Water Supply and Waste Discharge

WATER SUPPLY ASSIGNMENT
EFFORTS BY:
AAKANKSHA KHATRI
AAKASH DUA
DEEPSHI GUPTA
GARIMA SHARMA
GUNJAN DOGRA
MOHD IRFAN
NIKITA ANEJA
NUPUR GARG
PRATEEK WASON
RISHABH VADERA
RUCHI BAKSHI
TANYA DHINGRA
TARANG MATIA
UMESH INDORIA
The problem of estimating the quantity of water may be tackled by studying in

the following two factors:
Rate of demand
Population
Rate of demand
In order to arrive at a reasonable value of rate of demand for any particular
town, the demand of water for
various purposes is divided under the following five categories:
Domestic purposes
Civic or public purposes
Industrial purposes
Business or trade purposes
Loss and waste
1) Domestic purposes
The quantity of water required for domestic purposes can be sub-divided as
follows:
i. Drinking: The quantity of water which a man would require for drinking
depends on various factors. But on the average and under normal
conditions, it is about 2 liters per day.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Cooking: The amount of water required for cooking may be assumed as

about 5 liters per head per day.
Bathing: For an Indian bath, this quantity may be assumed as about 30 to
40 liters head per day and for tub-bath, it may be taken as about 50 to 80
liters per head per day.
Washing hands, face etc.: The quantity of water required for this purpose
will depend on the habits of people and may roughly be taken as 5 to 10
liters per head per day.
household sanitary purposes: The water required for washing clothes ,
floors, utensils, etc. may be assumed to be about 50 to 60 liters per head
per day.
Private gardening and irrigation: In case of developed cities, there will be
practcally no demand of water for this purpose. In case of underdeveloped
cities, the private wells are generally used to provide water for private
gardening and irrigation. It is therefore not essential to include he quantity
of water required for this purpose in case of public water supply project.
Domestic animals and private vehicles:
2)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Civic and public purposes: the quantity of water required for civic or
public purposes can be sub-divided as follows:
Road washing: On an average, the quantity of water required for this
purpose may be taken as about 5 liters/head/day.
Sanitation purposes: The quantity of water required for this purpose will
depend on the growth of civilization and may be assumed to be about 2 to
3 litres per head per day.
Ornamental purposes: In order to adorn the town with decorative features,
the fountains or lakes or ponds are sometimes are provided. As far as
indian towns are concerned, the quantity of water required for this purpose
may be treated as quite negligible since in most of the towns, the quantity
of water available is enough even to meet with the most urgent needs of
the society.
Fire demand: the fire hydrants are located in the mains at distances of not
more than 150 metres or so. When a fire occurs, the pumps installed on
trucks are immediately rushed to the site of fire occurrence and these
pumps, when connected to the fire hydrants, are capable of throwing
water with high pressure. The fire is thus brought under control.
3)
Business or trade purposes: some trades such as dairies, hotels,

laundries, motor garages, restaurants, stables, schools, hospitals, cinema
halls, theatres, etc. require a large quantity of water. The number of such
business centres will depend upon the population and for a moderate city, an
average value of about 15 to 25 litres of water per head per day may be
taken as water requirement for this purpose.
4) Loss and waste: The quantity of water required under this catergory is
sometimes termed as the unaccounted requirement. It includes careless use
of water, leakage in mains, valves, other fittings, etc. for the purpose of
calculating the average rate of demand, it may be estimated to be about 30
to 40 per cent of per capita consumption.
Factors affecting rate of demand:
1) Climatic conditions: the requirement of water in summer is ore than in
winter. In extreme cold, people may keep water taps open to freezing of
pipes. This may result in increased rate of consumption
2) Cost of water: the rate at which water is supplied to consumers may also
affect the rate of demand. The higher the cost, the lower will be the rate of
demand and vice versa.
3) Distribution pressure: the consumption of water increases with increase in
the distribution pressure. This is due to loss and waste of water at high
pressure.
4)
Habits of population: for high- value premises, the consumption rate of

water will be more due to better standard of living of persons. For middle
class premises, the consumption rate will be average while in case of slum
areas, it will be much lower.
5) Industries: the presence or absence of industries in a city may also affect
its rate of demand. As there is no direct relation between the water
requirement for industries and population, it is necessary to calculate
carefully present and future requirements of industries.
6) Policy of metering: the quantity of water supplied to a building is
recorded by a water meter and the consumer is then charged accordingly.
The installation of meters reduces the rate of consumption. But the fact of
adopting policy of metering is disputable one as seen from the following
arguments which are advanced for and against it.
7) Quantity of water: the improvement in quality of water may result in the
increase of rate of consumption.
8) Sewerage: the existence of sewerage system in a locality will lead to an
increase in use of water for civic or public purposes.
9) Size of city: generally, smaller the city , the lower is rate of demand. But
the presence of a water consuming industry in a small town may result
in a higher rate of demand, even if the town is small.
10) System of supply: the supply of water may be continuous or intermittent.
It is claimed that the intermittent supply of water will reduce the rate of
demand.
Measurement of water:
1)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
2)
i.
Reasons to measure the quantity of water:

To ascertain the quantity of water to supplied free of charge.
To determine the costs of treated water at different stages of operations.
To give an idea of operation efficiencies of various units of the water supply
scheme.
To maintain records for administrative purposes.
To measure the quantity of water to be sold either on retail basis to the
individuals or on wholesale basis to another supply.
To provide a control on operations of various units such as pumps, elevated
reservoirs, chemical feeding devices, etc.
Categories of meters to measure water:
Displacement type: such meters contain a vessel of known volume and the
number of times it is filled and emptied is automatically recorded. This type of
meter is useful for small installations to measure relatively small quantity of
flow as in case of hotels, residential buildings, etc.
ii.
3)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
Velocity type: such meters are turbine or venturi type and they contain a
device by which a vane or propeller turns in direct ratio to the quantity of
flow passing through the propeller. This type of meter is
useful for big installations such as on pumps, water main lines, etc.
Points to select for any water meter: In any case, the following points
should be considered while making selection for any water meter:
accuracy of measurement
Availability of spare parts
Capacity with minimum head loss
Cost
Durability
Ease of repair
Noise during working
Quality of workmanship
Registration with varying discharges
Self cleansing property etc
Effects of variation on design

The water supply units are designed in accordance with the fluctuations or
variations in rate of demand .
i.
the pumps and filters are generally designed for 1.50 times the average
rate of daily demand.
ii. If pumps are working in shifts, the abpve rate is still to be multiplied by the
ratio of 24 hours to pumping hours.
iii. The distribution mains are to be designed for the maximum hourly demand
on maximum day.
iv. The other units of water supply scheme such as sedimentation tanks and
overhead tanks are designed for the average daily rate of demand only.
water requirements for buildings other

than residences:
No.
Type of buildings
Water
requirement
in litres per
day
1.
Cinema and concert halls 15 per seat
2.
Factories
50 Per worker
3.
Hospitals with less than

100 beds
340 per bed
Hospitals with more than

100 beds
450 per bed
Hostels
135 per head
hotels
180 per bed
Medical quarters
135 per head
offices
45 per head
restaurants
70 per head
10
schools
45 per head
Estimating population
The term population is used to indiate the total number of human beings
residing in a certain area at any
particular time.
The future period for which various service units of water supply or sanitary
engineering are designed is known as the period of design.
Period of design for important components of water supply project
no. Component
Period of
design in
years
1.
Clear water service reservoirs
15
2.
Conveying pipes for raw and clear

water
30
3.
Distribution system
30
Electric motors and pumps
15
5.
Infiltration works
30
6.
storage reservoirs
50
7.
Water treatment units
15
The term population density is used to indicate the number of persons per unit
area and the distribution of population is well studied by finding out the
population densities of various parts of the city.
Methods of population
Following are the various methods of population forecasts or population
projections and the selection of method will naturally depend on the
available data:
i. Arithmetical increase method
ii. Geometrical increase method
iii. Incremental increase method
iv. Graphical method
v. Comparative method
vi. Zoning method
vii. Ratio and correlation method
viii. Growth composition analysis method
ix. Logistic curve method
Sources of water supply
Surface runoff
The net quantity of water which remains on the surface after losses from
evaporation, percolation and transpiration is termed as surface runoff.
Seen in the form of various streams which ultimately join and form river
Harmful effects of surface runoff

Economic use requires costly reservoirs or land improvement schemes
Erosion
Loss of water
Occurrence of flood
Factors affecting runoff coefficient
Catchment area
Characteristics of catchment
Condition of ground at the time of rainfall
Intensity of rainfall
Interval between successive hours
Season of rainfall
Yearly rainfall
Note
Runoff coefficient : ratio of surface runoff from an area to the total rainfall on that area
in a fixed interval of time.
Catchment area : upstream area contributing to the water of a river
Precipitation
Water which returns to the surface of earth in forms like rain, snow etc.
Types of precipitation
Convective precipitation
Cyclonic precipitation
Orographic precipitation
Measurement of rainfall
Measured by standard instruments known as rain gauges
Non recording type gauge

Recording or automatic gauge
Following points should be kept in mind while selecting site of rain gauge:
Location
Protection of side
obstruction
Types of sources for water supply

schemes
Surface sources
Underground sources
Factors affecting choice of source of water supply for a particular town or

city
Cost
Elevation
Location
Quality of water
Quantity of water
Surface sources of water supply
Lakes and streams

Ponds
Rivers
Storage reservoirs
Lakes and streams
Lake- large body of water with impervious bed and may be used as a
source of water supply for nearby localities
Streams-formed by surface runoff
Catchment area of lakes and streams is very small, hence low quantity of
water available.
Not considered as principal sources of water supply schemes for large
cities.
Adopted for hilly areas and small towns
Ponds
Man made body of standing water smaller than lake

Formed due to excessive digging of ground for the construction of roads,
houses etc.
Cant be adopted as a source of water supply and its water can only be
used for washing of clothes or for animal washing
Rivers
Principal source of water supply schemes for many cities

Perennial rivers- snow fed , water flows in all seasons
Non-perennial dry in summers, heavily flooded in monsoon
Chief points to be considered in investigating a river supply of water are:
Adequacy of storage of purified water

Efficiency of subsequent stages of purification system adopted
General nature of river, rate of flow and the distance between the sources of
pollution and the intake of water
Relative proportions of the polluting matter and the flow of river when at its
minimum
Storage reservoirs
An artificial lake formed of dam by the construction of dam across a valley
A storage reservoir essentially consists of the following 3 parts:

A dam to hold water
A spillway to allow the excess water to flow
A gate chamber containing necessary valves for regulating the flow of water
Forms of Underground sources of

water supply
Infiltration galleries
Infiltration wells
Springs
wells
Infiltration gallery
Horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water

bearing strata.
Useful source of water supply when ground water is available in sufficient
quantity just below ground level or so.
Usually constructed at depth of about 5-10m form the ground level.
Infiltration wells
In order to obtain large quantities of water, infiltration wells are sunk in

series in the banks of river.
Springs
When underground water appears at the surface for any reason, springs are
formed
Serve as a source of water supply for small towns, especially near hills or
bases of hills.
Hot springs (discharge hot water) cant be used to supply water for domestic
purposes.
Factors to be noted when a spring needs to be developed as a source of
water:
should be easier, cheaper, and surer enough to develop the spring than to adopt
any other source of water supply for the locality
The flow of water should be adequate even in dry weather
should be adequately protected from the pollution sources
Should be located so as to have natural gravity flow
The water should be of good quality
Types of springs:
Artesian spring
Gravity spring
Surface spring
Wells
Artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping water
3 factors which form the basis of theory of wells are:

Geological conditions of the earths surface
Porosity of various layers
Quantity of water which is absorbed and stored in different layers
Types of wells
Shallow wells
Deep wells
Tube wells
Artesian wells
No. Item
Surface sources
Underground sources
1.
Forms in which
available
Lakes, streams, ponds, rivers,

storage reservoirs
Infiltration galleries,
infiltration wells, springs,
wells
2.
Quality of water
Sometimes highly polluted

and unsafe to consume,
contain inorganic impurities,
organic impurities and
industrial wastes
Generally free from

impurities because of natural
filtration but may contain
large amounts of dissolved
salts, minerals and gases
3.
Quantity of water
Huge quantity of water is

available during monsoon,
but is considerably reduced
during summer
Quantity of water available is

generally limited
4.
Treatment
Suitably tested and a line of

treatment is to be decided
before they are adopted for
public use
Can be supplied to public

with no or minor treatment
only
5.
Use
Useful for big towns and

cities, can be adopted for
irrigation facilities as well
Useful for small towns and

villages only
QUALITY OF WATER
PURE WATER
The impurities of water are to be removed so that it does not prove harmful
for public health.
Uses of water: domestic, civic(washing of roads, sewers),trade or business use
(laundry) , commercial or industrial use
Impurities in water:
Physical impurities
Chemical impurities
Bacteriological impurities
ANALYSIS OF WATER
Physical tests
Chemical tests
Bacteriological tests
PHYSICAL TESTS
1. colour:
sources contributing colour to the water.
Algae metabolism
End products of degraded organic matter
Discharge of untreated and partially treated waste water from various
industries
Divalent species containing iron and manganese
Tintometer: instrument used to measure colour in water
Disadvantages of water possessing colour:
Many colour bodies in nature are colloidal and behave as absorbents. Thus,
they exert toxicity to aquatic life.
Coloured water in unsuitable for various industries like dairy production,
laundry etc.
Coloured water retard photosynthetic reactions.
2.taste and odour:

