Botany Eam Cet

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How to Prepare for EAMCET 2012 to be successful in
BOTANY
Since the academic year 2009, ranks have been given to Science students based on
their performance in Intermediate optional subjects with a weightage of 25% and EAMCET
75% to get into various professional courses of science stream such as Medical and
Engineering. In this method, Biology is the subject that decides the rank in medical stream to
some extent in Intermediate level and large extent in EAMCET. As Biology begins with
Botany, it is important for the students to write biology well in EAMCET. When compared
with Zoology and Chemistry, Botany paper is said to be tough but not uncrackable. It is felt
as tough because it was taking much time to answer the questions. When you look at the
Botany section of 2011 EAMCET paper, 17 questions are of 3rd level (Multiple selection,
Matching, Item groups, Assertion and Reason and Sequence type) and a thirteen are concept
based problems which consume much time to answer them. These were the reasons for
students feeling it as difficult one and it also reflected in deciding the rank by affecting
answering the other papers. Hence, keeping this in view, a thorough preparation in Botany is
considered inevitable to all aspiring medical stream students of EAMCET 2012.
General feelings of the students
Can I be able to remember the numericals, names of plants and their characters.
Whether this year will be easier or tough.
How many will be my competitors.
I am not finding time to cover the subject in time.
Not able to answer the assertion and reason type questions well.
Solutions
Prepare tables for numericals, names of plants, unique features of plants in various topics
in condensed form and look at them, try to recollect them at times.
Whatever may be the level of paper, it is common to all and you are not exception. With
right preparation, you can covert the tough task as easier.
This year around 70,000 students are appearing for EAMCET from medical stream,
which is a little higher than earlier years. So competition is increased a little bit and you
have to do some extra effort for effectively reaching the goal.
Frame your own time table or the one given below and follow it strictly.
Write a model test every day with a minimum of 20 questions with 10 moderate and 10
tough questions in the paper. It is preferable to take the test from SAKSHI education
website.
www.sakshieducation.com
Chapter wise Analysis of Number of Questions asked in the last 6 years of EAMCET
Chapter Name
2004 2005
1. Botany Introduction
2006
2007 2008 2009 2010 `2011
2. Vegetative Morphology
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
1
3. Reproductive Morphology
1
3
2
2
3
2
2
1
4. Reproduction in
4
3
4
3
2
2
2
3
Angiosperms
5. Plant Taxonomy
5
3
3
3
4
3
3
4
6. Cell Biology
2
2
1
2
2
3
2
3
7. Internal Organization of
4
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
Plants
8. Plant Ecology
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
9. Genetics
2
2
2
10. PlantKingdom
5
5
4
3
3
4
4
4
11. Microbiology
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
12. Plant Physiology
7
6
9
8
9
10
10
10
13. Plants and Human
4
5
4
3
3
4
4
4
Welfare
Note: The number below the each year indicates the number of questions asked in
each chapter. Questions from Genetics have been asked only from year 2009. In
earlier years, Questions from Economic Botany and Plant Pathology were also
asked.
Analysis of types of Questions asked in Previous years of EAMCET
Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2012
Average
Direct
Problems
questions
18
18
17
18
8
9
10
8
14-15
3
1
5
2
6
7
13
A/R
type
4
3
4
6
3
5
4
1
Matching
6
8
8
6
9
7
10
7
4
Item
Sequence
group
type
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
0
7-8
2
6
2
5
4
7
2
2
1-2
Multiple
selection
6
3
2
4
12
5
6
7
4-5
1st Year BOTANY

Unit I: Introduction
From this always one question is asked. This topic is a little bit memory oriented as it has
contributions of various scientists for the development of Botany, Various plants which have
good scope for the welfare of mankind for food, clothing, medicines, wood and maintaining
ecological balance in nature.
Some questions asked in previous entrance exams
1.
Study the following lists and identify the correct match

List I
List II
The oldest book on

Agriculture
B) Micrographia
A)
I)
2.
Robert Hooke
II) Camerarius
Description of sexual
reproduction in plants
Role of chromosomes
D)
in heredity
C)
EAMCET 2010
III
Van Leeuwenhoek
)
IV
Parasara
)
V) Sutton and Boveri
1)
II
IV III V
2)
IV III V
II
3)
II
*4)
IV I
Match the following

List II
Food for Astronauts
A) Arnica
I)
B) Jatropa
II) Medicinal plant
D) Boehmeria
III I
II
EAMCET 2011
List I
C) Chlorella
III
Fiber yielding plant

)
IV
Petro plant
)
V) Biofertilizer
1)
IV III II
2)
II
IV
3)
II
IV I
III
4)
III II
IV
Ans: 1- 4 ; 2-3
External Morphology
It is one of the important chapter from which about 4-5 questions can be asked. The
questions of all the types can be asked. Prepare tables for the topic and practice it. This is
useful in solving some of the questions from Plant Ecology.
Root
It usually arises from Radicle of embryo and has root caps. Aquatic plants have
rootpockets.
Dicots and most of the Gymnosperms have tap root system with acropetally arranged
dissimilar lateral roots on the main root and adventitious root system is present in
Monocots, Pteridophytes and some Gymnosperms and Dicots which arise as tufts usually
at the basal region of stem
Hydrilla has poorly developed roots whereas Utricularia and Wolffia lack roots.
Fusiform roots (Raphanus), Conical roots (Daucus) and Napiform roots (Betavulgaris
stores sugars) are storage tap roots.
Fasciculatedroots (monocot Asparagus and dicots Ruellia and Dahlia) and single nodal
storage roots of Ipomoea are storage adventitious roots.
Epiphyticroots (Vanda-Orchidaceae), Photosynthetic roots (Taeniophyllum, Tinospora,
Trapa), Parasitic roots (Cuscuta, Viscum, Loranthus, Orobanche, Balanophora,
Rafflesia, Striga, Santalum) and Respiratoryroots of Jussieae are adventitious root
modifications.
Rootnodules with Rhizobia of Fabaceae and Respiratoryroots of Avicennia and
Rhizophora are tap root system modifications.
Stem
Stem and its appendages are formed from plumule of Embryo.
Tendrils (axillary bud of Passiflora, terminal buds of Cissus, Vitis), Hooks (axilary bud
of Hugonia, terminal bud of Artabotrys), Thorns (terminal bud of Carissa, Axillary buds
of Bougainvilleae, Punica, Duranta), Phylloclades (Opuntia, Cocoloba, Casuarina),
Cladodes (Ruscus, Asparagus), Tuberous stems (Knol-Khol, Bulbophyllum-pseudo
bulb) and Bulbils (floral buds of Agave, Globba, root buds of Oxalis, vegetative buds of
Dioscorea) are Aerital stem modifications.
Runners (Hydrocotyle, Lippia, Oxalis), Stolons (Nerium, Jasminum, Rosa), Suckers
(Mentha, Chrysanthemum) and Offsets (Pistia, Eichhornia, Agave) are Sub-aerial stem
modifications.
Rhizome (Curcuma, Zingiber, Canna, Musa), Corm (Colocasia, Amorphophallus),
Stemtuber (Solanum tuberosum, Helianthus tuberosus, Stachys tubifera) and Bulbs
(tunicated bulb in Allium cepa, tunicated scaly bulb in Allium sativum, naked bulb in
Lilium candidum) are Underground stem modifications.
Leaf
Leaves may be cauline (Cocos), radical (Allium) and ramal and may have deciduous
(Michelia), persistant (Pisum, Lathyrus) or branched (Ipomoeaquamoclit) stipules.
Reticulate venation is common in Dicots, uncommon in Monocots (Smilax, Dioscorea)
and may be Pinnate (Mangifera, Hibiscus), Palmateconvergent (Zizyphus) or divergent
(Passiflora, Gossypium, Cucurbita).
Parallel venation is common in Monocots and uncommon in dicots (Caulophyllum,
Eryngium) and can be Pinnate (Musa), Palmateconvergent (Oryza sativa) or divergent
(Borassus).
Leaves types: These are unlobed simple (Annona, Psidium), Pinnatelylobed (Brassica),
Palmately lobed (Passiflora, Cucurbita, Ricinus), Unipinnate imparipinnate compound
(Azadirachta), Paripinnate (Tamarindus), Bipinnate (Acacia, Delonix), Tripinnate
(Moringa, Millingtonia), Decompound (Coriandrum), Unifoliate (Citrus), Bifoliate
(Hardwickia),
Trifoliate
(Dolichos),
Tetrafoliate
(Marsilea),
Pentafoliate
(Gynandropsis) and Multifoliate (Ceibapentandra).

