT change processes
has resulted in ongoing debates about SFBT theory and differences in how SFBT
researchers and scholars view emotional processes. McKergow and Korman
(2009), for example, explain that the SFBT change process relies on no particular
internal mechanism including emotion to explain how SFBT works. Instead, the
changes that occur in SFBT happen in positive, solution-focused conversations
between clients and therapists and can best be understood to be a part of the normal processes that occur in human communication and relationships.
Such explanations, however, do not address the change processes that do occur
in SFBT. As this article has suggested, SFBT researchers and scholars support and

Understanding Emotional Change in Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

37

illustrate positive emotions as being important to the SFBT process; therefore, positive emotions are an important factor to consider. The authors also agree with
Lipchik and colleagues (2005) that SFBT can benefit from a firmer grounding in
theory, but they do not believe that just any theory should be accepted, but only
those theories that are consistent with SFBT processes and are also based in empirical understandings of human behavior and change. That is why they have suggested that the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotion provides a way to
approach research for explaining how SFBT works and that it may be used in
future research studies to examine how emotional change processes work within
SFBT. Research into positive emotion, however, is in no way meant to delimit other
research and understandings of how change works within SFBT, such as those
that have been demonstrated in studies on human communication (e.g., Bavelas,
2012), but rather to expand possible areas for investigation.
Conclusion
Although positive emotions have only recently been discussed in detail within
the psychological research as being important to therapeutic change, the practice
literature on SFBT has discussed these processes for a number of years. For example, the Kiser et al. (1993) article, written about emotional change in SFBT, is rich
with examples of how solution-focused therapeutic techniques may be used to
increase positive emotions in clients. It further discusses why positive emotions are
important to helping clients reverse negative emotions, foster motivation for
change, and develop new ways of thinking and behaving. Kiser, Piercy, and
Lipchik (1993) state that positive emotions can be useful in discovering exceptions
to problems and highlighting positive emotions can assist clients to take action
(p. 237). The Kiser article and other similar SFBT articles (Berg & Dolan, 2001; de
Shazer et al., 2007; Lipchik, 2011) also make similar points in psychotherapy
about the significance of positive emotions in helping people change. These points
are currently being made within the experimental research that is being completed in positive psychology (Garland et al., 2010; Kiser et al., 1993).
In discussing the potential benefits of increasing positive emotion in psychotherapy, for example, Garland and colleagues (2010) note that clients are more
motivated to apply new behavioral skills learned during therapy when they experience positive emotions about themselves and others. In particular, research into
the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions illustrates how this process
may work by cancelling negative emotions that restrict the range of thinking and
behavior and opening up attention, cognition, and behavioral options. Thus, as
positive emotions and thinking spiral, clients become more aware of their solutions and are more able to think creatively and to generate new ways to problem
solve.
This article has argued that positive emotions are an important part of SFBT
and that they have been discussed since the early development of this approach. A
review of therapeutic literature clearly supports the argument that the solicitation

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and reinforcement of positive emotions have been conceptualized by SFBT developers and therapists as being important to the change processes within SFBT and
that emotional processes should be viewed as resources that can help clients
change. In particular, this article has suggested that the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions shows promise for explaining how increases in positive
emotions create greater cognitive flexibility and client competence for generating
solutions.

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