Odour is expressed as disagreeable, earthy, fishy, grassy, mouldy, peaty, sweetish
etc.
Taste is expressed as blackish, saline, salty, etc.
3.temperature:
Multiplication of bacteria in water is more rapid at higher temperature than in
waters at lower temp.
4. turbidity:
The colloidal matter present in water interferes with passage of light and thus
impart turbidity to water.
Caused due to clay and silt particles, discharges of sewage, microorganisms, etc.
Instruments used to measure turbidity: turbidity rod, Jackson turbidimeter,
naphelometric turbidimeter.
CHEMICAL TESTS
Tests are carried out to examine water for:
Chlorides
Dissolved gasses
Hardness
Hydrogen-ion concentration(pH value)
Alkalinity
Acidity
Metals and other chemical substances
Nitrogen and its compounds
Total solids
BACTERIOLOGICAL TESTS
Total count or agar plate count test
B-coli test:the combined group of pathogenic(harmful) and nonpathogenic(harmless) bacteria is designated by bacillus coil(bacterium &
intestine) or b-coli test
WATER-BORNE DISEASES
Diseases carried out by water : cholera,dysentery, typhoid, etc.
Caused by pathogenic bacteria.
SEDIMENTATION TANKS
The first stage of treatment is PREFILTRATION of water and it includes provision
of sedimentation tanks or settlement tanks or clarifiers.
They are designed to give complete rest to the flowing water or water is allowed to
flow at a very slow pace.
To make the process of sedimentation tans effective, the coagulants are added to
the water before it is brought to the sedimentation tanks.
THEORY OF SEDIMENTATION
In water there are mainly two types of impurities :
1. Inorganic suspended solids ( heavier)
2. Organic suspended solids (lighter )
The phenomenon of settling down of particles at the bottom of the sedimentation
tanks
is known as the HYDRAULIC SUBSIDENCE.
The process of settlement of particles is obstructed by three forces:

1. Velocity of flow
2. Size and shape of particle
3. Viscosity of water
TYPES OF SEDIMENTATION
TANKS
1.FILL AND DRAW TYPE TANKS
The water is filled and then allowed to rest for some time.
The particles settle down at the bottom.
The clear water is then drawn off and the tank is cleaned and filled again.
Period of rest to cause settlement = 24 hours or so
DISADVANTAGES
1. Labor and supervision - These tanks are to be filled ,emptied , washed,

cleaned everyday. These operations require manual labor and expert
supervision.
2. Loss of head In this type of tank , the loss of head is equal to the height
of the silt zone takes place as outlet valve is situated above that zone.
3. Units of tanks The minimum units of tanks required is three, which
makes it less economical.
4. Wastage of time There is considerable wastage of time in filling ,
emptying and cleaning the tank. In addition a clear water storage tank is
to be provided.
2. CONTIONUOS FLOW TYPE TANKS

Principle if velocity of water is reduced , a large amount of suspended impurities
form water can be easily removed.
The water enters from one end, exits from the other. The velocity is broken or
reduced by means of baffle walls. These walls contain openings at different levels.
The velocity of flow from one end to other is more than the time for settlement of
impurities.
The silt is deposited at the bottom of the tank and when it accumulates in sufficient
quantity , the flush valve is opened and the tank is cleaned.
ADVANTAGES
1. Less labor and supervision - No manual labor is required except at the time of
cleaning . Only general supervision is required.
2.
Little loss of head The outlet is situated at the top of the tank and hence
there is practically very little loss of head.
3. Tanks in series These are arranged in series and hence any one of them
maybe isolated for cleaning or washing purpose. The provision area for
standby units works out comparatively less.
4. Time of operation as the flow of water is continuos , there is no wastage of
tome . No clean water storage tanks are required .
COAGULATION OF WATER
The water, even after sedimentation, is turbid and contains suspended impurities
like fine particles of clay and silt.
It also possesses color which is due to colloidal matter and dissolved organic
material.
All these impurities are in a finely divided state and it not possible to detain them
in plain sedimentation tanks.
So to remove these impurities, the size of the particles is increased by adding
certain chemicals, known as the coagulants.
The coagulants react with the impurities and convert them into a settle able size.
The most common coagulants used for the process are:
Aluminium Sulphate, Chlorinated Copperus, Ferrous sulphate & lime,
Magnesium Carbonate, Polyelectrolytes, Sodium Aluminate
The process of coagulation assists the process of sedimentation and is followed by
the process of filtration.
The coagulants may be fed or allowed to enter water either in powder form (dry
feeding) or in solution form (wet feeding).
Devices used for this purpose are:
Centrifugal pumps, Compressed Air, Hydraulic Pump, Mixing Channel, Mixing
basins with baffle walls, Mixing basins with mechanical means
DISINFECTION OF WATER
When water leaves the filter plant, it is still found to contain some of the
impurities, such as
Bacteria
Dissolved inorganic salts
Color , odor and taste
Iron and manganese
The water should be disinfected before it enters the distribution system.
The main purpose of disinfection is to prevent contamination of water during its
transit from the treatment plant to the place of its consumption.
The materials or substances which are used for disinfection are called the
disinfectants.
Requirements of a good disinfectant are:
Its dose should be such that some residual concentration is obtained to
grant protection against contamination in the water during its conveyance
and retention.
It should be effective in killing all the harmful pathogenic organisms from the
water and make it perfectly safe for consumption.
It should be harmless, unobjectionable, economical and easily available.
It should be of such nature that its strength or concentration in the treated
water can be quickly determined.
It should not require skilled labour and costly equipment for its application.
It should take only reasonable time in killing the harmful pathogenic
organisms at normal temperature.
METHODS OF DISINFECTION
CHLORINATION
In this treatment for disinfection, the chlorine and its compounds are used
as the disinfecting material.
However chlorine is a poisonous gas which requires careful handling and it
may also give rise to the problem of taste and odor in water.
The action of chlorine is directly proportionate to the pH value of water.
At high pH value for e.g. above 8.50, the chlorine cannot be relied
upon and when pH value is below 7.00, disinfection by chlorine is
rapid.
As the action of chlorine is not instantaneous, an adequate contact time
must be allowed.
The contact time varies from one to four hours or more, and it mainly
depends on the impurities present in the water.
The temperature also has a noticeable effect on chlorination. The delay

occurs in cold in both germicidal and absorption of chlorine.
The water should be so prepared that chlorine can be properly, reliably and
efficiently applied
ADVANTAGES OF CHLORINATION :
It accomplishes greater bacterial purification in minutes than storage
achieves in an equal number of days, thus eliminating the need of costly
storage reservoirs.
It works better against water- borne diseases.
It serves as a convenient accessory to the process of filtration
FORMS OF CHLORINATION
Depending upon the stage of treatment at which chlorine is added and also the
expected results of chlorination, the various forms of chlorination comes into
existence.
Plain chlorination
Pre- chlorination
Post chlorination
Double- chlorination
Break point chlorination
Super- chlorination
Dechlorination
PLAIN CHLORINATION : when chlorine treatment is given to raw water to

control the growth of algae , remove bacteria and color from the water, it is
called Plain Chlorination.
PRE- CHLORINATION : when chlorine is added to the raw water before
any treatment, it is known as Pre- Chlorination. A small dosage of chlorine
is added to raw water before it enters to sedimentation tanks.
POST- CHLORINATION : the application of chlorine after all the treatments
of purification of water are completed is known as Post- Chlorination.
This is the standard treatment and chlorine is added to the water after it
leaves rapid sand filters and before it enters the distribution system.
DOUBLE CHLORINATION : when water is added to the raw water at more
than one point, it is known as the Double chlorination. When raw water is
highly contaminated and contains large amount of bacterial life, it becomes
important to adopt both pre- chlorination and post- chlorination.
BREAK POINT CHLORINATION: this refers to the amount of chlorine required to treat
the water.
SUPER- CHLORINATION : the application of chlorine beyond the stage of break point
is known as super- chlorination. The excess chlorine can be added at any stage or
stages of the treatment , but usually it is added at the end of filtration.
DECHLORINATION : the removal of excess chlorine from water is known as

Dechlorination.
The dechlorination should be done in such a way that at the end of the
process, some residual chlorine remains in water. This residual chlorine
will disinfect water when it is flowing through the distribution system.
some dechlorinating agents are: sodium thiosulphate, sodium bisulphate,
activated carbon etc.
OTHER MINOR METHODS OF DISINFECTION
Boiling method
Excess lime treatment : the treatment of lime is given to the water for the
removal of dissolved salts. Lime also acts a disinfecting material when added
in excess in water.
Iodine and bromine treatment : the use of iodine and bromine is limited to
small water supplies such as private plants, swimming pools, etc.
Ozone treatment : the advantage of ozone treatment is that ozone is unstable
and it does not remain in the water when it reaches the consumer.
Ozonisation is however costly and complicated compared to chlorination
and it requires skilled labors.
Potassium permanganate treatment : this disinfectant works as a powerful

oxidizing agent and is found to be effective in killing cholera bacteria.
Silver treatment
Ultra violet ray treatment : invisible light rays beyond the violet spectrum are
very effective in killing all types of bacteria.
The treatment doesnt develop any taste or color in the water because
no chemicals are used in the process and there is no danger of
overdose.
But as the treatment is costly it is unsuitable for large scale treatment
plants .
It can however be adopted for water supply installations of private
institutions like pharmaceutical, food and beverage, chemical, drugs,
dairy and paint industry for processed water and waste water
USES OF UV- SYSTEM :
For microbial reduction
For ozone destruction
In tertiary treatment
Water softening
Purpose
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The water to be supplied to the public should not be very hard though there is
fear of no health hazard, but is undesirable as it leads to several economic
disadvantages.
It affects the working of dyeing system and leads to the modification if some
colors.
It causes corrosion and incrustation of pipes and plumbing fixtures.
It causes more consumption of soap in laundry work and hence, proves to
be uneconomical for washing processes of textile industries.
It increases the fuel costs.
It makes the food tasteless, tough or rubbery.
It provides scale on the boilers and hot water heating system.
Types of hardness
Temporary hardness
Permanent hardness
Temporary hardness
Also known as carbonate hardness and it is mainly due to the presence of
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Removal of temporary hardness: temporary hardness can be easily removed by using
the following method:
1.
Boiling the water
2.
Adding lime to the water
Permanent Hardness
Also known as non-carbonate hardness and it is mainly due to the presence of

sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and magnesium.
Removal of permanent hardness: the permanent hardness cannot be easily removed
with water. The special treatment, known as the water softening treatment, is to be
given to the water.
Methods adopted for water softening treatment:-
1.
Lime soda process
2.
Zeolite process
3.
Demineralization
4.
Reverse osmosis
Lime-Soda process
In this process, the lime and sodium carbonate or soda ash are
used to remove permanent hardness from water.
Advantages of lime-soda process:
pH value of water is increased which results in decrease in the corrosion of the
distribution system
Less amount of coagulant is required
There is a likelihood of killing pathogenic bacteria.
This process is economical
The process is easy and simple and can be accommodated in the existed filter
plant of any water suplly scheme.
Disadvantages of lime- soda process
The large quantity of sludge formed during the process is to be disposed off by
some suitable method.
The process requires skilled supervision for its successful working
This process can only remove water hardness up to about 50mg/l. thus the
water of zero hardness cannot be produced by this process. But as water of zero
hardness is not required for the public water supply, this disadvantage does not
prove to be serious.
Zeolite process
This process is also known as base exchange or ion exchange process. The
zeolites are the compound of aluminium, silica and soda.
Advantages of Zeolite process
No sludge is formed in this process. Hence the problem of sludge disposal
doesnt arise.
The zeolite unit is compact in design. And can be easily operated so it does not
requires any skilled supervision.
This process removes hardness of water to about zero. So it has got particular
importance for the water to be used in the boilers and certain textile industries.
Disadvantages of Zeo lite process
This process can not to be adopted for highly turbid water
This process is unsuitable for water containg iron and manganese.
The zeolite unit should be carefully operated to avoid injury or damage to the
equipment or the quality of water.
Demineralization process
This process in also known as deionisation process. It is similar to zeolite process

but in this process, the hydrogen is exchanged for metallic ions.
This process is mainly used for preparing water to be used for the industrial
purposes.
Reverse Osmosis process

Reverse osmosis, which is also known as hyperfiltration, is the finest filtration
known. It works on the principle of diffusion.
Diffusion means movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration. And osmosis is a special case of diffusion in
which movement of molecules occurs through a semi permeable membrane.
The most common use of reverse osmosis is in purifying water. It is used in

commercial and residential water filtration to desaline water.
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS
OF WATER TREATMENT
1. Color, odor and taste removal
2. Iron and manganese removal
3. Fluoridation
Some Special Methods To Remove

Color, Odor And Taste
1.
Aeration: The process aims at bringing water in intimate contact with air.
Methods of aeration:
Air diffusion: The perforated pipes are installed at the bottom of tanks and air is
blown through them.
Cascades: a cascade is a waterfall and a simple cascade consists of a series of
three four steps.
Spray nozzles: water is sprinkled in fine jets through nozzles at a height of
about 2.5m.
Trickling beds: beds of coke and slag are prepared and water is allowed to
trickle down from the top to the bottom of the bed.
2. Treatment by activated carbon: activated carbon is applied either as a filter

media or in a powder form.
3. Use of copper sulphate:
In distribution pipes, a solution of copper sulphate is prepared and is just
added at the entry of water distribution system.
In open reservoirs, powdered cuso4 may be sprinkled, or placed in open
bags which are attached behind moving boats, or a solution maybe simply
sprayed.
Iron and manganese removal
When iron and manganese occur in water without combination with organic
matter, they can be removed by aeration followed by coagulation,
sedimentation and filtration.
When they occur in combination with organic matter, the bond between
them maybe broken by adding lime or adding chlorine or potassium
permanganate
Fluoridation
The fluoridation is aimed to improve the physical comfort with respect to the
dental caries of the people drinking such water.
Usual fluoride compounds which are added to water are sodium fluoride, sodium
hexafluorosilicate and hexafluorosilic acid.
Defluoridation: To remove excess of fluoride. Can be done by adding activated

carbons, calcium phosphate, bone charcoal etc.
Conveyance Of Water
Conveyance of water is
Drawing of the water
from the sources known
as intake
Leading the water from
intakes to purification
and then to consumers
Intake
It is a structure constructed around the water surface. It is watertight and

may be of stone, brick, RCC or concrete.
Considerations of location of intake are:
Controlling device
Cost
Navigation channels
Permanency of supply
Quality of water
situation
Design of intakes
Consideration factors in the design of intakes are:

Factor of safety-so that it resists the external force caused by waves
and currents
Foundations- depth of foundation should be sufficient so that no
damage is done by currents.
Protection of sides
Screens or strainers-it is provided at entry of intake which avoids the
entry of floating matter and fish
Self-weight-it should be of adequate self weight so that it doesnt wash
away. Broken stones should be added at the bottom.
Size and number of inlets
Types of intakes
Canal intakes-it is
constructed in the canal
section
River intakes
Portable intakes-in case of

emergencies it becomes
necessary to draw water with
the help of movable intake. It
is a truck with a pumping
plant. The pump is placed on
site and the suction pipe is
immersed just above the bed
level of water.
Reservoirs or lake intakes- it

consists of intake well which is
placed near the dam.
Intake tower
They are used for large projects where there are chances of
considerable fluctuations of water level. They are made of concrete.
They are of two types:
1. Dry intake tower-there is
no water inside the tower
when gates are closed.
The water is drawn directly
into the outlet pipe through
gate controlled entry ports.
2. Wet intake tower- the
water enters from the
open entry port and then
enters the outlet pipe
through separate gate
controlled entry ports.
Pipes
The pipe material is selected while keeping in view of the forces resisted by
it- the stress due to water pressure, stress due to temperature, stress due to
change of direction etc.
Materials used for pipe are
Asbestos cement pipe
Cast iron pipes
Cement concrete pipe
Copper pipe
Galvanised iron pipe
Lead pipe
Plastic pipe
Steel pipe
Wood pipe
Wrought iron pipe
Pipe
Advantage
Disadvantage
Asbestos cement pipe- it is

mixture of asbestos fibres
and cement
i.
ii.
Inside surface is smooth

Joining of pipes is good
and easy.
iii. Anti-corrosive and cheap
iv. Light weight
v. Suitable for distribution
pipes
i.
Cast iron pipe- it is made

from pig iron with surfaces
given corrosion treatment
i. Cost is moderate
ii. Easy to join
iii. Not subjected to
corrosion
iv. Strong and durable
v. Life span is 100 years or
so
i.
ii.
Cement concrete pipesi.

maybe plain,reinforced or
ii.
prestressed with dia varying
500mm to 2500mm or more. iii.
iv.
Brittle and cant stand

impact forces
ii. Not durable
iii. Cant be laid in exposed
places
iv. Can be used for low
pressure
Large breakages
Carrying capacity
decreases with increase
in life of pipe
iii. Not for
pressure>0.7N/sq.mm
iv. They become heavier
and uneconomical when
dia>1200mm.
Low maintenance cost

i.
Durable with 75 years
life span
Can be casted at the site
Heavy in weight and
ii.
hence can withstand
If no reinforcement then
no tensile strength and
thus cant withstand
pressure
Heavy and difficult to
transport
Pipe
Advantages
Copper pipes
i.
Dont sag or bend due to i.

hot water
ii. Dont corrode
ii.
iii. Can be bent easily
Use is restricted for hot

water in buildings
Costly
Galvanised iron pipe- dia

vary from 6mm to 75mm
i.
Can be affected by acidic

or alkaline water
Short life of pipe of 7 to
10 years
ii.
Lead pipes
i.
ii.
Steel pipes
i.
Disadvantages
Cheap, light in weight,

easy to handle and
transport
Easy to join
i.
Can be easily bent and

hence less number of
specials are required in
joinery.
Adopted for apparatus
required for alum and
chlorine dosages.
i.
ii.
Not used for water

transport
ii. If proper care is not
taken, can cause lead
poisioning
iii. Reacts with acidic water
iv. Sag or bend due to hot
water
Available in long lengths i.

hence less joints
ii.
ii. Cheap in first cost.
iii. Durable and can resist
high internal water
iii.
Maintenance cost is high

Likely to be rusted by
slightly acidic or alkaline
water
Require more time for
Pipes
Advantages
Plastic pipe- they are black in i.

colour and resistant to most
of the chemicals.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Wood pipes- they are planks i.
of wood held together by
steel bands
Wrought iron pipes
i.
ii.
Disadvantages
Freedom from damage

due to thawing and
freezing of water
Cheap
Durable and enough
strength to resist impact,
sunlight etc
Flexible and low
hydraulic resistance
Free from corrosion
Good electric insulators
Light in weight and easy
to bend, join and install.
Available in coils and
thus easy to transport.
i.
Light weight
i.
Light weight
Can be easily cut,
Coefficient of expansion
is large
ii. Difficult to obtain the
plastic pipe of uniform
composition.
iii. Less resistant to heat
iv. Some types of plastic
may impart taste to
water.
ii.
Alternate conditions of
dryness and wetness can
cause wet rot
Cant bear high pressures
i.
ii.
Costly
Less durable
Pipe corrosion
Factors of pipe corrosion are:

Acidity
Alkalinity
Biological action
Chlorination
Electrical currents
Mineral and organic constituents
Oxygen
Effects of pipe corrosion are:
Disintegration of pipe
May impart colour, taste or odour
to water
May make water unfit for drinking
Prevention of pipe corrosion:
Cathodic protection
Proper pipe material
RADIAL SYSTEM OF WATER

SUPPLY
This is a zoned system.

Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs.
From the reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes
The pressure calculations are easy in this system.
Layout of roads need to be radial to eliminate loss of head in bends.
This is most economical system also if combined pumping and gravity flow is adopted.
This system is not adopted in India, because for this system the roads should be
laid out radial from the centre.
This system is the reverse of ring system.
The entire district is divided into various zones and one reservoir is provided for
each zone, which is placed in the centre of zone.
PIPE APPURTANANCES
The distribution pipes are provided with various pipe appurtenances or
accessories so as to make the distribution of water easy and effective
Air valves
Bib cocks
Fire hydrants
Reflux valves
Relief valves
Scour valves
Sluice valves
Stop cocks
Water metres
1. Air Valves
Also called air relief valves.
Some quantity of air is contained in the flowing water and this air tries to
accumulate at high points along the water pipes. In order to provide an
exit for such accumulated air, the air valves are provided at summits along
the water pipe.
The air valves should be located at points which are close to or above the
hydraulic gradient. If air valves are not provided, there are chances for
pipes to be air-locked.
The effective area of flow and consequently the discharge through water
pipe are greatly reduced due to air-locking.
The provision of air valves along water pipe also helps in admitting air
quickly when vacuum occurs in water pipe due to sudden breakdown of
water pipe at low points.
An air valve consists of a cast-iron chamber,

float, lever and poppet valve. The chamber
may be circular or rectangular in shape. TA
poppet valve is a valve that is lifted bodily. The
working of the air valve is as follows:
o In the normal condition, the chamber is
full of water drawn from water pipe. The
float therefore touches the roof of
chamber and poppet valve is in a closed
position.
o When air from water pipe enters the
chamber, it starts accumulating just below
the roof of chamber. This accumulation of
air makes the lever to work and to bring
down the float.
o When air escapes, the water rises again in
the chamber and the lever works to raise
the float. It ultimately results in the
closing of poppet valve before escape of
water takes place through it.
o The action of air valve is then repeated.
2. Bib Cocks
These are the water taps which are attached at the end of water pipes and
from which the consumers obtain water.
It is operated from a handle and when handle is turned, the opening from
which water comes out , gets increased or decreased in size.
The bib cocks may also be of push type and they operate automatically.
They open out when a slight push is given and close down as soon as the
push is removed or withdrawn.
3. Fire Hydrants
A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping water mainly in case of
fire.
Location:
The number of fire hydrants in distribution system and their location depend on various
factors such as utility of buildings, requirement of water for fire fighting, chances of fire
occurrence, population of area, etc.
the fire hydrants are placed at all street junctions and they are so located that if a circle
of about 60 to 90 metres is drawn from any hydrant, it will partly overlap that of the
adjoining hydrant
Requirement of a Fire Hydrant: Following are the requirements of a good fire

hydrant:
o
o
o
It should be cheap.
It should be easily detectable in case of a fire.
It should be of such nature that it can be easily connected with the hose or motor
pump.
o It should function properly and should not go out of order during operation.
o It should permit undisturbed flow of water when being fully opened.
Types of Fire Hydrants

1.Flush Hydrant:
A flush hydrant is provided below the footpath or street level and it is protected or
covered by cast-iron box or brick masonry chamber.
The flush hydrant is more safely attached to the water pipe and cannot therefore be easily
dislocated. However it is not prominently seen and hence, some arrangement has to be
made to detect easily when a fire occurs. Usually a plate with letters F.H. (Fire Hydrant)
is attached on some nearby permanent structures, such as building, compound wall,
light-post, telephone-post, big tree, etc.
2.Post Hydrant:
a post hydrant is provided projecting
above the road level and its height
above road level is about 1 m to 2 m.
this type of hydrant is more prominent
and can be easily detected when a fire
occurs.
However it is liable to be damaged by
mischief or misuse.
Working: When the nut is operated by a key, the valve goes up and it allows the water from
water pipe to rise and to fill the barrel. The water is then delivered from the outlet. The
diameter of outlet should correspond to the diameter of hose to be attached to it. The usual
diameter is about 60 mm or so.
4.Reflux Valves
Also known as the check valves or non-return valves.

A reflux valve is an automatic device allows water to go in one direction only. The
swing type of reflux valve is widely used in practice.
When water moves in the direction of arrow, the valve swings or rotates around
the pivot and it is kept in an open position due to the pressure of water. When
flow of water in this direction ceases, the water tries to flow in a backward
direction. But in this case, the valve occupies its seat and it thus prevents the
passage of water in the reverse direction.
The reflux valve is invariably placed in water pipe which obtains water directly
from pump. When pump fails or stops , the water will not run back to the pump
and thus the pumping equipment will be saved from the damage. Similarly at
inter-connections between a polluted water system and a potable water system,
the provision of reflux valve will prevent the entry of polluted water into the pure
water.
5.Relief Valves
These are also known as the automatic cut-off valves or safety valves.
The load on the spring is adjusted to the maximum pressure.
The relief valves are located at every point along the water pipe where
pressures is likely to be maximum.
When pressure of water exceeds a predetermined limit, the valve
operates automatically and it will save a particular section of water pipe
before bursting of pipe takes place.
6.Scour Valves
These are also known as the blow-off valves or drain valves or washout
valves.
These are ordinary sluice points in mains.
They are operated to remove sand or silt deposited in the water pipe.
They are operated with hand and closed down as soon as clear water is
seen passing through them.
7.Sluice Valve
These are also known as the gate valves or shut-off valves or stop valves.
These valves control the flow of water and are helpful is dividing the
water mains into suitable sections.
They are generally placed at a distance of about 150 m to 200 m and at
all junctions.
For long straight mains, the sluice valves can be installed at a distance of
about 1 km also to divide the pipe in different sections.
The raising or lowering of valve is carried out by rotating the handle from
top.
8.Stop Cocks
These are small sized sluice valves and they are installed in service pipes
serving the bib cocks.
They operate on the same principle of sluice valve and they are usually
used upto sizes of about 50 mm.
They are placed on water pipe leading to flushing tanks, wash basins,
water tanks, etc.
9.Water Meters
These are the devices which are installed on the pipes to measure the
quantity of water flowing at a particular point along the pipe.
The readings obtained from the metres help in working out the quantity of
water supplied and thus the consumers can be charged accordingly.
The water meters are usually installed to supply water to industries,
hotels, big institutions, etc.
The water meters can be classified into the following two categories:
(1)Positive displacement type meters:
The positive displacement type meters record the number of times a container of
known volume is filled and emptied with water.
(2)Velocity Meters:
The velocity meters work on the principle of velocity of entering water and
higher the velocity of water, more will be the discharge through meter. The
turbine meters and venturi meters come under this category.
Following are the requirements of a good water meter:

o It should accurately measure the discharge of water to the permissible
tolerance of about 2% and capable of registering even a small quantity of
flow of water.
o It should be easy to repair and to maintain in good working conditions.
o It should contain an arrangement in the from of a screen at the inlet do
that the entry of grit is prohibited.
o It should not offer any resistance or obstructions to the natural flow of
water and should be non-corrosive.
Water Pollution And Water

Management
Sources of Water Pollution
Domestic Sewage
Industrial Waste
Catchment Area
Distribution System
Oily Wastes
Radioactive Wastes
Source of Water Supply
Storage Reservoir
Travel of Water
Types of Water Pollution

(1) Physical Pollution
Occurs due to following factors : Color
Taste and Odour
Temperature
Turbidity
Suspended Matter
Radioactivity
Foam
(2) Chemical Pollution

Pollution due to inorganic chemicals : Acids
Alkalies
Toxic Inorganic Compounds
Dissolved Inorganic Substances
Suspended Inorganic Substances
Types of organic pollution in water : Suspended organic substences
Dissolved organic substances
(3) Bacteriological Pollution

Occurs due to presence of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, parasitic worms,
etc.
Sources are : Domestic Sewage
Industrial Waste
Preventive Measures
Administration
Catchment Areas
Closed cycle operations for industrial plants
Conservation of forests
Design
Discharge into water sources
Economic use of water
Funds
Joint responsibily
Legal provisions
Personnel
Planning of towns
Propaganda
Regulations
Research
Re - use
Water Management
Some salient aspects are : Hydrosphere
Hydrological Cycle
Water Exchange
Transport of water
Measures For Re Shaping Local Water

Balance
Adequate and proper treatment of industrial waste.