Phyllotaxy may be normal alternate (Hibiscus, Ficus), Leafmosaic alternate (Carica,
Acalypha), Opposite superposed (Quisqualis), Opposite decussate (Calotropis) and
Whorled (Nerium).
Leaf modifications are Tendrils (entire leaf in Lathyrus, termianal leaflets in Pisum, leaf
apex in Gloriosa, stipules in Smilax, petiole in Clematis and
Nepenthes), Spines
(complete leaf in Euphorbia, Asparagus, and Opuntia, leaf apex in Agave, Yucca, Aloe,
stipules in Acacia, Zizyphus and Parkinsonia, margin and apex in Argemone, first leaf of
axillary bud in Citrus), Scaleleaves (Casuarina, Zingiber, Allium), Phyllode (petiole in
Acacia melanoxylon andsecondary rachii Parkinsonia), Reproductiveleaves (notches of
leaf margin in Bryophyllum, leaf tip in Scilla, wounded region in Begonia) and
Trapleaves (Nepenthes, Drosera, Utricularia, Dionaea).
Inflorescence
It may be terminal (Crotalaria, Croton), axillary (Dolichos) and
Intercalary in
position(Callistemon).
Various Racemose Inflorescences (Acropetally arranged and centripetally opened
flowers, unmodified terminal bud and indefinitely growing branched or unbranched
peduncle) are Simple raceme (Crotalaria), Compound raceme (Mangifera, Yucca),
Simplecorymb (Gynandropsis, Cassia), Compoundcorymb (Brassica oleracea var.
botrytis, Pyrus malus), Simple Umbel (Allium cepa), Compound Umbel (Coriandrum,
Daucus), Simple spike (Achyranthes, Amaranthus), Compound Spike (Triticum, Oryza),
Catkin (Casuarina , Acalypha), Simple Spadix (Colocasia), CompoundSpadix (Cocos),
Simplehomogamoushead with ray florets (Tagetus) or disc florets (Vernonia),
Heterogamous
head
(Helianthus,
Tridax)
and
Compound
head
(Echinops,
Sphaeranthus).
Solitary cyme (Axillary in Hibiscus, Terminal in Datura), Simple cyme or Cymule
(Jasmine, Bougainvillea), Monochasialhelicoid (Hamelia), Monochasial scorpioid
(Heliotropium,
Solanum),
Dichasial
cyme
(Clerodendron,
Ipomoea)
and
Polychasialcyme (Nerium) are various types of Cymose inflorescences (terminal bud

modified as flower, definite growth of peduncle, basipetally arranged and centrifugally
opened flowers).
Verticillaster (Leucas, Leonotis), Cyathium (Euphorbia, Poinsettia) and Hypanthodium
(Ficus sp.) are different types of Special inflorescences that show some special modified
features.
Flower
Flower is defined as modified shoot of limited growth meant for sexual reproduction by
Linnaeus, Goethe, de Candolle and Bauhin.
It has pedicel, bract, bracteole, thalamus, calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium,
Based on distribution of uni and bisexual flowers, plalnts are classified into Dioecious
(Borassus, Vallisneria), Monoecious (Cocos, Acalypha) and Polygamous (Mangifera,
Polygonum) species.
Floral symmetry on the basis of arrangement of floral parts is described as Acyclic
(Magnolia), Hemicyclic (Annona, Polyalthia), Cyclic (Hibiscus, Datura), on the basis of
number
of
floral
parts
as
Trimerous
(Allium),
Tetramerous
(Brassica),
Pentamerous(Hibiscus) and on the basis of form and structure as Actinomorphic

(Hibiscus), Zygomorphic (Dolichos, Ocimum) and Asymmetrical (Cannaindica).
Gynoecium position on the thalamus, classifies flowers into Hypogynous (Hibiscus,
Datura), Perigynous (Tephrosia) and Epigynous (Tridax).
On the basis of Perianth nature and distribution, flowers are described as Achlmydeous
(Euphorbia, Poinsettia), Monochlamydeous (Croton, Amaranthus), Homochlamydeous
(Allium) and Heterochlamydeous (Datura, Hibiscus).
Aestivation (arrangement of perianth lobes in bud condition) is Valvate in calyx of
Hibiscus, Twisted in corolla of Datura and Hibiscus, Ascendingimbricate in corolla of
Caesalpiniaceae, Descendingimbricate in corolla of Fabaceae and Quincuncial in the
calyx of Ipomoea and Catharanthus.
Calyx is Polysepalous in Annona, Gamosepalous in Hibiscus, Ephemeral in Argemone,
PersistentMarcescent in Solanum and PersistentAcrescent in Physalis.
Corolla may be polypetalous or gamopetalous.
Anthers of stamens can be described as Dithecous and Introrse as in Datura and
Monothecous and Extrorse as in Hibiscus.
Attachment of filament to the Anther is Basifixed in Datura, Dorsifixed in Hibiscus,
Adnate in Nelumbo and Versatile in Oryza.
Based on length of stamens, androecium is Didynamous with 2 short and 2 tall stamens in
Ocimum, Tetradynamous with 4 tall inner and 2 short outer stamens in Brassica, Exerted
in Acaciaarabica and Inserted in Datura and Dolichos.
Cohesion
of
stamens
is
Monadelphous
(Hibiscus),
Diadelphous
(Dolichos),
Polyadelphous (Citrus) with union at filament level, Syngenesious (Tridax, Helianthus)

with united anthers and Synandrous (Cucurbita) where the stamens are fused throughout
their length.
Adhesion of Stamens may be Episepalous (Grevillea), Epipetalous (Datura),
Epiphyllous (Asparagus) or Gynandrous (Gynostegium as in Calotropis).
Anther dehiscence is Longitudinal in Datura, Transverse in Hibiscus, Valvular in
Cassytha and Porous in Solanum.
Gynoecium has 1 capel in Dolichos, 2 in Solanum, 3 in Allium, 4 in Oenothera, 5 in
Hibiscus and many in Abutilon.
Nelumbo and Michelia have Apocarpous gynoecium and Datura and Hibiscus have
Syncarpous gynoecium.
Junction of margins of same or adjacent carpels is called as Ventralsuture and midribs of
carpels as Dorsalsuture.
Ovary has 1 locule in Dolichos, 2 in Solanum, 3 in Allium, 4 in Ipomoea, 5 in Hibiscus and
many in Abutilon.
Placentation is Marginal in Dolichos, Parietal in Brassica and Cucurbita, Axile in
Hibiscus, Freecentral in Dianthus, Supeficial in Nymphaea and Basal in Tridax and
Helianthus.
Style is Terminal in Hibiscus, Lateral in Mangifera and Gynobasic in Ocimum.
Stigma secretes Sugary substances.
Questions from previous EAMCET exams
1.
In Duranta the nature of vascularised defensive structures represent the

modifications of
EAMCET 2009
*1) axillary bud as in Bougainvillea
2) Terminal bud as in Carissa
3) Stipules as in Acacia
4) Apical bud as in Artabotrys
2.
The aerial short and branched roots of an autotrophic plant that provide stability
are known as
EAMCET 2007
1) Lateral roots 2) Haustoria 3) Velamen roots
*4) Clinging roots
Model Questions
1.
[A] : All roots are positively geotropic.