Adopting suitable measures for water pollution.
Construction of storage reservoirs.
Cultivation and preservation of productive forests.
Developing large scale underground water reservoir.
Improving characterstics of catchment area for rivers and strems.
Soil improvement techniques.
Conservation of Water Resources
New techniques should be found out for reducing water requirements of

industries having high water demand.
Water per unit farm should be reduced.
Economical use of water should be encouraged.
Dumping of sewage into natural water resources should be avoided.
Industries must reduce their requirements for the water consumption.
The water conservation should form a part of the water use.
The water use and conservation should be achieved through the multi
purpose projects.
Radioactivity and Water

Supplies
Radioactive Sources
Atomic Reactors
Nuclear Explosions
Soils and Rocks
Use of Radioactive Substances
Waste of Radioactive Substances
Disposal of Radioactive Waste
Dilution (diluted with inert materials)

Storage (waste are stored till they decayed and become harmless)
Reclamation (converted to usefull products)
Effect of Treatments of Water
The coagulation is not effective in removing radioactive substances.

The sand filters only remove colloidal matter held in suspension.
The lime soda softening process is fairly effective.
The zeolite or ion exchanging method is proving to be effective.
Recommended Methods
Phosphate coagulation
Electro dialysis
Adding clay materials
Adding metallic dusts
Distillation of water
COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE

OF REFUSE
COLLECTION AND CONVEYANCE OF REFUSE
The solid and liquid waste are to be properly collected and conveyed at
suitable spot.
The refuse formed should be rapidly , conveniently and safely carried to
disposal site to maintain clean environment.
METHODS OF CARRYING
WASTE REFUSAL
CONSERVANCY SYSTEM
- Different types of refuse are collected separately and
then disposed off.
-The garbage of refuse is collected from roads and
streets and then carried to suitable places.
WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

-In this system, water is used to convey the sewage
to the point of treatment of water disposal.
-Garbage is collected similarly like conservancy
system . The storm water may be carried separately
or may be allowed to flow with sewage
SYSTEM OF SEWERAGE
There are three methods of sewerage
1. Separate system
2. Combined system
3. Partially separate system
-Separate system - In this system , two sets of sewerage is laid. One for carrying
sewerage to treatment plan and in the other ,water is directly discharged into
natural outlet ( river or stream )
-Combines system - In this system , only one set of sewerage is laid which carries
both , sewerage and water waste
-Partially separate system - This system permit early washings by rain into sewers
by sewage. But , when the quantity of storm water exceeds a particular limit , it is
collected and conveyed in open drains to the natural river or streams.
TYPE OF SEWERAGES
TYPE OF SEWERAGES
Dry weather flow
-Domestic or
sanitary sewage
- Industrial waste
Storm water
CONSTRUCTION OF SEWERS
MATERIALS FOR SEWERS

Factors to be considered while selecting materials for the sewers;
Cost : it should be moderate and reasonable
Durability : material should be durable to prevent frequent
replacements
Imperviousness : the material should be impervious in nature
Abrasion resistant
Corrosion resistant
Strength : sewers are generally laid underground hence subjected to
heavy external loads thus requires a strong construction material
Weight : the material should possess moderate weight so as to make
handling and carrying of sewers easy
MATERIALS USED :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Asbestos cement sewers

Brick sewers
Cast iron sewers
Cement concrete sewers
Corrugated iron sewers
6. Plastic sewers
7. Steel sewers
8. Stoneware sewers
9. Wood sewers
ASBESTOS CEMENT SEWERS
these sewers are made from mixture of asbestos fibers and cement
are available in sizes up to 900 mm diameter
Advantages :
Its easy to cut and join these sewers
are durable against soil corrosion and offer good resistance to salts, acids
and other corrosive materials
inside surface is exceptionally smooth thus offering least resistance to
friction
light in weight thus easy to handle
Disadvantages :
These sewers are brittle and cannot stand impact forces during handling
processes
Structural strength of the material is poor thus cannot be laid to resist
heavy external loads
BRICK SEWERS
Earliest forms of sewers were made of brick
At present not favored mainly because of more labor involved their
construction
CAST-IRON SEWERS
Available in sizes varying from 150 mm diameter to 750 mm diameter

They possess high strength
They are durable
Their surfaces should be coated with paint or cement concrete to resist the
action of acids in sewage
They are watertight
They are adopted for special purposes, such as :
Danger of contamination : they are used where sewers are laid under or
over the water pipelines so as to prevent contamination of underground
water due to leakage in sewers
Expensive road surface : as they do not require frequent repairs they are
used under costly road surfaces
Heavy external load : used in sewers under railway lines, foundation wall
as it could withstand heavy external loads
Pressure : for conveying sewage through pumping stations and treatment
works, cast iron sewers are adopted
Temperature : these are suitable for places which are subject to
considerable change in temperatures
Vibrations : these are proven to be advantageous where ground is likely
to be subjected to heavy monuments and vibrations
Wet ground : these sewers in wet ground results in considerable
reduction of the rate of infiltration
CORRUGATED IRON SEWERS

mainly used for carrying storm water only
corrugations reduce the velocity of flow and hence for given diameter and slope
the carrying capacity of the sewer is also reduced
made in varying metal thicknesses and in diameters up to 4500 mm
these sewers should be protected from effects of corrosion by galvanization or by
bituminous coatings
PLASTIC SEWERS
use of plastic sewers still in elementary stage

More commonly used for carrying water than sewage
In cases of industrial wastes with corrosion problems, they are proven to be useful
They possess excellent flow characteristics which permit flatter ruling gradients,
economic excavation, faster laying, greater shock resistance, etc.
They are available in long lengths and permit cold negotiation of bends
Strength of these sewers is reduced with increase in temperature
They are liable for stress cracking and ductile failure in vacuum
STEEL SEWERS
used mainly at places where imperviousness, lightness and resistance to high pressure
is needed
these sewers are flexible and can absorb vibrations and shocks in a better way
generally used for main, outfall and trunk sewers having diameters exceeding 750 mm
These sewers are either riveted or welded
May be protected from corrosion by galvanization or by provision of bituminous coating
or by using special corrosion resistant steel in the manufacturing process
CEMENT CONCRETE SEWERS
they may be plain or reinforced

plain cement concrete sewers used up to 600 mm diameter
Reinforcing bars necessary beyond the limit of 600 mm diameter
Ways of placing reinforcements :
Cement concrete sewers with

single circular cage
reinforcement
Cement concrete sewer with

double circular cage
reinforcement
Main circumferential
reinforcement is placed at a
distance of about 25 mm
from inner surface
Such arrangement adopted
when sewer diameter is less
than 800 mm and is subjected
to internal pressure only
reinforcement placed in 2 sets
: first at distance 25 mm from
inner surface and other 25
from outer surface
Such arrangement is adopted
when sewer diameter
exceeds 800 mm and its
subjected to internal as well
as external pressures
Cement concrete sewer with

elliptical cage reinforcement
reinforcements placed to form
elliptical rings
Such arrangement adopted
for large diameters of sewers
and its subjected to external
pressures only
STONEWARE SEWERS
also known as vitrified clay sewers or salt-glazed sewers as they are prepared
form various clays and shale
Manufactured in short lengths and diameters
Generally favored for house drainage connections
Advantages :
If properly laid, these sewers are strong enough to take load of backfilling
and traffic
Interior surface is impervious and smooth
overall performance in carrying sewage is appreciable
These sewers are cheap and easily available
These sewers are durable and offer better resistance to corrosion from
acids and erosion due to grit and high velocity of flow
Disadvantages :
these sewers are brittle in nature and likely to be damaged during transport
of handling processes
Not strong enough to allow sewage to flow through them under pressure
These are bulky and heavy in weight thus making it difficult to handle,
transport and lay them
WOOD SEWERS
Life of wood sewers is short and are rarely adopted for conveyance of sewage
SHAPES OF SEWERS
Circular shape
Advantages :
It affords the least perimeter hence construction material required is
minimum, thus being the cheapest and most economical
There are no corners hence chances of deposition of organic matter is
reduced to minimum
They are easy to manufacture or construct and handle
They possess excellent hydraulic properties
They prove to be advantageous when sewers are running at least half
full and discharge does not vary too much
Non-circular shape
Advantages :
They bring down cost of construction
They improve velocity of flow when depth of sewage is low
They secure more structural strength
They simplify process of construction
They are made large enough for a man to enter for cleaning, repairing,
etc.
Types of non-circular shape sewers:
1. basket-handle section
6. rectangular or box-type section
2. Catenary shaped section
7. semi-circular section
3. Egg-shaped or ovoid section
8. semi-elliptical section
4. Horse-shoe section
9. U-shaped section
5. Parabolic section
BASKET-HANDLE SECTION
It carries the small discharges through the bottom narrow portion and during
monsoon, the combined sewage is carried through the full section
This shape of sewer not generally used at present
CATENARY-SHAPED SECTION
This shape of sewer is suitable for tunneling work

EGG-SHAPED SECTION
This type of sewer is suitable for carrying combined flow.
It gives a slightly higher velocity during low flow than a circular sewer of same
capacity
But its difficult to construct and less stable than circular section
HORSE-SHOE SECTION
This type of sewer is used for construction of large sewers with heavy discharges
such as trunk and outfall sewers
It is mostly used for constructing sewers in tunnels
PARABOLIC SECTION
It is suitable for carrying comparatively small quantities of sewage
Economic in construction
RECTANGULAR OR BOX-TYPE SECTION
It is sometimes used to work as a storage tank

It is easy to construct and stable
SEMICIRCULAR SECTION
It gives a wider base at the bottom hence becomes suitable for constructing large
sewers with less available headroom
Rectangular section is preferred over them as it possesses better hydraulic
properties
SEMI-ELLIPTICAL SECTION
It is adopted for soft soil areas as it is more stable

This section is not suitable for carrying small quantity of sewage
Generally adopted for sewers having diameters greater than 1.80 m
This section possess good hydraulic properties except at low depths
U-SHAPED SECTION
Such an arrangement is adopted for combined sewers having predominant flow of
storm water
JOINTS IN SEWERS
Requirements of a good sewer-joint :
construction should be such that tree roots cannot penetrate through it
It should be capable of resisting the effects acidic, alkaline or gaseous
actions of sewage
It should be cheap and economical
It should be easy to construct
It should be non-absorbent and durable
Types of joints :
Cement mortar joints : cement mortar of proportions 1:1 or 1:2 is used for filling
the joint space
Collar joints : theses joints are used for sewers of large diameters
Flexible or bituminous joints : these joints are flexible are adopted at places
where there are chances of sewer settlement
Mechanical joints : mechanical devices such as flanged rings, bolts, etc. are used
to keep two ends of sewer together, and used for metallic sewers
Open joints : these are adopted when there is no objection to the infiltration and
when the sewer is passing through dry ground
LAYING AND TESTING OF SEWERS
The borings or trial holes are dug along the proposed sewer line to ascertain the nature
of ground
From longitudinal section of sewer line, manhole positions are marked
The center line pegs of sewer line are driven at distance of every 7.50 15 m
Center line of the sewer should be properly maintained by:
Vertical post method :
It is adopted in all cases for taking the levels of invert of all proposed sewer
lines
Offset line method :
a parallel offset line is marked usually at a distance D which is about one-half
the trench plus 600mm
Other side is used to dump the excavated material
This method is adopted for short duration of time, mainly to avoid
inconvenience to traffic
The modified levels of invert at each sight rail are given and these are marked on
the sight rail
The excavation of trench for laying the sewer line is started
The sewers are now laid in the trench or if they are to be constructed at site, the
process of construction of sewer is started.
Test for water tightness of joints is then carried out
The refilling of trenches is started after the sewer line is properly laid in position.
Each layer should be well watered and rammed.
VENTILATION OF SEWERS
Sewers should be properly and satisfactory ventilated for following reasons:
Continuous flow : the surface of sewage should remain in contact with free
air otherwise air-locks will be formed
Disposal of sewer gases
METHODS OF VENTILATION :
Manholes with chemicals :
Chemicals are placed in manhole covers, these chemicals react with sewer gases
and make them harmless
This method is costly hence rarely adopted
Manholes with gratings :
Here manhole covers are provided with gratings or openings through which
sewer gases escape
This method causes pollution hence adopted in isolated places
Proper construction of sewers
Proper design of sewers
Proper house drainage system
Providing Ventilating columns or shafts
CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE OF

SEWERS
Cleaning of sewers is necessary
To check breakage of sewers
Check for clogging
Check and prevent odors
Methods for cleaning and maintenance of sewers
Cleaning and flushing
Cleaning of large sewers is done manually
Cleaning of small manholes is effected by flushing
When flushing is inadequate, following methods are employed:
Flexible rod
Mechanical tools
Use of pills
Cleaning of catch pits, etc.
Regular Inspection
Periodical repairs should be done
Proper connections : connections of lateral sewers with branch sewers
should be carried out by properly and made watertight
SURFACE DRAINS
These are sometimes constructed to provide a cheap arrangement for collecting
sullage and storm water
But they are less hygienic as they are open and exposed to atmosphere
SHAPES OF SURFACE DRAINS
Rectangular surface drains
These drains are suitable for carrying heavy discharge.
They do not develop the required velocity when depth of flow is small and
hence they get easily deposited.
Semi-circular surface drains