[R] : Respiratory roots are achlorophyllous.
1) A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A

2) A and R are correct but R is not the correct explanation of A
3) A is true but R is false
*4) A is false but R is true
2.
One of the following plants develops parasitic roots at its earlier stages and later
becomes autotrophic
1) Rafflesia
2) Balanophora
*3) Santalum album 4) Cuscuta
3. Study the following and identify the correct match

Plant
Function of its modified stem
A. Carissa
I) Photosynthesis
B. Bougainvillea
II) Storage of food
C. Hugonia
III) Protection
D. Opuntia
IV) Climbing
V) Protection and climbing
*1)
2)
3)
4)
A
III
III
V
III
B
V
V
III
IV
C
IV
II
IV
I
D
I
I
II
II
4.
Arrange the following modified stems in a sequence of positively geotropic to

negatively geotropic growth patterns
i) Modified stem of Curcuma
ii) Modified stem of Amorphophallus
iii) Modified stem of Stachys tubifera
iv) Modified stem of Mentha arvensis
1) ii, iv, i, iii
*2) iii, i, iv, ii
3) iii, iv, i, ii
4) i, iii, iv, ii
Reproduction in Angiosperms
In this usually 2 to 3 questions are asked. Some of the questions are in the form of
problems or inter topic related application type.
From Introduction to Male gametophyte
A dithecous anther has 4 microsporangia and each one has epidermis, endothecium with
fibrous cellulosic thickenings, middle layers, nutritive tapetum and sporogenous tissue
with Microspore mother cells that divide meiotically to form haploid microspores or
pollen grains.
A pollen grain has a wall with sporopollenin exine, pectocellulose intine and protoplast
with haploid nucleus with dense protoplasm that develops into male gametophyte
partially in the microsporangium (2-celled stage with generative and vegetative cells) and
partially on the stigma (Pollen tube with vegetative nucleus and 2 male gametes). The
male gametes are released into the embryosac. Pollen grains are polysiphonous in
Malvaceae and Cucurbitaceae.
Ovule to female gametophyte

Ovules or megasporangia are present in the ovary which have a stalk (Funiculus) and
body with nucellus, integuments (Unitegmic in gamopetalae, Bitegmic in Monocots and
Polypetalae and Ategmic in Balanophora and Loranthus), micropyle and chalaza.
The different types of ovules are Orthotropous with 0o curvature (Polygonum),
Anatropous with 180o curvature (Asteraceae and many angiosperms), Hemitropous with
90o curvature (Primula, Ranunculus), Campylotropous with 90o curvature and micropyle
towards funiculus (Brassicaceae, Fabaceae), Amphitropous with 160o curvature and
horse-shoe shaped embryosac (Alisma and Butomus) and Circinotropous with 360o
curvature and elongated coiled funiculus as in Opuntia and Plumbago.
During megasporogenesis a cell of Nucellus behaves as Megaspore mother cell, divides
meiotically and forms 4 haploid megaspores to form 7-celled 8-nucleated embryosacs of
Monosporic (Polygonum discovered by Strasburgur), Bisporic (Allium sp.) and
Tetrasporic (Fritillaria, Peparomia).
Polygonum type of embryosac has egg apparatus with an egg cell or female gamete and 2
synergids(have filiform apparatus that guides the pollen tube into the embryosac), a
central cell with 2 polar nuclei that fuse and form diploid secondary nucleus and 3
haploid antipodals.
Pollination
Dicliny (Vallisneria), Dichogamy with protandry (Gossypium, Helianthus, Clerodendron)
or protogyny (Solanum, Scrophularia), Herkogamy (Hibiscus, Gloriosa), Heterostyly
(combination of herkogamy and dichogamy) with diheterostyly (Primula, Oldenladia)
and triheterostyly (Lythrum, Oxalis sp.), Self sterility (Abutilon, Passiflora, Orchids),
Pollen Prepotency (Dolichos) and Sensitive stigmas (Mimulus, Martynia) are different
contrivances for Cross Pollination.
Homogamy (Caltha, Ranunculus rain water helps in self pollination), Movement of
floral parts (Argemone), Safety mechanism (Bisexual florets of Asteraceae) and
Cleistogamy (Commelina, Streptocarpus) are contrivances for self pollination.
Yucca flowers are cross pollinated by a moth Pronuba yuccacella. If it is failed, the plant
perfoms self pollination.
The agents of cross pollination are wind (Anemophily Oryza), water (Hydrophily
Epihydrophily in Vallisneria and Hypohydrophily in Zostera) and animals such as
Insects
(Entomophily
in
Cestrum),
Birds
(Ornithophily
in
Bignonia),
Bats
(Chiropteriphily in Kigeliapinnata) and Snails (Malacophily in Aroids).
Fertilisation, Post fertilization changes, Seed structure and its germination