These drains can be easily constructed
These drains are found to be suitable for small streets where the discharge to be
accommodated is of small quantity.
U-shaped surface drains
These are easy to construct
They combine the advantages of semi-circular drains and rectangular surface
drains
V-shaped surface drains
These drains possess better hydraulic properties but are difficult to construct
These drains are capable of producing a good velocity
DESIGN OF SEWER
GENERAL APPROACH
The general approach to design a sewer is same as that of water mains. The
main differences between the two are:
Size of particles
Pressure
MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM

VELOCITIES
SELF CLEANSING VELOCITY
The silting or deposition of particles of solid matter is undesirable in sewers
and hence, the sewers should be laid at such a gradient that a minimum
velocity which will prevent the silting of particles in sewers is developed over
a wide variation in discharge of sewerage. Such a minimum velocity is
known as the self cleansing velocity.
It should be developed at least once in a day; preferably twice. It depends
on the nature of suspended matter in sewage and the size of sewer.
NON-SCOURING VELOCITY
If the velocity of the flow exceeds a certain limit the particles of solid matter
start to damage the inside smooth surface of sewers or a scouring action
takes place. The maximum permissible velocity at which no such scouring
action takes place is known as non-scouring velocity and it will mainly
depend on the material used in the construction of sewers.
The sewage flows in the sewers under gravitational force, which is obtained
by laying the sewers on slope. The velocity of flow depends directly on the
gradient of sewer and hydraulic mean depth of condition of the sewer with
respect to roughness. The optimum slope or grade is required to be
calculated to achieve the self-cleansing velocity.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Following points should be noted in connection with the self cleansing and
non-scouring velocities:
Gradient of sewers are to be properly correlated to achieve desired
results.
In a flat country, the design of sewers should be such that the selfcleansing velocity is developed at the time of maximum discharge.
In a rough country , the sewers are designed to achieve non scouring
velocity at the time of maximum discharge and self cleansing velocity at
the time of minimum discharge.
For combined sewers, it becomes difficult to achieve self-cleansing
velocity at the time of minimum discharge. For this purpose special forms
of sewers should be adopted.
FORMULAS FOR DESIGN OF

SEWAGE
The main factors which influence the flow of sewage in sewers are:
Characteristics of sewage
Conditions of flow
Cross sectional area of sewer
Presence or absence of bends , obstructions etc.
Roughness of interior surface
Slope of sewer etc.
Following are the common empirical formulas used in design of sewers:
chezy,s formula
Bazin,s formula
Mannings formula
Kutters formula
Crimp and bruges formula
Hazen and williams formula
TIME OF CONCENTRATION
This term is used in connection with the design of storm water drains. As
the rain falls on the ground, all the area to be served by the sewer does
not start to contribute immediately to the flow of sewer but the flow is
built up gradually as follows:
The area just near the sewer line will start contributing first and it will go
on increasing as more and more area starts to contribute.
When the whole area is contributing to the flow of sewer maximum limit
of flow will be reached and it will be equal to the rate of precipitation of
rain water.
The maximum flow continues until the storm stops. The flow then
gradually falls down as the area near the ground line stops contributing
firstly, while flow continues to come for considerable time from the distant
areas.
The importance of time of concentration in the design of storm water
sewers lies in the fact that out of all the storms of equal frequency of
occurrence, that storms which has duration equal to the time of
concentration, produces the maximum flow in sewer.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
FORMATION OF ZONES: the area to be served by drainage system is

divided into zones.
ARRANGEMENT OF SEWERS : the proposed arrangement for sewers
for different zones is worked out. Low lying areas are isolated and
pumping systems are installed for them. Various sewers like main sewers,
branch sewers, trunk sewers etc. are marked on map.
QUANTITY OF SEWAGE: after proper study of variations in rate of
sewage, a suitable multiplying factor is applied to the quantity of sewage
for which sewer is designed.
Velocity of flow: a suitable value for velocities of flow is then determined.
Thus value should fall between the minimum and maximum limits.
Section of sewer:
Section of sewer=sectional area of sewer x velocity of flow
GRADIENT : slope of sewer line is worked out and longitudinal sections
of each are drawn to a suitable scale.
Water appurtenances
To make the process of construction easy and to have efficient working and
maintenance, the sewer system requires various other additional structures
known as sewer appurtenances
Important sewer appurtenances:
Catch basins or catch pits

Clean-outs
Drop manholes
Flushing tanks
Grease and oil traps
Inlets
Inverted siphons
Lampholes
Manholes
Storm water regulators
Catch basins or catch pits
Structure in the form of a chamber provided along the sewer line to admit
clear rain water into combined sewer
Objectives: To prevent the entry of silt, grit, debris etc. contained in rain water
To prevent escape of sewer gas
Maintenance : provides temporary storage of impurities contained in rain

water and hence demands periodical cleaning
Adopted for combined sewerage system
Clean-outs
Inclined pipe connected to the underground sewer and other end brought to
the ground level where a cover is placed
Generally provided at upper ends of lateral sewers in place of manholes.
Drop manholes
Manhole on sewer line which is constructed to provide a connection

between the high level branch sewer to the extent of about 500-600 mm
above the main sewer to the low level main sewer with minimum amount of
disturbance
Objective
Avoids unnecessary steep gradient of branch sewer and reduces the quantity of
earthwork
Avoids the possibilities of sewage being thrown at persons entering the working
chamber of manhole
Flushing tanks
Device or arrangement made to hold and then to throw water into the sewer
for the purpose of flushing it
Objective
Required for sewer lengths which are laid at gradients that will not produce the
self cleansing velocities.
Provided near the dead ends of sewers
Store sewage temporarily and then discharge into sewer line at intervals
Capacity : 1/10th of the cubical contents of the sewer line served by it
Types : Hand operated flushing tanks

Automatic flushing tanks
Grease and oil traps
Traps or chambers provided on the sewer line to exclude grease and oil
from sewage before it enters the sewer line
Principle : grease and oil being light in weight float on the surface of
sewage. If outlet draws sewage from lower level, grease and oil are
excluded
Located near the sources contributing grease and oil to the sewage
Inlets
Opening through which storm water and surface wash flowing along the
streets are admitted and conveyed to the storm water sewer or combined
sewer by means of pipes
Located or placed by sides of roads at a distance of about 30-60 m
Types
Vertical inlet gratings/openings in vertical direction
Horizontal inlet gratings in horizontal direction
The openings should minimize chances of clogging
Inverted siphons
Sewer section which is constructed lower than adjacent sewer sections and
runs full under gravity with pressure greater than the atmosphere
Carries sewer line below obstructions such as ground depressions,

streams, railways etc.
Lampholes
Opening or hole constructed on a sewer for the purpose of lowering a lamp

inside it
Objectives : Inspection of sewer length between adjacent manholes
Flushing
Ventilation
Can be constructed in place of manholes if it is difficult to construct it

Economical when change in direction or gradient is to be made between
adjacent manholes
Manholes
Construction made to connect the ground level with the hole or opening
made in sewer line
Objective :
Permit inspection, cleaning and maintenance of sewer line

Allow joining of sewers or of changing the direction or alignment or both
Allow the escape of undesirable gases with perforated covers
Facilitate the laying of sewer lines in convenient length
Provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient or direction or change

of diameter
Classification according to depth
Shallow manhole (750-900mm)
Normal manhole (1500mm)
Deep manhole (more than 1500mm)
Storm water regulators
Structures constructed to divert part of sewage in case of combined sewers

Objective :Divert excess storm water to natural stream or river
Types : Leaping weir
Overflow weir
Siphon spillway
SANITARY ENGINEERING
-PUMPS
NECESSITY OF PUMPS
1.To assist the treatment process such as to supply compressed air
2.To facilitate the process of treatment such as to re-circulate the contents of
sludge digestion tanks
3.To lay the sewers along the ridge of hill or obstruction
4. To lift the sewage from outfall sewer to treatment works or river, if the outfall
sewer is at low level
5. To lift the sewage in flat areas at certain intervals to avoid expensive
excavation and to lay sewers at reasonable depths below ground level.
6. To lift the sewage of low lying area or depression and throw it into sewer at
higher level.
7.To take out the sewage from cellars of buildings when the level of cellar is
lower than the invert level of sewer to which drainage connection is made.
PUMPING OF SEWAGE
problems faced during pumping of sewage
1. biological contents: sewage may contain disease producing germs and
hence, the sewage pumping should not be delayed for a long time.
2. floating matter: floating and suspended solids may make the running of
pumps difficult and may cause clogging of pumps.
3. flow of sewage: it varies with time to time and thu pumping sustems should
be adjusted accordingly.
4. sewage pumps: the reliability of sewage pumps should be of highest order
because failure of pumps will lead to flooding and other unbearable
nuisance.
5. sump wells: provide a little storage space and thus made of small capacities.
6. wastes: organic and inorganic wastes may cause corrosion of pumping
equipment and thus reduce its life.
PUMPING STATIONS
building where pumps are installed are called pumping stations.
points to b considered during designing and location of pumping stations.:
1. provide stairs instead of ladders .avoid spiral stairs.
2. use fire proof materials
3. arrangement of proper drainage of floors to be accomodated during designing.
4. good architectural finishes
5. future requirements should be considered.
6. building should contain wide passages with enough light and ventilation.
7. enough ventilation to avoid bad smelling gases,moisture, etc.
8. different units of the pumping stations should be properly illuminated.
9. fixtures used should be dust- proof ,moisture proof and explosion proof.
10. the heighest flood levels of nearby river should be obtained and pumping stations
should be located in such a way that it will not be submerged at the time of maximum
flood.
11. pumping station should not be located in the low lying area.
12. foundation of the station should be so designed that the safe bearing capacity of soil is
not exeeded.
13. structure of the building should be strong enough to resist vibrations caused by running
of pipes.
REQUIREMENTS OF PUMPING
STATIONS
1. arrangement of primary treatment : such as arrangement includes the
provision of screens,grit chambers or detritus tanks.
2. sump well or wet well: to form a suction pit from which the pump may draw
sewage.when two or more pumps are installed, it is advisable to divide the
sump well in suitable interconnected compartments so that the cleaning or
repairs of any of them can be easily carried out.
3. pump room or dry well: the pumps are installed and the end of suction pipe is
placed in the suction pipe of wet well.
4. motor room: situated above the pump room and accomodates the electric
motors that run the pumps.
5. rising room: the sewage after being pumped i led togravity sewr through
rising mains which may either be of cast-iron or stee or asbestos cement
pressure pipes.
5. emergency exit pipe: when the sump well overflows due to any reason, the
excess sewage is diverted through the exi pipes.
6. pumps: require to handle the quantity of sewage likely to come at the station.
7. automatic starter: helps in starting the pumps automatically when the level of
sewage in wet well goes beyond particular point.
8. valves: sluice valves(control the flow of sewage),reflux valves(operates in
one direction and prevents the backward flow of sewage) and air
valves(provided at summits or high points to prevent the formation of airlocks)
9. flow recorders: to know the quantity of sewage which is pumped every
second or minute or day.
TYPES OF SEWAGE PUMPS

1. CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
categorised as:
disintegrator pumps: used when
sewage id to be directly disposed
off into sea through outfall sewer
free-way pumps: used when the
sewage is likely to contain solids
having diameter greater than
150mm.
full-way pumps: used when solids
having diameterless than 150mm
2. RECIPROCATING PUMPS
3. PROPELLER OR AXIAL FLOW PUMPS: the type of pump contains propeller

with a number of blades attached to it.the efficiency of axial flow pumps is
very low to the extent of about 25% or so.these pumps are useful to lift the
sewage against low heads.
4. AIR PRESSURE PUMPS OR AIR EJECTORS: work on the action of
compressed air.useful for pumping small quantity of sewage.availabe with
capacity from 5000 to 10000 litres.
SHONE'S EJECTOR
working-the air ejector recieves the
sewage from low lying areas and it
delivers sewage to high level gravity
sewers.
i. sewage enters the chamber
through the entrance reflux chamber.
it rises slowly in the chamber.at this
stage, the exit reflux valve and the
compressed inlet are in close
position.
ii. as the level rises, the air from
chamber escapes through the
exhaust.but when the level of
sewage reaches the bottom of upper
cup,the air inside upper cup is
entraped.
iii. the further rise sewage makes
entrapped air to exert vertical
pressure on the spindle.
iv. the spindle is thus lifted up and through the lever arrangement, it results
in the closing of exhaust and opening of compressed inlet.
v. the air under the pressure forces the sewage inside the chamber to rise in
outlet pipe through the exit reflux valve.
vi. the sewage is discharged till the level of sewage falls below the bottom of
upper cup.at this stage, the entrapped air from the upper cup escapes and
the lever arrangement opens the exhaust and closes the compressed inlet.
vii. the exit reflux valve closes and the entrance reflux valves opens to admit
sewage.
viii. the process is again repeated.
advantage:
i. no necessity of providing primary treatment arrangement or sewage.
ii. operation of air ejectors is automatic and hence require little supervision.
iii. useful for conditions where there are chances for centrifugal pumps of small
capacity clog.
iv. do not posses parts which are likely to b clogged.
v. prove to be economical at places where construction of pumping station
cannot be justified.
disadvantage:
they possess very low efficiency to the extent of about 15% or so.
POWER OF PUMPS
machines used to create power for the working of pumps:
1. steam engine
2. diesel engine
3. gasoline engine
4. electric motor
HOUSE DRAINAGE
PRINCIPLES OF HOUSE DRAINAGE
Advisable to lay sewers by the side of building rather than below.