Fusion of male and female gametes is called as Fertilization. Based on entry of pollen tube
into the ovule, it is described as Porogamy (Ottelia, Hibiscus), Chalazogamy (Casuarina)
and Mesogamy (Cucurbita). Pollen tube enters into the embryosac through one of the
synergids and releases the 2 male gametes and vegetative nucleus into it.
In Angiosperms fertilization is described as Double fertilization (Nawaschin in Fritillaria
and Lilium) because 2 fertilizations are seen in the same embryosac. The 2 fertilizations are
Syngamy and Triple fusion. Fusion of a male gamete with egg cell to form zygote is
called as true fertilization or Syngamy or Zygotic fertilization (Strasburger in Polygonum).
Fusion of 2nd male gamete with secondary nucleus or 2 polar nuclei to form 3n PEN is
called as Triple fusion or Vegetative fertilization (Nawaschin in Lilium and Fritillaria).
Endosperm formation is supressed in Orchidaceae and Podostemonaceae. Cocos, Datura
and Ricinus have endospermic seeds and seeds of Cicer, Dolichos and Capsella are Nonendospermic.
Unutilised nucellus present in the seed is called as Perisperm (Piperaceae, Nymphaeceae).
Perisperm of coffee is edible.
Aril (develops from funicle or Hilum) of Pithecalobium, Myristica (Mace) and Caruncle
(develops from integument of micropylar region) of Ricinus communis are seed
outgrowths.
Formation of seedling from embryo of seed is called as seed germination. It is Epigeal in
Dolichos and Cucurbita, Hypogeal in Maize and Pea and Viviparous in Rhizophora.
Fruit
False fruit is developed from non-ovarian part of the flower and it is seedless (Pedicel of
Anacardium and Thalamus of Pyrus malus).
True fruits are developed from ovary. They are Simple, Aggregate and Multiple types.
Simple fruits are developed from syncarpous ovaries of a flower and may be Fleshy or Dry
at maturity. Berry (Solanum, Lycopersicon, Musa, Phoenix), Pepo (Cucurbitaceae), Pome
(Pyrus sp.), Hesperidium (Citrus sps.) and Drupe (Cocos, Mangifera) are fleshy fruits.
Legume (Dolichos, Pisum of Fabaceae), Capsule (Septicidal in Aristolochia, Loculicidal in
Gossypium and Abelmoschus and Septifragal in Datura) are Dry dehiscent fruits.
Caryopsis (Oryza, Triticum of Poaceae), Cypsela (Tridax, Tagetus of Asteraceae) and Nut
(Anacardium occidentalis) are Dry indehiscent fruits.
Lomentum (Acacia, Mimosa) and Schizocarp (Abutilon, Sida or Malvaceae) are
Schizocarpic fruits.
Aggregate fruits are formed from apocarpous ovaries having more than one carpels. Ovary
of each carpel develops into a fruit like structure called fruitlet. Group of fruitlets attached
to common axis is called as Etaerio. Based on pericarp nature, the aggregate fruits are
Etaerio of Berries in Artabotrys and Polyalthia, Et. of Follicles in Magnolia, Et. of Drupes
in Rubus and Et. of Achenes in Naravalia and Nelumbo. In Annona, all berrylets fuse and
form a single simple fruit like structure.
Multiple fruits are formed from ovaries of all the flowers of inflorescence. They are Sorosis
and Syconus. Sorosis is developed from Spike (Ananas), Catkin (Morus, Casuarina) and
Spadix (Artocarpus) inflorescences. Syconus is developed from Hypanthodium
inflorescence (Ficus sp.).
1. There are 10 flowers in an individual plant of Crotalaria. In each microsporangium
of every stamen of all the flowers there are 30 microspore mother cells. How many
pollen grains are formed in that plant.
EAMCET - 2009
1) 4,000
2) 10,000
3) 24,000
*4) 48,000
2. Arrange the following fruits in descending size order based on the number of locules
in the ovary.
EAMCET 2008.
I. Carcerulus
II. Schizocarp
III. Cremocarp
IV. Regma
*1) II, I, IV, III
2) I, IV, III, II
3) II, IV, III, I
4) II, III, I, IV
3. Thirty seeds each of Dolichos, Pisum and Maize are kept for germination in the soil.
How many cotyledons are found above the soil and below the soil respectively when
all the seeds germinate? EAMCET - 2011
1) 30, 60
2) 60, 60
*3) 60, 90
4) 90, 90
Model Questions
1. Fibrous thickenings of Endothecium of microsporangium are chemically made of
1) Pectin
2) Lignin
3) Suberin
*4) Cellulose
2. All the nuclei of embryosac do not have same genetic constitution in
i) Polygonum
ii) Allium
iii) Peparomia
iv) Fritillaria
1) i, ii, iii
2) i, iii, iv
*3) ii, iii, iv
4) i, ii, iv
A. Ovules with 360 curvature
I) Brassicaceae
B. Ovules with 90 curvature
II) Asteraceae
C. Ovules with 120 curvature
III) Polygonaceae
D. Ovules with 180 curvature
IV) Plumbaginaceae
V) Primulaceae
1)
2)
3)
*4)
A
IV
IV
III
IV
B
V
III
V
V
C
III
II
I
I
Plant Taxonomy
In this usually 3-5 questions are asked. Some questins are direct. Some are application
type. Matching, Assertion and Reason type, Item group and Sequence type questions are
asked.
Introduction
Identification, classification and nomenclature are the 3 aspects of taxonomy.
Identification is done with the help of Herbaria, Floras and Computer punch card keys.
D
II
I
II
II
Royal Botanical Gardens has largest herbarium in the world and publishes the journal
Index Kewensis. BSI has Indian Botanical Gardens and Lucknow has National Botanical
Gardens which help in Plant Identification.
Plants are named according to the rules of ICBN and Binomial nomenclatural system is
followed. Tautonyms are discarded in Plant nomenclature.
Artificial systems of classifications are based on one or few easily comparable
characters. e.g. Theopharastus classification and Sexual system of classification (24
classes and 87 orders) of Linnaeus.
Natural system are based on all morphological characters e.g. de Jussieu, de Candolle
and Bentham and Hooker classifications.
Phylogenetic systems are based on genetic and evolutionary evidences. e.g. Eichler,
Engler and Prantl, Hutchinson, Rendle, Bessey classifications.
Multidisciplinary systems are phylogenetic which not only use morphological data but
also evidences from other branches. e.g. Takhtajan, Thorne, Goldberg, Cronquist and
Shipnov classifications.
Kingdom is the largest and Species is the basic unit of classification.
Bentham and Hookers system is a natural system of classification of flowering plnts,
written in latin as Genera Plantarum with 3 volumes, 3 classes, 3 subclasses, 21 series, 25
orders, 202 families and 97,205 species.
Numerical and symbolic representation of various parts of flower and their
interrelationships is called as Floral formula.
Malvaceae
Its plants are Abutilon indicum (Tutturu benda Medicinal), Abelmoschusesculentum
(Benda vegetable), Althaearosea (Hollyhock ornamental), Gossypiumherbaceum
(Cotton Textile industry), Hibiscusrosa-sinensis (Chinarose ornamental), H.
cannabinus (Madras hemp leafy vegetable, fibre yielding), Hibiscusmicranthus
(Nityamalle ornamental), Malvaviscusarboreus (Mirapamandara ornamental),
Thespesiapopulnea (Gangaravi ornamental) and Sidacordifolia (medicinal plant).
Fabaceae:
The plants are: 1. Arachis hypogea (Groundnut Oilseed and fodder crop), 2. Abrus
precatorius (Crabs eye Seeds are used as weights by Goldsmiths), 3. Butea
monosperma (Flame of the Forest), 4. Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea or Red gram Pulses),
5. Cicer arietinum (Bengal gram or Chick pea Pulses), 6. Crotalaria juncea (Sun hemp
Fodder and Fibre crop), 7. Dolichos lablab (Bean fruit vegetable), 8. Dalbergia
latifolia (Rose wood Wood for furniture), 9. Derris indica (Kanuga seed oil as
medicine), 10. Glycine max (Soy bean Seed oil, fruit vegetable), 11. Indigofera tinctoria
(Blue dye plant fabric whitener), 12. Lathyrus sativus (Wild pea), 13. Phaseolus mungo
(Black gram Pulses), 14. Phaseolus aureus (Green gram Pulses), 15. Pisum sativum
(Peas Pulses), 16. Pterocarpus santalinus (Red sanders wood used in making musical
instruments), 17. Sesbania sesban (Avisa Green manure), 18. Tephrosia purpurea
(Vempali Green manure), 19. Trigonella foenum-graecum (Fenugreek, Menthulu
medicinal, Spice and leafy vegetable) and 20. Ulex (Xerophyte).
The floral formula is Br, Brl or Ebrl , %, O+ , K(5), C1+2+(2), A(9)+1 or (10), G1-.
Solanaceae
Its plants are: 1. Atropa belladonna (Belladona Belladona has alkaloid Atropine and
used in Belladona plasters), 2. Capsicum fruitescens (Chillies Vegetable, condiment,
spice, Pickle), 3. Cestrum nocturnum (Night queen Ornamental), 4. Cestrum diurnum
(Day king Ornamental), 5. Datura metal (Thorn apple Leaves in Asthama control), 6.
Hyoscyamus niger (Kurashani-Vamum Medicinal), 7. Lycopersicon esculentum
(Tomato Vegetable), 8. Nicotiana tabacum (Tobacco Nicotine), 9. Petunia alba
(ornamental), 10. Physalis minima (Sun berry fruits are edible), 11. Physalis peruviana
(Gooseberry), 12. Solanum melongena (Brinjal), 13. Solanum tuberosum (Potato), 13.
Solanum nigrum (Kamanchi Medicinal), 14. Solanum surattense (Vakudu Leaves to
control asthama), 15. Solanum tuberosum (Potato Vegetable) and 16. Withania
somnifera (Aswagandha Medicinal).
Liliaceae
The plants are : 1. Allium cepa (Onion Vegetable with bactericidal properties), 2. Allium
sativum (Garlic Medicina, Spices), 3. Aloe barbadensis (Kalabanda Piles treatment),
4. Asparagus racemosus (Sathamuli Vegetable), 5. Colchicum autumnale (Meadow
Saffron Colchicine a mutagen is obtained) 6. Dracaena angustifolia (Red Dragon
Fibre yielding), 7. Gloriosa superba (Glory lily Ornamental, Medicinal), 8. Lilium
candidum (Lily ornamental), 9. Ruscus aculeate (Butchers broom Medicinal), 10.
Scilla hyacinthiana (Squill Medicinal), 11. Smilax zeylanica (Sarasaparilla Roots as
medicine) and 12. Yucca gloriosa (Spanish dagger Leaves yield fibre).
Questions from previous exams