The drains should be held straight between the inspection chambers or
manholes. All sharp bends and junctions should be avoided except through
chambers or manholes.
If the level permits only then should the house drain be connected to the
public sewer.
The entire system should be properly ventilated from the starting point to
the final point of disposal.
The house drainage should contain enough number of traps at suitable
points for efficient functioning of it.
An intercepting trap should separate the house and public sewer to not
allow the foul gases from public sewer to enter the house.
The joints of sewers should be watertight and should be properly tested
before putting the drainage line in use.
The lateral sewers should be laid at proper gradient so that they will develop
self-cleansing velocity.
PRINCIPLES OF HOUSE DRAINAGE
The layout of house drainage system should permit easy cleaning and
removal of obstructions.
The material of sewer should be non absorbent and as earth cushioning
should be provided to protect these from external loads.
The possibilities of formation of air locks, siphonage, undue deposits, etc.
should be properly studied and adequate remedies should be accomodates
in the design to avoid them.
TRAPS
A Trap is a depressed or bent sanitary fitting which always remain full of water.
The function of a trap in a drainage system is to prevent the passage of foul air or
gases through it. But it also allows the sewage to flow through it.
The greater the depth of seal, the more effective is the trap. The depth varies from
25mm-75mm.
The trap should contain water seal at all times.
Requirements of a good trap:

1. It should be capable of being cleaned easily.
2. It should be easily fixed with the drain.
3. It should be free from any inside projections that obstruct the flow of sewage.
4. It should have simple construction.
5. It should have enough water seal capacity.
6. It should be self cleansing.
TRAPS
TYPES OF TRAPS
According to shape
According to use
ACCORDING TO SHAPE
1. P-Trap- The legs of trap are at right angles to each other.
2. Q-Trap- The legs of trap meet at an angle other than a right angle.
3. S-Trap- The legs of trap are parallel
TRAPS ACCORDING TO SHAPE
TRAPS
ACCORDING TO USE
1. Floor Trap- It is placed in bathrooms, kitchen, sinks, etc. It forms the starting point
of waste water flow. A grated cover is provided at the top to not allow entry of any
soil matter. It is also known as the nahini trap.
2. Gully Trap- The gully trap is fitted inside a masonry chamber. A water seal of about
60mm-70mm is provided. It forms the starting point of horizontal flow of sewage.
It is usually kept higher or even in line with pavement or ground level. The gully
trap leads to sewage either to the sewer or to the inspection chamber or to the
manhole.
3. Intercepting trap- It has a water seal of about 100mm and is provided in the last
manhole of house drainage system. It conveys sewage from house to the public
sewer. It prevents the entry of sewer gases from public sewer line into the house
drain.
TRAPS ACCORDING TO USE
TRAPS
Merits of interceptor
1. It prevents foul gases and harmful bacteria from entering the house.
2. Properly designed and constructed traps can remove quickly the foul matter
obtained from house drains to the public sewer.
Demerits of Interceptor
1. If discharge from houses is small, the solid heavy matter be retained in the trap
and they may start decomposing.
2. The lid or plug needs to be fitted properly to not allow foul gases from entering
the house.
3. The cleaning of sewer is difficult through the interception arm.
4. The interceptor in itself an obstruction to the flow of sewage.
5. The presence of interceptors is found to affect seriously the ventilation of sewers.
SOME DEFINITIONS
1.
Anti-siphonage pipe- A pipe which preserves the water seal of traps is known as
the anti-siphonage pipe. It maintains ventilation and does not allow any siphonic
action to take place.
2.
Cowl- The top of vent pipes are provided with cowls so that the birds dont build
their nests inside. Its provided with slits.
3.
Fresh air inlet- The last manhole that connects the house drain with the public
sewer is provided with an inlet of fresh air. This fresh air inlet dilutes the sewage
gases. It is kept at a height of 2m from ground level.
4.
Siphonage- The water seal of traps may break due to siphonic action. This is
knows an siphonage and is induced when water is suddenly discharged from a
fixture on the upper floor.
SOME DEFINITIONS
SECTION OF A BUILDING SHOWING HOUSE DRAINAGE ARRANGEMENT
SOME DEFINITIONS
5. Soil pipe- It carries discharge from soil fittings such as urinals, water closets, etc. It
should be watertight and must stand a water test up to first floor. The soil pipes are
kept of uniform diameter and when they are carried above roof level, they work as
vent pipe also.
6. Vent pipe- It is installed for the purpose of ventilation. It should be open at top and
bottom and should be at suitable levels for the flow of foul gases. It is generally placed
in the chamber or manhole from which sewage starts its flow and it is carried at least
about one meter higher than the roof.
7. Waste Pipe- The term waste pipe is used to indicate the pipe which carries
discharge from sanitary fittings such as bathrooms, kitchen, sinks.
SANITARY FITTINGS
Sanitary fittings- all the fittings required in the house drainage for the efficient
collection and removal of waste water from the house to the house drain.
BATH TUB- It is provided an outlet and overflow pipes which are usually of 40mm
diameter. These two pipes are generally combined. The waste water from tub is
discharged into waste pipe through a trap with water seal.
SANITARY FITTINGS
DRINKING FOUNTAINS- It supplies drinking water.

This arrangement is simple and avoids undue
wastage of water.
When the valve is pushed, the water comes out
and the fallen water is conveyed
to the floor trap or nahni trap through the grating.
FLUSHING CISTERNS- They are used to flush the

water closets and urinals. They are provided at a
height of 2m and for the western style, at 600mm.
It operates on the rinciple of siphon. It consists of:
Bell connected to the flushing chain through the
lever
Float connected to the inlet
Inlet, overflow and flush pipes
casing
1.
2.
3.
4.
SANITARY FITTINGS
SINKS- It has an outlet of about 40mm

diameter. The outlet pipe discharges over a
floor trap or nahini trap. The top of outlet
pipe is provided with grating of brass or
nickel and the entry of substances having
size greater than the perforation of the
grating is prohibited.
URINALS- Content sof urinals are collected

and discharged from the soil pipe through
floor to nahini trap.
1. Bowl type/Basin type urinals- it is used for
private buildings.
2. Stall type/ Slab type urinals- it is used in
public buildings.
STALL TYPE URINAL
SANITARY FITTINGS
WATER CLOSET- Sanitary fitting designed to receive human excreta directly from
the person using it. They are of two type:
1. Indian type WC
2. European type WC
SYSTEMS OF PLUMBING
Four principle systems are adopted in plumbing of drainage work in building.
1. Single stack system- A single vertical soil pipe is fixed and all the waste matter
from baths, kitchens, water closets is discharged into it. The pipe also acts as a
vent pipe. It is an economical system.
2. One-pipe system- A separate vent pipe is added and hence it is more effective
than the previous one, The vent pipe provides ventilationto the water seals of all
the traps.
3. Two-pipe system- Two sets of ipes are laid. The sol fixtures such as urinals and
water closets are connected to vertical soil pipe. The connection of waste matter
are made to another vertical waste pipe. The sil and waste pipe are provided with
separate vent pipes. Thus it requires four pipes and is costly.
1. One-pipe system partially ventialted- There is one soil pipe and all the waste
matter from water closets, baths, sinks is discharged in the pipe.
There is also a relief vent pipe that provided ventilation to the traps of water
closets.
TESTING OF DRAINS AND PIPES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Various tests are applied to ascertain the watertightness of the pipes laid:
Air test
Coloured water tests
Hydraulic tests
Smell tests
Smoke test
MAINTENANCE OF HOUSE DRAINAGE

SYSTEM
1. ENTRY OF UNDESIRED ELEMENTS- The users of house drainage system should take
extreme precautions to avoid the entry of undesired elements in the system. Such
substances include grit, sand, decayed fruits, pieces of cloth, leaves.
2. FLUSHING- In order to maintain the house drainage system in proper working
order, it is advisable to flush it once or twice a day.
3. INSPECTION- Inspection should be done at regular intervals and the obstructions
should be removed.
4.
5. QUALITY OF MATERIAL- The material used in the system should be of better
quality.
6. USE OF DISINFECTANTS- To maintain good sanitation conditions in the building,

the disinfectants should be freely used in lavatory blocks, bathrooms
7. WORKMANSHIP- The laying of drains and fixing of pipes should be carried out by
licensed or authorized plumbers only in systematic way.
QUALTY OF WATER
The quality of sewage plays an important

role in the design and construction of
various treatment units.
The treatment given to sewage should be
such that it can be easily disposed off in
the natural stream or river.
PROPERTIES OF SEWAGE
The properties of sewage can be studied
in the following groups:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The specific gravity of sewage is very nearly equal to that of water.

The colour of fresh sewage is earthy or grey and it has soapy or oily
smell.
It starts to give objectionable odour after a few hours of its
production.
The normal sewage is usually turbid and it contains some matter
which can be easily identified when the sewage is fresh. For e.g.
faecal matter, paper, cigarette ends, fruit skins, soaps, matchsticks
etc
The sewage contains 99.9% liquid matter and 0.10% solid matter in
dissolved or suspended form.
100 parts of solid

Suspended solids
30 parts
Organic
20 parts
Inorganic
10 parts
Dissolved solids
70 parts
Organic
25 parts
Inorganic
45 parts
The presence of inorganic solids in sewage is not harmful. It

requires only mechanical appliances for its removal.
The suspended and dissolved organic solids require treatment and
they are responsible for creating troubles in sewage treatment.
The inorganic solids in sewage include mineral matter such as
gravel, grit, debris, dissolved salts, sand, chlorides, sulphates etc.
The organic solids can be classified as:
Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton fibre, starch, sugar etc
Fats and oils received from kitchens, laundries, garages, shops etc
Nitrogenous compounds i.e. proteins and their decomposed products and they
include wastes from animals, urea, fatty acids, hydrocarbons.
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The nature of fresh sewage and treated or purified sewage is
alkaline.
The nature of stale sewage is acidic.
In addition to solids and liquids, the sewage also contains gases
such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide.
These gases are either obtained from the atmosphere or from the
decomposition of organic matter present in sewage.
Sewage containing industrial wastes possesses unusual chemical
properties.
3. BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
The sewage contains a large number of bacteria and other micro
organisms such as algae, fungi, protozoa etc.
The bacteria can be classified as:
Pathogenic- harmful, responsible for causing diseases, obtained from the
discharges of humans and animals suffering from diseases.
Non pathogenic- harmless
The sources of bacteria are faecal matter or night soil, industrial

wastes, urine, discharges from stable, slaughter houses etc.
The bacteria can be aerobic, anaerobic and facultative.
The bacteria are microscopic unicellular organisms and hey obtain
their food through ferments, known as enzymes which surround he
cell structure of bacteria and they are produced by living cells to act
as organic catalysts.
Enzymes can be classified as:
Intracellular- work inside the cell and maintain the nucleus of the cell.
Extracellular- filter out through the wall of the cell and they act on surrounding
organic matter and convey it to the inside of the cell.
Each enzyme acts on a particular substance and the mass action of

all enzymes ultimately brings down the desired biological actions.
The enzymes serve only as organic catalysts so that they are free
after each bio chemical reaction for repetition of the process.
There are many different types of enzymes and they are found to be
sensitive to the environmental such as temperature, pH, metallic
ions, etc.
The enzymes are classified on the basis of the reaction which they
will catalyse and in biochemistry :
DEAMINATION i.e. removal of NH group from an amino acid amine.
DECARBOXYLATION i.e. removal of carbon dioxide.
HYDROLYSIS i.e. addition of large molecules to the water resulting in
their breakdown into smaller molecules.
OXIDATION i.e. addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen.
REDUCTION i.e. addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen
ANAEROBIC DECOMPOSTION
Fresh sewage contains some quantity of oxygen to the extent of
about 2 to 5 parts per million. The aerobic bacteria react on the
organic matter present in the sewage and the available oxygen is
consumed by them.
The anaerobic bacteria attack on complex organic compounds and
convert them into solids, liquids and gases.
The anaerobic decomposition is also known as putrefaction.
The end products include black residue called humus, ammonia,
methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen
The treatment units which work on the putrefaction are septic tanks,
imhoff tanks, and sludge digestion tanks.
Anaerobic decomposition is disorderly and offensive.
Slower than aerobic decomposition
Inefficient with respect to the energy conversion. E.g. glucose gives
abouut 30 times more energy by aerobic decomposition than by
anaerobic decomposition
AEROBIC DECOMPOSITION
The aerobic bacteria come into action when oxygen is available in
plenty or when it is made available by the method of putrefaction.
Also known as oxidation
During the process, organic matter is broken up and oxidised to form
the stable compounds.
The end products of oxidation include carbon dioxide, nitrates,
sulphates etc.
The treatment units which work on oxidation alone are aeration
tanks, contact beds, intermittent sand filters, trickling filters and
oxidation ponds
Aerobic decomposition is orderly and inoffensive
Practiced in all biological units of sewage treatment except the
controlled decomposition of sewage sludge in sludge digestion
tanks
Cycles of decomposition
The organic matter is attacked by bacteria and it is converted into
simple chemical substances are consumed as food by plant and
animal life and the organic matter is formed again.
In bio-chemical reactions also, such cycle of decomposition is
developed.
The matter of the universe remains constant. The change occurs
only in the form.
The complex organic matter is broken up by biochemical reactions
into simple compounds which are consumed by animals and plant
life for their growth.
Calcium Cycle
The surface runoff from water bodies like river, lake, sea, etc. is consumed
by plants which in turn are consumed by insects, rabbits, birds and various
other animals. Similarly the phytoplankton and fish are consumed by
animals or on death, they revert to the soil. The sea spray air borne dust as
well as deaths of plants and animals contributes calcium back to the soil.
Thus, the level of calcium is maintained in the soil.
WATER
BODIES
SURFACE RUNOFF
SEA SPRAY
FISH
DEATH
CALCIUM
IN SOIL
DEATH
PLANTS
DEATH
COMPOSITION
ANIMALS
Carbon Cycle
The decomposition of organic carbonaceous matter forms carbon dioxide