1. Which one of the following families shows both freedom and fusion in four
successive whorls of the flower from exterior in different members EAMCET - 2008
1) Malvaceae
2) Solanaceae
3) Asteraceae
*4) Liliaceae
2. Which one shows the correct descending sequence with reference to the number of
cohorts.
EAMCET 2008
*1) Thalamiflorae, Calyciflorae, Disciflorae, Inferae
2) Heteromerae, Inferae, Disciflorae, Calyciflorae
3) Bicarpellatae, Disciflorae, Heteromerae, Calyciflorae
4) Disciflorae, Thalamiflorae, Calyciflorae, Heteromerae
3. A plant with actinomorphic and hypogynous flowers, heterochlamydeous perianth,
dorsifixed and extrorse anthers dehiscing transversely belong to
EAMCET - 2009
1) Coronariae
2) Bicarpellatae
*3) Thalamiflorae
4) Calyciflorae
4. Identify the correct ratios of the following, related to Bentham and Hookers
classification of plants.
EAMCET - 11
A) Number of series in Dicotyledonae and Monocotyledonae
B) Number of classes and sub-classes.
A and B are respectively
1) 1 : 1 and 1 : 1
*2) 2 : 1 and 1 : 1
3) 1 : 1 and 1 : 2
4) 1 : 1 and 1 : 3
Model Questions
1.
2.
Bentham and Hooker classified series directly into natural orders in

i) Gamopetalae
ii) Monochlamydae
iii) Manocotyledonae
1) i and ii are correct
2) i and iii are correct
3) iii alone is correct
*4) ii and iii are correct
Assertion : Nicotiana belongs to Solanaceae.
Reason : It has straight embryo.
1) A and R are correct, R explains A *2) A and R are correct, R does not explain A
3) A is correct, R is wrong
4) A is wrong, R is correct
Cell Biology
In this 2-3 questions are asked, usually one from cell organelles, one from chromosomes
and nucleic acids and one from cell division. Usually a problem is asked from DNA or
Chromosomes.
Cell wall was discovered and named by Robert Hooke. It has Middle lamellum with Ca
,Mg pectate formed from Cell plate. Its Primary wall is thin, elastic and has a cellulose
frame work embedded in Pectin, hemicellulose matrix. The thin areas in the wall are
called as Primary pit fields which are traversed by Plasmodesmata involved in
intercellular transport. It has thick, rigid and impermeable Secondary wall which has
cellulose frame work embedded in Lignin, Suberin and Cutin matrix. It has depressions
known as Pits.
Plasma membrane is lipoproteinaceous, elastic with 7.5nm thick. Danielli and Davsons
trilamellar model, Unit membrane concept of Robertson and Fluid Mosaic model of
Singer and Nicolson (most acceptable) explain the structure of Plasma membrane. Fluid
mosaic model explains that PM has a ocean of bimolecular lipid layer in which the
protein icebergs are embedded. The proteins are Extrinsic and Intrinsic proteins.
Cytoplasm has 85 to 90% water, 7-10% proteins, cytoskeleton. It shows circulation in
staminal hairs of Rheo discolor and Rotation in epidermal cells of hydrophytes like
Vallisneria and Hydrilla. It has Cell organelles like Plastids, Mitochondria, E.R., Glogi
complex, Ribosomes, Lysosomes, Glyocysomes, Peroxisomes, Nucleus and Ergastic
substances.
Vacuoles were discovered by Sphalanjani and have tonoplast, and tonoplasm. These are
commonly called as Repositories of cell.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes are up to 30 in length as in Trillium and attain V, L, J and I shapes in
anaphase.
The diploid chromosome number of Haplopappus gracilis is 4, Pisum sativum 14, Allium
cepa 16, Zea mays 20, Oryza sativa 24, Nicotiana tabacum 48, Gossypium 52, Saccharum
80 and Ophioglossum 1260.
Haploid set of chromosome is genome, diploid chromosome complement is Karyotype,
diagrammatic representation of karyotype is Idiogram.
A metaphasic chromosome has two chromonemata, a centromere, telomeres, secondary
contstriction etc.
Electron microscopic studies of Kornberg and Thomas revealed that chromatin has bead
like structures called as Nucleosomes (Oudet). Each nucleosome is disc like and has a
core made of 2 copies of each of H2A, H2B (rich in Lysine), H3 and H4 (rich in Argenine)
histone proteins in two tiers. This core is wrapped by two rounds of DNA with minor
grooves in contact with the core. DNA of nucleosome is fixed to core by H1 protein. The
DNA present between two nucleosomes is called as Spacer DNA or Linker DNA.
Nucleic acids
The DNA structure given by Watson and Crick is based on the facts established by
Chargaff, Franklin, Wilkins and Pauling.
DNA molecule resembles a clockwisely twisted ladder and has two antiparallel strands
with 53 polarity. The backbone of each strand has alternately arranged Deoxyribose
and Phosphate with diester bonds between them. Nitrogen base is attached to the sugar
towards the interior of DNA molecule. Purines and Pyrimidines exist in 1:1 ratio. A of
one strand pairs with T of opposite one and 2 hydrogen bonds are formed between them.
Similarly 3 hydrogen bonds are formed between G and C.
Length of DNA is variable. Diameter is 20Ao, length of each helix is 34Ao, distance
between adjacent nucleotides is 3.4Ao and angle is 36o. Each helix has 10 pairs of
nucleotides. These features are for B-DNA. Z-DNA was discovered by Rodley and coiled
in clockwise and anticlockwise manner.
Replication of DNA is by semiconservative manner in S stage of cell cycle.
RNA has 3 types known as mRNA, rRNA and tRNA.
Cell Division
Cell cycle has Interphase and M phase stages. Inter phase has G1 stage with RNA and
protein synthesis and enlargement of cell, S stage with DNA synthesis and G2 stage with
RNA, protein and energy reserves synthesis and increase in cell organelle number.
Mitosis was discovered and named by W. Flemming. In plants it was described by
Strasburger. Onion root tips are convenient material for mitosis study. This is somatic
division and has karyokinesis and cytokinesis stages.
Kayokinesis has Prophase with chromosome condensation, disappearance of nucleolus
and nuclear membrane, Metaphase with organization of spindle and equatorial plate,
Anaphse with division of chromosome and movement of daughter chromosomes towards
poles and Telophase with the formation of daughter nuclei at poles. In cytokinesis a fluid
plate called Cell Plate is formed by Golgi in the Phragmoplast which develops into
Middle lamellum.
In Meiosis the nucleus divides twice (Meiosis I and Meiosis II) and chromosomes divide
once.
Meiosis I has Prophase I with Leptotene, Zytotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis,
Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I.
In Interkinesis there is no replication of DNA. In Meiosis II, the nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear in Prophase II, 2 spindle are formed in Metaphase II, chromosome
divide and daughter chromosomes move towards the 4 corners in Anaphase II and 4
haploid daughter nuclei are organized in Telophase II.

1. Micrographia was written by
1) Leeuwenhoek
*2) Robert Hooke
EAMCET - 2005
4) Kolliker
3) Robert Brown
2. In a DNA segment having six coils, there are 22 nitrogen base pairs linked by two
hydrogen bonds. How many cytosine bases are found in that segment ?
EAMCET - 2008
1) 22
*2) 38
3) 44
4) 76
Model Questions
1.
2.
Lysosomes arise from

i) Cisternae of E.R. ii) Tubules of E.R.
1) i and iii
*2) ii and iii
iii) Cisternae of golgi iv) Tubules of golgi

3) iii and iv
4) i, ii, iii
Double membrane bound cell organelles are

I. Nucleus
II. Mitochondria
III.Plastids
1) I, II, III, IV
1) I and II
*3) I, II and III
IV.E.R.
4) II, III and IV
3. Match the following and identify the correct match

A. DNA
I) Pseudohelices
III
II
IV
B. m RNA
II) Twisted ladder
C. t RNA
III) Straight, unfolded, double stranded *2)
II
IV
D. r RNA
IV) Straight, unfolded, single stranded
3)
IV
II
III
V) Clover leaf
4)
IV
II
1)
Internal Organsation of Plants
This is the topic that has to be concentrated. Usully 3-4 questions are asked. These are
sequence type, multiple answers and Matching. A few questions are direct and easy.
Tissues
Plants have 2 types of tissues i.e. Meristems and Permanent tissues
Nageli coined the term meristem. Meristems are primary, secondary, apical, intercalary
and lateral meristems.
Permanent tissues are differentiated tissues and of 3 types called Simple, Complex and
Special tissues.
Parenchyma is simple living tissue. It performs photosynthesis (Chlorenchyma as
palisade and spongy), Storage (food materials or excretory materials or water as in Aloe,
Bryophyllum, Opuntia), Aeration and buoyancy (hydrophytes), protection (epidermis)
and meristematic activity fuctions.
Collenchyma is simple living mechanical tissue.
Majumdar identified it as 1. Angular collenchyma 2. Lacunar collenchyma and 3.
Lamellar collenchyma.
Sclerenchyma is simple dead mechanical tissue whose cells have pitted lignified
secondary walls, narrow lumen and without intercellular spaces. These cells are fibres and
sclereids.
Fibres are elongated cells with tapering ends. Soft fibres such as Hemp (Cannabis),
Sunhemp (Crotalaria), Jute (Corchorus), Flax (Linum) and Ramie (Boehmeria) have less
or no lignin and have more commercial value. Hard fibres have more lignin and obtained
from the leaves of Musa, Yucca and Agave.
Sclerieds
are
parenchyma
like
Brachy
sclereids
(Cocos,
Pyrus),
Cylindrical
Macrosclereids (Fabaceae seed coats), Bone like Osteosclereids (Cotyledons of dicots

like Mouriria, leaves of Hakea), star like Astrosclereids (Nymphaea), thread like Filiform
sclereids (leaves of Olea) and hair like branched Trichosclereids(Olea leaves and
Monstera roots).
Complex tissues are xylem and phloem and present in tracheophytes.
The terms xylem and phloem are given by Nageli and formed from procambium in
primary plant body and vascular cambium in secondary plant body.
Xylem is mineral water conducting dead tissue also known as Hydrome and consists of
tracheary elements tracheids and vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres.
Phloem is organic food materials conducting living complex tissue which has conducting
sieve elements, Companian cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
Secretary tissues are also called as Special tissues. Its cells have protein rich protoplasm
and may be polyploidy. It is of various types. They are Digestive glands, Neectaries,
Osmophores, Secretary spaces, Hydathodes and Laticifers.
Internal structure of Root

It has epidermis with root hairs called as Rhizodermis or Epiblema or Piliferous layer,
Cortex with 2-3 layered (Dicot) or 1-2 layered (Monocot) Exodermis with suberised
walls, many layered parenchymatous general cortex with intercellular spaces, single
layered Endodermis with casparian strips made of Lignin and Suberin and some cells
lacking it (Passage cells present opposite Protoxylem) and Stele having single layered
pericycle that gives rise lateral roots, Radial vascular bundles with Exarch condition. In
Monocots, the stele is polyarch and prominent medulla is present. There is no secondary
growth.
Internal Organisation of Stem

The Dicot stem has Epidermis, Cortex and Stele. Epidermis is single layered with
stomata, trichomes and surrounded by cuticle. Cortex is demarcated into continuous
(Helianthus) or discontinuous (Cucurbita) collenchymatous Hypodermis, Multilayered
general cortex with peripheral chlorenchymatous region and inner achlorophyllous region
and single layered endodermis that stores starch (Starch sheath) and has casparian strips.
Stele
has
multilayered
completely
(Cucurbita)
or
incompletely
(Helianthus)
sclerenchymatous pericycle, Collateral or bicollateral (Solanaceae), conjoint, open

endarch vascular bundles arranged in the form a ring (Eustele) and surround the central
prominent Parenchymatous Medulla (Siphono stele) and separated by medullary rays that
help in radial conduction. Monocot stem has single layered epidermis without hairs but
with stomata and cuticle, Sclerenchymatous continuous hypodermis and ground
parenchyma with scattered, many conjoint, collateral, closed, endarch vascular bundles of
different sizes (Atactostele). Each vascular bundle is surrounded by sclerenchymatous
bundle sheath, has four vessels with 2 belong to Metaxylem and 2 belong to Protoxylem
with lacuna arranged in the form of V or Y. Medulla, Medullary rays, Pericycle,
Endodermis and general cortex are not organized. Phloem parenchyma is absent.
Internal organization of Leaf