which is the stable form of carbon. The plants consume carbon from carbon
dioxide in the presence of sunlight by the process of photosynthesis and
form plant carbohydrates, fats and proteins. The animals consumes plants
and form animal fats and proteins. The waste products or death of animals
from organic carbonaceous matter and the cycle of carbon is thus
completed. The organic carbonaceous matter may also be formed by the
deaths of plants. Similarly the plant life gives off carbon dioxide at night and
the animal life also gives off carbon dioxide. These two processes are
known as respiration.
ORGANIC
CARBONACEOUS
MATTER
DECOMPOSITION
WATER PRODUCTS
OR DEATH
ANIMAL FATS
AND PROTEINS
CARBON
DIOXIDE
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CONSUMPTION
PLANT
CARBOHYDRATES
FATS AND
PROTEINS
RESPIRATION
Nitrogen Cycle
The decomposition of organic nitrogenous

matter forms ammonia nitrogen together with
other gases. By the process of nitrification the
ammonia nitrogen is converted into nitrite
nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen which on
consumption by plant life results into plant
proteins. The animals consume plants and
form animal proteins. The animals consumes
plants and form animal proteins. The waste
products or death of animals form organic
nitrogenous matter and the cycle of nitrogen
is thus completed.
Phosphorous Cycle
For the growth of algae and other biological organisms, the
phosphorous is an essential element. The phosphorous contained
on artificial or chemical sources as well as phosphorous contained
in soil is consumed by plants and when they are consumed by
animals, the phosphorous element is transferred to such animals.
The death or excreta of animals as well as death of plants complete
the phosphorous cycle.
Sulphur Cycle
The decomposition of organic sulphurous matter forms hydrogen
sulphide in the absence of oxygen. By the process of oxidation, the
hydrogen sulphide is converted into sulphates which on
consumption by plant life results into plant proteins. The animals
consumes plants and form animal proteins. The waste product or
death of animals form organic sulphurous matter and the cycle of
sulphur is completed. The organic sulphurous matter may be formed
by the death of plants. Similarly sulphates, in the absence of oxygen
will be converted into hydrogen sulphide by the process of reduction.
PRIMARY TREATMENT OF
SEWAGE
Treatment of Sewage
Primary Treatement
(Larger Solids are removed and more complex compounds are broken into
simpler substances.
Secondary Treatement
Sewage completely purified by filtration or active sludge process.
Disinfection
This is an additional treatement used to kill the bacteria.
Screens
Purpose
To remove the larger floating matter. Such materials choke the drains and
cause damage to the sewage pumps.
Location
Generally Located just before grit chambers.
Types
according to size of openings (coarse, medium and fine screens)
according to condition of screens(fixed, movable and moving)
Cleaning Devices
The screen requires periodical cleaning which can either be done by hand
rakes or by mechanically operated rakes(toothed bar).
Screenings
Quality of screenings will depend on the type of screen and size of sewage
system.
Disposal of Screenings
1. Burial
2. Disintegration
3. Incineration
4. Fertilizer
Grit Chambers
Purpose
It removes grit, sand and such other inorganic matter from sewage.
Location
They are placed after pumping stations and before the screens.
Nature of grit
The grit has a specific gravity of about 2 and 2.5.
Sources of grit
The grit is obtained from domestic sewage, floors of garage, etc.
Number of grit chambers
Provided in duplicates so that either can be stopped from for the purpose of
cleaning.
Volume of grit(factors affecting)

1. Area of unpaved surfaces
2. Characteristic of ground
3. Design of grit
4. Intensity of cleaning the streets
5. Location of grit chambers
6. Method of cleaning the streets
7. Occurrences of storms and their intensity
8. Provision of catch basins
9. System of sewage

1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
Types
Horizontal flow type
Vertical flow type
Cleaning Devices
Hand cleaning
Hydraulic cleaning
Mechanical cleaning
Washing of grit
Disposal of grit
Detritus Tanks
Purpose
Its purpose is similar to that of a grit chamber.
Description
Rectangular in shape and sides are vertical and tapered at bottom.
Skimming Tanks
Purpose
It removes floating substances which include
grease, soap, wood peices etc.
Disposal
Substances are buried in low lying areas,
burnt or digested together by sludge.
Necessity
In hot countries it is very difficult to skim
out grease because they do not coagulate
and hence it must be removed.
Plain Sedimentation Tank

Types :According to nature of working
1. Fill and Draw
2. Continuous flow
According to Location
1. Primary Clarifiers
2. Secondary Clarifiers
Primary Clarifiers
Inlet and outlet
(same as water supply sedimentation tanks)
Shapes of tanks
1. Rectangular
2. Circular
3. Hopper bottom
Capacity of Tank
Depends upon detention period and overflow rate.
Scum Baffles
Provided to prevent the entry of floating substances
into the outlet channel.
Scum Removal Devices
Sludge Removal
1. Hand Cleaning
2. Hydraulic Cleaning
3. Mechanical Cleaning
Secondary Clarifiers
The inlet and outlet considerations are same as primary clarifiers and scum
baffles and scum removing devices are not necessary.
Capacity of Tank
Depends upon detention period (which depends upon the secondary treatment
given to the sewage) and overflow rate.
Sludge Removal
Sludge is sent to the primary clarifiers or aeration tanks or to both.
a
Coagulation of Sewage
Process
The sedimentation of sewage can be assisted by adding coagulants.
Advantages
1. More effective.
2. Reduction of colour and turbidity.
3. Require less space.
4. Simple in operation.
Disadvantages
1. Cost of chemicals adds to cost of sedimentation.
2. Produces large volume of sludge.
3. Requires skilled supervision.
Filtration Of Sewage
The secondary treatment of sewage convert organic matter into stable form.
There are four types of filters
Contact beds
Intermittent sand filters
Trickling filters
Miscellaneous filters
Contact Beds(Contact Filters)
Theory- The sewage is kept in contact

with filtering media. The aerobic bacteria
oxidises the matter.
Features- It is a watertight tank below
ground level with concrete lining.
Advantages Sewage effluent is not exposed to
view.
Less undesirable odour.
Small Head
Disadvantages Primary treatment necessary.
More costly compared to trickling
filters.
Skilled supervision required.
Rate of treatment is low.
Use- Small isolated institutions and

places with limited head.
Intermittent Sand Filters(Land Filters)
Theory- Sewage is applied on beds of sand filters and the sewage is

purified by aerobic bacteria.
Features- Rectangular in plan and ratio of length to width is 3:4.
Filtering Material- Sand free from impurities with thickness of 750-900mm
and a 150-300mm layer of gravel.
Advantages Quality of effluent is clean and stable.
No Skilled supervision required.
Disadvantages Slow process.
Large area of land required.
Not suitable for cold climate.
Uses- small isolated institutions where land and sand are available.
Trickling
Filters(Percolating/Sprin
kling Filters)
Theory- The sewage is allowed to trickle

over bed of coarse, rough, hard material
and collected in underdrainage system. A
blackish film of bacteria, fungi etc is
formed around the filtering particles.
Types Standard Rate Trickling Filters
High-Rate/High capacity Trickling
Filters
Types of High Rate Trickling filters
Accelo-filter system- filter media is about 2m and particle size of 100mm.

The effluent collected at bottom is sent back to top for recirculation.
Alternating Double filtration- Two filters are arranged in series and sewage
is applied to both at high rates. The arrangement is made to have reversal
of flow between the two filters thus each filter serves as primary and
secondary alternatively.
Enclosed Filtration- Roof is provided to protect from weather. Fans are
provided for ventilation. Absence of sunlight encourages the growth of
organisms responsible to maintain the filter beds clear of vegetable waste.
Aero-Filter systemSewage is applied in

form of thin films. The
outlets allow sewage
to fall in form of fine
drops. Recirculation
is made. It can be
single stage or two
stage treatment.
Biofiltration- The effluent

is recirculated through
primary clarifier. The
volume of effluent is
larger than flow of
sewage. It may be in
single stage or two stage.
The two stage treatment
is adopted to treat strong
sewage
Miscellaneous Filters
Dunbar Filters- Similar to intermittent sand filters

Magnetite Filters- Crushed magnetite iron ore is provided with depth of
80mm supported on non-magnetite metal wire screen. Not in common use.
Rapid Sand Filters- Used for reclaiming used water and the water thus
reclaimed can be used for other purposes. They get clogged in short time.
Activated sludge process
Activated sludge
It involves the production of an activated mass of micro-organisms capable of

aerobically stabilizing a waste.
The activated sludge is used to indicate the sludge which is obtained by
settling sewage in presence of abundant oxygen.
Activated sludge is biologically active.
It contains fertilizing constituents.
Action of activated sludge

The activated sludge is mixed with raw and partially treated sewage such that the
micro organinsm already in the sludge starts to grow rapidly and following
phenomena takes place:
1.
Organic solids present in the sewage are rapidly oxidized
2.
Suspended and colloidal matters coagulate and they form a readily settleable
precipitate.
Methods of aeration
1. Diffused air aeration
2. Mechanical aeration
3. Combination of mechanical and diffused aeration.
Sludge Volume Index
1.
2.
3.
4.
The term sludge volume index or S.V.I. is used to indicate the degree of
concentration of sludge and it reflects the physical state of a sludge.
S.V.I. is determined as follows:
A sample of sewage at the outlet end of the aeration tank is collected
The percentage of sludge in volume is obtained by keeping the sample in
lmhoff cone for 30 minutes.
The percentage of suspended solids in mixed liquor (MLSS) by weight is also
found out
S.V.I. = percentage of sludge by volume / percentage of solid substance by
weight.
STEP AERATION
In order to achieve better results from the activated sludge process, some
modification is made in the process. One such modification is the Step
Aeration.
In this process, the activated sludge is bought near the inlet end of the
aeration tanks. But this activated sludge is not added to the influent of
aeration tank at the time or in a single dose as per conventional procedure.
Advantages of step aeration

1.
It has considerable capacity to

absorb the shock organic loadings
2.
It helps in reducing the aeration tank

volume appreciably without
sacrificing the efficiency of B.O.D.
removal.
3.
It results in a uniform air

requirement along the entire length
of the tank.
CONTACT STABILIZATION
1. in this process, before giving primarily settling, the raw sewage and recycled
sludge are mixed and aerated for a short period of thime
2. The suspended and dissolved organic matters are biabsorbed together which is
removed in the settling tank
3. This settled flow is transferred to the sludge aeration tank, where it is aerated
and stabilized and then mixed with the influent
Advantages of contact stabilization

1.
It requires less aeration volume.
2.
Total aeration time s considerably reduced

and hence capacity of plant is increased.
3.
It has greater capacity to absorb shock

organic loadings than the conventional
process.
4.
It has greater resistance to toxic substance

in the sewage.
COMPLETE MIX PROCESS
In this process, the complete mixing Is achieved by distributing the sewage and
the return sludge uniformly along one side of the tank and withdrawing the
aerated sewage uniformly along the opposite side.
Advantages of complete mix process
1. It has increased operational stability at shock organic loadings.
2. It has increased the capacity to treat biodegradable wastes like phenol.
Advantages and disadvantages of Activated

Sludge Process
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The cost of installation is low

The effluent of good quality is
obtained
The process requires small
area of land
There is comparatively very
small loss of head through
treatment plant
There is freedom from fly and
odour nuisance due to high
degree of treat meant given
to the sewage in this process.
Disadvantages
1.
If there is sudden increase in the

volume of sewage or if there is
sudden change in the character of
sewage, there are adverse effect
on the working of this process.
2.
The cost of operating the process

is relatively high
3.
The increased quantity of wet

slude obtained at the end of
process requires suitable method
for its disposal
4.
The process is sensitive to certain

types of industrial wastes.
5.
The process requires skilled

supervision for its efficient
working.
SLUDGE DISPOSAL
QUANTITY OF SEWAGE
The quantity of sewage can be determined on three factors
-Amount of suspended solid in the incoming sewage
-Likely settlement to occur in treatment units
-Moisture content of the sludge
METHOD OF SLUDGE DISPOSAL