Dicot leaf has epidermis with barrel shaped cells in the adaxial and abaxial sides
surrounded by cuticle, with stomata only on the lower epidermis or more in the abaxial
epidermis. Mesophyll is demarcated into adaxial Palisade with larger cylindrical cells
having more chloroplasts, abaxial spongy tissue with less chloroplasts primarily behaves
has ventilating tissue. The vascular bundles have parenchymatous bundle sheath with
conjoint, collateral closed endarch condition and bundle sheath extensions. Monocot leaf
has single layered epidermis without hairs but almost equal number of stomata in the
upper and lower epidermis, homogenous mesophyll, and vascular bundles with 1 or 2
layered bundle sheath having scerenchymatous extensions and conjoint, collateral and
closed nature. In grasses, some of the cells of upper epidermis are larger, thin walled,
arranged in the form of fan and help in rolling and unrolling of lamina. These cells are
called as Bulliform cells or Motor cells. In some plants the bundle sheath has
chloroplasts.
Secondary Growth of Dicot stem

Increase in thickness of the axis due to the activity of lateral meristems is called as
Secondary growth. It is common in Dicots and Gymnosperms. Anomolous secondary
growth is seen in some Monocots like Dracaena and Yucca. It takes place in stelar region
and cortical region. Medullary ray cells get dedifferentiated into interfascicular cambium
and its eventual fusion with the fascicular cambia of vascular bundles to form vascular
cambium is the first step in stelar secondary growth. This one divides periclinally and
forms more secondary xylem towards the centre and relatively less secondary phloem
(Bast) towards the periphery. It has Fusiform initials that give rise bulk of the secondary
vascular tissues and ray initials form ray parenchyma of secondary xylem (wood ray) and
secondary phloem (Bast ray). Annual rings are formed by secondary xylem of temperate
and sub-tropical plants. Dark colored,functionless secondary xylem is heart wood and
light colored secondary xylem is sap wood. Extra stelar secondary growth is started with
the formation of cork cambium from the cells of cortex. It cuts more dead tissue known as
cork towards the periphery and less living green tissue with intercellular spaces towards
the centre known as secondary cortex. These three together called as periderm. All the
tissues of the plant present outside vascular cambium together called as Bark.
Questions from previous Exams

1. Study the following table and choose the correct combinations
I. Collenchyma
EAMCET - 2005
Cell walls with high water Photosynthesis in young stems

content
II. Parenchyma
Suberised cell walls
Storage of food
III. Sclerenchyma
Lignified cell walls
Mechanical strength
IV. Digestive glands
Dense cytoplasm
Breaking the substrate with out

water
1) I and II
2.
2) II and III
3) I and IV
*4) I and III
Arrange the following in the order of their location from periphery to centre in the
entire dicotyledonous plant body.
EAMCET - 2009
I. Fusiform cells
II. Trichoblasts
III. Collocytes
IV. Tyloses
1) IV, I, II, III
*2) II, III, I, IV
3) III, II, I, IV
4) I, IV, III, II
Model questions
1.
Monocot stem differs with the Dicot stem in the following internal features
I. Epidermis without stomata
II. Absence of Trichomes
III. Sclerenchymatous hypodermis
1) I, II
*2) II, III
3) I, III
4) I, II, III
2. In a 20 years old dicot plant, if an early wood of an annual ring has no contact with
late wood towards interior, the early wood belongs to
1) Last annual ring
*2) 1st annual ring
3) annual ring of any year
4) recent annual ring of heart wood
Plant Ecology
Only one question or seldom two questions are asked. This topic is morphology based. It
is very easy topic which requires a superficial revision 10 hours before the exam as it has
several examples.
The term Ecology was given by Reiter. Warming defined it as study of organisms in
relation to environment, Odum defined as study of structure and function of nature. A
group of individuals of a species living in an area is called as Population, a group of
different species in an area is Community. Ecosystem is structural and functional unit of
nature which shows interaction between living and non-living organisms and the term
was given by Tansley. Biologically inhabited part of the earth is called as Biosphere or
Ecosphere. Warming classified Plant communities into Hydrophytes, Mesophytes and
Xerophytes based on dependence of plants on water.
Hydrophytes Plants that grow in water or very wet places
Pistia, Eichhornia, Wolffia and Salvinia are free floating, Nymphaea, Nelumbo, Victoria
are rooted hydrophytes with floating leaves, Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum and Utricularia are
submerged sustpended hydrophytes, Vallisneria and Potamogeton are rooted submerged
hydrophytes and Sagittaria, Limnophila, Ranunculus and some others like Typha and
Cyperus are Ampnibious hydrophytes.
Cuticle is thin, stomata are either present (Epistomatous in Nymphaea) or absent or

functionless (Potamogeton). Epidermis is thin walled with chloroplasts, Cortex and
mesophyll is aerenchymatous, More spongy tissue, poorely developed mechanical and
vascular tissues (Xylem is less developed than Phloem).
Mesophytes
These plants grow in normal climatic conditions and form the dominant vegetation on the
soil. Forest plants and crop plants are mostly Mesophytes.
Xerophytes
These plants grow in water deficient conditions. Tribulus is ephemeral, Opuntia is stem
succulent, Bryophyllum, Aloe and Agave are leaf succulents, Asparagus is root succulent.
Casuarina, Nerium, Zizyphus and Calotropis are true xerophytes.
Thick cuticle, thick walled epidermis, hypostomatous condition, sunken stomata, stomata
surrounded by hairs (Nerium), multiple epidermis, sclerenchymatous hypodermis, more
palisade than spongy, Mesophyll or cortical cells storing water, Epidermal cells with
silica crystals, well developed vascular tissues are the anatomical features.
Previous EAMCET questions
1. Match the following
EAMCET - 2009
List I
List II
A) Spongy aril
I)
B) Multiple epidermis
II) Pistia
III
Nerium
)
IV
Sagittaria
)
V) Nymphaea
C) Respiratory roots
D) Root Pockets
Jussiaea
1)
III II
2)
II
3)
IV II
*4)
IV III
III I
III I
II
Model Questions
1.
Arrange the following plants in a sequence that depicts gradual increase in drought
tolerance.
I.Tribulus
II. Casuarina
III.Cyperus
IV. Asparagus
*1) III, I, IV, II
2) III, I, II, IV
3) I, III, II, IV
4) I, III, IV, II
2.
[A]: All succulent stems of xerophytes are photosynthetic