-
Disposal on land
Distribution by pipe lines
Drying on drying beds
Dumping into sea
Heat drying
Incineration
Lagooning
Press filter and vacumn filters
Digestion followed by drying
Disposal on land - Sludge can be disposed of in land in two ways either by trenching or
by ploughing.
-In ploughing , lime is mixed with water and spread on soil and then the crops are grown.
-In trenching , a trench is dig of 900 m wide and 600 m deep.the trench is filled with earth.
Distribution by pipe lines- sludge is conveyed to nearby farm and it is sued by farmers.
There should be sufficient quantity of land in possession of sewage treatment plant.
Drying on drying beds- ground is excavated and a valley is formed. The valleys are
constructed from 3 m to 5 m centres.
The drying beds are generally arranged in series and they are usually not covered from the
top .
Heat drying method- the sludge is actually heated so that it becomes dry and then
fertilisers are obtained from this. Yet this becomes extremely costly and thus is not used
mostly.
Incineration- the sludge is burnt in incinerators which are either flash type or multiple hearth
type. The quantity of fuel depends on the content of sludge in it . There is furnace which
has multiple hearths for heating .
Lagooning or ponding- a shallow pit is excavated in the ground. The wet sludge is brought
in the lagoonand it is left there to dry with natural process. This method is quite cheap.
Press filters or vacuum filters- a filter press consist of caste iron plate which
can be pressed tighly. The sludge is placed in jute or cotton bag and thus
pressed between the plates .the pressing of sludge removes the water from
sludge and this caked of sludge can be formed.
Vacuum filters consist of rotating drums covered with filters . A pump is used
to excavate air and water from the drum . Drum rotates partly submerging the
sludge.
It picks a thing film of clothes and is removed by scrappers.
Digestion followed by drying in this method sludge is digested by specially
designed sludge digesters and it is then dried on sludge digesting bands.
ACID
PRODUCTION
TANKFermentation
is
allowed by act od
some chemicals or
bacteria.
ACID REGRESSION
STAGEThe organic acids
are attacked by
bacteria and
converted into
carbonates and
ammonium
compounds
ALKALINE
FERMENTATION
STAGE-
More resistance
substances are
attacked by
bacteria, and they
are broken down
into ammonia and
organic acids
FACTORS AFFECTING SLUDGE DIGESTION
Temperature- the decomposition of bacteria requires temperature of 21

degree Celsius.
Sludge seeding- the process od introducing fresh sludge. It should be done

in such a way that ultimate alkaline conditions may prevail in the tank .
Lime may be used for purpose of attaining required ph.
Mixing- the fresh raw sludge should be thoroughly mixed with digested
sludge with some effective methods. This is generally done by stirring the
sludge in slow motion device.
Ph value the desired range of ph for sludge digestion is 6.8 to 7.1 . Adding
lime or raw sludge can maintain the ph value.
Miscellaneous conditions- quality of public water supply and presence of

fluoride , copper and radio active substances.
TWO STAGE DIGESTION TANK
For treating sewage on large scale , two stage process is adopted . In this there
are two digestion tanks . The sludge is admitted in primary digester and it is kept
there for period of 7 10 days.
Partly digested sludge is transferred into another tank where they are kept for
another 10 15 days.
It is effective method for preventing the tendency of sludge to short circuit. The
construction of tank and their working are simplified.
The efficiency of digestion is increased.
The total cost is reduced as compared to two single stage digestion tank.
Miscellaneous methods of
sewage treatment
Cesspools
Chlorination of sewage
Imhoff tanks
Oxidation ponds
Septic tanks
Cesspools
It is an underground structure
in the form of circle of
rectangle.
The top portion of the
cesspool acts as an
absorption field and the
bottom portion acts as a
septic tank.
The main objection of a
cesspool is that it is to be
emptied and clean when it
becomes full, which results in
extra cost.
Chlorination of sewage
PurposeTo prevent the bulking of activated sludge.
To increase the efficiency of sewage treatment
units.
To control the odour.
ApplicationThe action is not instantaneous and hence , suitable tank should be provided.
The contact period should be about 15 minutes , and stirring is desirable.
Imhoff tanks
In the sedimentation chamber of

the imoff tank ,the sewage is
admitted.
An opening at the bottom of the
sedimentation chamber is known
as slot. The solids which settle at
the bottom of the sedimentation
chamber, fall in the digestion
chamber.
In the digestion chamber, the solids
obtained are digested.
The digested sludge at the bottom
of the imhoff tank is removed by
the sludge removal pipe either
under hydrostatic pressure or by
pumping.
Oxidation ponds
An artificial pond of shallow depth formed

for the retention of sewage for sufficient
time.
The sewage is stored under climatic
conditions which are favorable for the
growth of algae.
The maintenance and operation is easy.
It is economical where land is cheaply
available and suitable dry climate exists.
It may give out odors , sometimes may
become septic due to overloading or
unfavorable climate.
Septic tank
It is just like a plain sedimentation tank.

The bio chemical reactions by anaerobic bacteria take place.
The sludge is allowed to be accumulated at the bottom of the tank and it is
removed at intervals either by manual labor or by pumping.
AdvantagesIt does not require special attention or supervision.

The cost is reasonable as compared to the advantages.
There is absence of any moving parts.
Disadvantages
If the tank is not functioning properly, the effluent is dark and foul smelling.
It requires excessive large size for serving more persons.
The working is un predictable and non uniform.
Miscellaneous topics
Elutriation
Garbage disposal
Night soil disposal without water carriage
Elutriation
The washing of sludge with clean water or sewage effluent.

It removes fatty and organic acids.
It is applied just before coagulation.
It results in saving of chemicals and ,akes coagulation of sludge easy and
economical.
Garbage disposal
Following are the various methods of
garbage disposal:
Controlled tipping
Disposal into sea
Filling of low lying areas
Incineration
Mechanical compost plant
Pulverisation
Trenching
Controlled tipping
This method is adopted where site for redevelopment is available.

In this method the garbage is tipped in hollows to a dpeth of 1 to 2 metres.
The tips are covered by earth.
Disposal into sea
It is available in coastal towns only.

It is cheap.
It requires careful dumping of dry refuse into the sea.
The garbage shoul be discharged and at such points and periods that id does not
return to the shore.
Filling of low lying areas
The garbage is collected, conveyed and dumped into low lyin g areas of the
locality.
It is finally covered with a blanket of earth or ash to avoid the nuisance of
flies and vermins.
This is cheap method for place where low lying land is easily available.
Incineration
The dry refuse is bi=urnt in the incineration plant.

This method is useful where suitable site is not available for the safe
disposal of garbage.
It is also adopted in case of disposal of hazardous garbage .
The initial cost if the incinerator is high.
Mechanical compost plant
It converts the garbage into manure which is rich in nitrogen contents.

This is the most hygenic method of dry refuse disposal .
The cost of compost is lower than that of a fertiliser.
The space required to install this is less.
Pulveristaion
The dry refuse is simply pulverised into powder form without changing its
chemical compostion.
The powder may be used as manure.
It may prove uneconomical if there is no need for such type of fertiliser.
Night soil disposal without water

carriage
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The various types of privies which are constructed to dispose off human
excreta without the help of water carriage will be discussed. They are of 5
types:
Aqua or wet privies
Bore hole privies
Pail or tub privies
Pit privies
Trench privies
Aqua or wet privies
Three chambers are constructed.

The night soil smoothly falls into the first chamber and it is decomposed
under anaerobic conditions.
The second chamber is connected to the atmosphere and in this chamber
the aerobic bacteria attack the organic matter.
The third chamber is of small size and I is filled with clinker. The effluent
while rising through the clinker gets purified and it can be used for farming
or gardening.
Bore-hole privies
A hole is dug into the ground.

At the top of hole , a stone with hole is set up and the
walls are constructed to form an enclosed space.
The excreta fall into the bore and the ablution water is
absorbed by the surrounding soil.
Pale or tub privies
These privies consist merely of trenches or pits which are excavated into
the ground.
They are enclosed properly by construction of brick walls or corrugated
galvanised iron sheets or simply jute cloth
Trench privies
A long trench is excavated .

The trench is covered with wooden planks.
An enclosure is made.
The trench is maintained in good sanitary condition by spreading lime
powder over the excreta.
WASTE WATER
INTRODUCTION
Water used fo different purposes is

drained out from house through
nahni trap or gully trap.
Domestic waste water is calle
sewage.
A network of pipe lines collecting
waste water from different areas is
known as sewerage system, which
is maintained by local authority like
nagar panchayat or municipalities.
WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Classified into three categories;
1. Primary treatment
2. Secondary treatment
3. Tertiary treatment or advance waste water treatment
PRIMARY WASTE WATER TREATMENT
Principle: Large suspended , floating or settle ablr solids are removed from
the waste water.
More complex commpounds are broken up and converted into simpler
compounds by decomposition.
Includes screens, grit chambers and primary sedimentation tanks.
Also called physical treatment process.Mit mainly removes suspended
contaminants.
Primary treatment removes 55% to 70% suspended solids and b.O.D. Upto
40%.
UNIT
FUNCTIONS
screen chamber
removes floating matter of compressed

large size like rags, paper,plastics etc.
grit chamber
removes grit,sand and such inorganic

matter from sewage.
primary settling tank
removes organic and inorganic suspended

solids settled at the bottom
biological treatment unit
removes all biodegradable organic matter

by converting soluble matter into cell mass
which is non- dissolved bioflex.
secondary clarifier or secondary settling

tank
removes all organic biofloc from waste

water and make ir free form B.O.D.
sludge digester
degrades all orgsnic matter in sludge
sludge drying beds
removes water present in digested sludge

and dries it into cake.
SECONDARY WASTE WATER

TREATMENT
Consists of a biological processing of the organic waste products contained

in the effluent
Main function is to convert the remaining organic matter into stable form by
oxidation or nitrification.
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT UNITS

1. Activated sludge units:
contains fertilizing constituents
color indicates the degree of aeration:
under-aerated : light brown
well-aerated : golden brown
over-aerated : muddy brown
2. aerated lagoons:
one of the most energy intensive operations in the waste water treatment
system, consuming b/w 50% and 90% of the total energy costs of a typical
municipal treatment facility.
diffused aeration is defined as the injection of air or oxygen under pressure
below the liquid surface.
3. Biotowers and trickling filters: relatively simpler treatment units.Consists of a

round tank full of media(rocks or engineered plastic) over which the process
flow is distributed, or "trickled".
The media is used as a surface on which to grow a biological mass which
will contain and support a population of micro-organisms which perform the
actual treatment that takes place in the biotowers and trickling filters.
4. Solids contact basins: these are a set of rectangular concrete tanks through
which the process flow passes.
The conditioning of the solids is accomplished by micro-organisms that
produce polymer, called exo-cellular polymer,under controlled conditions.
The polymer produced causes solid particles to flocculate together into
larger clumps of solid particles which settle very effectively in the secondary
clarifiers.
Dissolved oxygen is required for the respiration of micro-organisms.
Mechanisms to maintain the desired concentration of solids in the mixed
liquor:
I. Solids that settle and removed from the secondary clarifiers are returned
by pumping to the head of solids.
Ii. A determined amount is removed everyday.
SECONDARY CLARIFIER
Separate solids from liquids through the process of gravity sedimentation.

Mechanism:removes sludge by hydraulic suction.
Reason for using hydraulic suction:to accomodate rapid sludge removal.
The process is designed to provide conditions which promote the biological
production of polymers which in turn promote flocculation and settling.
SLUDGE DIGESTER
The digested sludge contains more than 70% of moisture,which may create
great nuisance if disposed w/o moisture removal.The sand and gravel layer
with bottom collecting system is laid to drain out water.
The moisture of the sludge is partially evaporated and partially removed by
trickling it into bottom drainage system.
SLUDGE DRYING BEDS
it stabilizes all organic matter to stable form normally in anaerobic condition.

solids and waste water are separated by biological treatment carried out by
facultative and anaerobic micro-organisms.
OXIDATION PONDS
for a small town or village to construct ,operate and maintain primary and
secondary treatment units is the most expensive.so oxidation tank is a simple
alternate unit.
TERTIARY WASTE WATER TREATMENT
involves the removal of non-biodegradable organic pollutant and a significant

percentage of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous.
DISPOSAL OF WASTE WATER

methods:
1.disposal in natural water:into nearby lake,river or poond,maintaining reqd.
level of dissolved oxygen for aquatic animals.
2.disposal on land:waste water effluent can be spread over the land or field
depending upon the type of soil.
REUSES OF WASTE WATER

Used for following purposes:
1.agricultural re-uses: crop irrigation,bathing etc.
2.industrial re-uses: cooling,cleaning,gardening etc.
3.municipal re-uses: street washing, watering of public parks,flushing toilets
etc.
4.recreational re-uses: fishing,boating,park watering,public watering etc.
THANK YOU

Water Supply and Waste Discharge

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Water Supply and Waste Discharge

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WATER SUPPLY ASSIGNMENT

The problem of estimating the quantity of water may be tackled by studying in

Cooking: The amount of water required for cooking may be assumed as

Business or trade purposes: some trades such as dairies, hotels,

Habits of population: for high- value premises, the consumption rate of

Reasons to measure the quantity of water:

Effects of variation on design

water requirements for buildings other

Cinema and concert halls 15 per seat

Hospitals with less than

340 per bed

Hospitals with more than

450 per bed

135 per head

180 per bed

135 per head

Clear water service reservoirs

Conveying pipes for raw and clear

Electric motors and pumps

Water treatment units

Sources of water supply

Harmful effects of surface runoff

Factors affecting runoff coefficient

Measured by standard instruments known as rain gauges

Non recording type gauge

Types of sources for water supply

Factors affecting choice of source of water supply for a particular town or

Surface sources of water supply

Lakes and streams

Lakes and streams

Man made body of standing water smaller than lake

Principal source of water supply schemes for many cities

Chief points to be considered in investigating a river supply of water are:

Adequacy of storage of purified water

An artificial lake formed of dam by the construction of dam across a valley

A storage reservoir essentially consists of the following 3 parts:

Forms of Underground sources of

Horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through water

In order to obtain large quantities of water, infiltration wells are sunk in

3 factors which form the basis of theory of wells are:

Lakes, streams, ponds, rivers,

Sometimes highly polluted

Generally free from

Huge quantity of water is

Quantity of water available is

Suitably tested and a line of

Can be supplied to public

Useful for big towns and

Useful for small towns and

2.taste and odour:

The process of settlement of particles is obstructed by three forces:

1. Labor and supervision - These tanks are to be filled ,emptied , washed,

2. CONTIONUOS FLOW TYPE TANKS

The temperature also has a noticeable effect on chlorination. The delay

PLAIN CHLORINATION : when chlorine treatment is given to raw water to

DECHLORINATION : the removal of excess chlorine from water is known as

Potassium permanganate treatment : this disinfectant works as a powerful

Boiling the water

Adding lime to the water

Also known as non-carbonate hardness and it is mainly due to the presence of

Lime soda process

This process in also known as deionisation process. It is similar to zeolite process

Reverse Osmosis process