[R]: All phylloclades are succulent
1) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
2) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
*3) A is true but R is false
4) A is false but R is true
Plant Genetics
This topic has been included only from last year. It requires sound knowledge of cell
division, chromosomes and nucleic acids. Probability based questions can be asked.
Genetics is the study of heredity and variations. The term was given by Bateson and
Mendal laid foundations for genetics and called as Father of Genetics. Mendal worked as
a monk in Altbrunn Monastry, Brunn. He did hybridization experiments for 8 years on
Pisum sativum and analysed the data by mathematical models and proposed the laws of
inheritance in his paper Experimnets in Plant Hybridisation. His results were
rediscovered by Correns, Tschermak and de Vriese.
Cross between parents which differ in a pair of characters is called as Monohybrid cross.
In the monohybrid cross he crossed homozygous tall (TT) plants with dwarf plants (tt)
and obtained only tall plants in F1 generation with Tt as genotype. When he selfed these
hybrids, he obtained the tall to dwarf plants in the ratio of 3:1 and the genotypes TT, Tt
and tt in the ratio of 1:2:1. From this he concluded that tall as dominant and dwarf as
recessive. He observed that though the alleles T and t are present in the hybrid they do not
blend and separated during gametogenesis due to meiotic segregation and the gametes of
F1 have either T or t allele but not both in the same gamete. Based on this he proposed the
Law of Segregation. Mendel called the genes as Factors.
Cross between two parents differing in two characters is called as dihybrid cross. Mendel
homozygous Yellow and Round seeded plants (YYRR) with green wrinkled seeded (yyrr)
and obtained heterozygous Yellow Round seeds (YyRr) in F1 generation. When he selfed
these He obtained the Yellow Round, Yellow wrinkled, Green Round and Green wrinkled
seeds in the phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1. He obtained the genotypes YYRR, YyRR, YYRr,
YyRr, YYrr, Yyrr, yyRR, yyRr and yyrr in the ratio of 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1. He obtained two
new phenotypes as Yellow wrinkled and Green round seeds (Mendelian recombinants).
He concluded that the inheritance of one pair of characters is independent of another pair
of characters and proposed the Law of Independent Assortment.
Cross between F1 hybrid and one of the parents is called as Back cross. If the parent is
homozygous dominant one, only one phenotypic plants are obtained in both Monohybrid
and Dihybrid back cross. If the F1 hybrid is crossed with the recessive parent, it is called
as test cross. In Monohybrid test cross the phenotypic and genotypic ratio is 1:1 and in
dihybrid test cross the phenotypic and genotypic ratio is 1:1:1:1. Probability cocept is
applied in Genetics to analyse the results.
Bateson and Punnet discovered that in some cases the pair of contrasting characters did
not separate and inherited together for several generations. This is due to presence of
several genes on a chromosome. This coexistence of two or more than two genes on the
same chromosome is called as Linkage. It was experimentally demonstrated with proof
by Morgan in Drosophila and Maize for which he prepared Chromosomal maps and was
given Nobel Prize.
Condensed graphic representation of the distance between the genes on a chromosome
shown as % if recombination is called as Chromosomal map.
Bateson and Punnet Crossed the Lathyrus odoratus plants showing difference in flower
colour and Pollen grain shape. They crossed the dominant Blue flowers, long pollnegrain
female parent (RR R0R0) with Red flowers, spherical pollen grains (rr r0r0) and obtained
Blue long plants with heterozygous condition (Rr R0r0). When this hybrid was test
crossed they obtained Blue Long, Blue spherical, Red long and Red spherical plants in the
ratio of 7:1:1:7 ratio which is quite different from Mendels dihybrid test cross ratio. This
clearly indicated that genes for petal colour and shape of pollen grains are present on the
same chromosome and inherited together and rarely these genes are separated. So Genes
for petal colour and Pollen grain shape are linked.
Linkage reduces the possibility of variability in gametes. Genetic integrity of organisms is
maintained to a large extent for several generations. In this way beneficial characters of
crop variety can be retained for a long period. Genetic maps can be constructed by
studying linkage. Linked genes are separated by crossing over. Crossing over is the cause
of genetic variations and genetic recombinations and is essentital for natural selection.
Sudden inheritable change in an organism is called as Mutation or discontinuous
variation. It was discovered by Hugo de Vries in Oenothera lamarkinana and the results
were published as Die Mutation Theorie. The organism subjected to mutations is
mutant and the agent that causes it is called as mutagen. Mutations are spontaneous,
induced, chromosomal and gene mutations.
Previous EAMCET questions

1.
In garden pea yellow colour of cotyledons is dominant over green and round shape
of seed is dominant over wrinkled. When a plant with yellow and round seeds is
crossed with a plant having yellow and wrinkled seeds, the progeny showed
segregation for all the four characters. The probability of obtaining green round
seeds in the progeny of this cross is
EAMCET - 2009
1) 1/4
*2) 1/8
3) 1/16
4) 3/16
Model Questions
1.
Study the following table and choose the correct combination

Phenotype of F2 individual of Possible
Probability
dihybrid cross of Pisum sativum
genoty
of
pe
genotype
I) Green wrinkled seeds
yy Rr
X
II) Green round seeds
yy RR
X
III) Yellow round seeds
Yy RR
X
IV) Yellow wrinkled seeds
Yy rr
X
1) I and II
2) III and IV
3) I and IV
*4) II and IV
2.
If Oryza sativa has 4 copies of 12th chromosome, the ploidy of the plant is best
described as
1) Tetraploid
*2) Tetrasomic
3) Double Trisomic
4) Double trisomic
2nd Year Botany

Plant Kingdom
About 4-5 questions are asked in various ways. It is one of the deciding chapters. It has to
read with concentration. Scoring marks in this is relatively easy.
Spirogyra:
It is commonly called as Pond Scum, Pond silk and Water silk.
Thallus is unbranched filamentous, multicellular, uniseriate with polarity in free
floating species and with polarity in attached species (S. jogensis, S. adnata).
It has cylindrical cells with pectocellulosic wall, haploid nucleus suspended in the central
large vacuole and parietal 1-16 ribbon shaped chloroplasts having starch storing
pyrenoids.
It vegetatively reproduces by Fragmentation and asexually by Akinete formation in S.
farlowii and Aplanospore formation in S. aplanosporum.
It sexually reproduces by Conjugation. It may be Scalariform conjugation (Physiological
anisogamous or Isogamous), Indirect lateral conjugation (Physiological anisogamous as
in S.affinis) or Direct lateral conjugation (Anisogamous as in S.jogensis, S. mirabilis).
Zygospore has triple layered wall, diploid nucleus, proplastids and oil droplets. During its
germination it shows meiosis and forms germ tube which later develops into filament.
Its life cycle is haplontic and diploid stage is limited to only Zygospore.
Rhizopus
It belongs to Division Thallophyta, sub-division Fungi, class Zygomycetes, order
Mucorales and family Mucoraceae.
It has 35 species, saprophytic and commonly called as Bread mould, Black mould,
Pinmould and Weed of the laboratory.
Mycelium is branched filamentous, aseptate, coenocytic and has Rhizoids, Stolons in
vegetative stage. Sporangiophores are formed during asexual reproduction.
Cell wall is chitinous, reserve food materials are glycogen, oil and has several vacuoles.
It reproduces vegetatively by fragmentation.
Asexual reproduction takes place by Sporangiospore formation and Chlamydospore
formation.
Sporangiophores are formed opposite to rhizoids on the upper surface of stolons. It has
terminal sporangium.
Sporangium has peripheral nucleated (Sporoplasm) and central vacuolated region
(Columelloplasm). These are separated by a layer of dome shaped vacuoles which
eventually fuse, form cleft into which a wall is secreted.
Sporiferous zone is cleaved into small 2-10 or uninucleated bits which eventually secrete a
thin wall to transform into Sporangiospores. Columella enlarges and helps in the
dehiscence of sporangial wall. The spores are dispersed and later germinate to form
Rhizopus mycelium.
Chlamydospores are thick walled spores formed singly in older hyphae during
unfavourable conditions.
It sexually reproduces by Gametangial coupulation. Heterothallic species (R. stolonifer)
are more common than Homothallic species (R.sexualis).
Trisporic acids regulate it in heterothallic species.
Zygophores of opposite strains give out copulating branches (Progametangia) at the point
of contact which become two celled (Suspensor and Gametangium), upon septum
formation.
Gametangia fuse, Nuclei of opposite strains pair, fuse and form diploid nuclei and the
structure is called as Zygospore. Unpaired nuclei gradually degenerate.
Diploid nuclei of zygospore undergo meiosis to form haploid nuclei, exine is ruptured and
Promycelium is fomed.
Tip of promycelium forms germ sporangium in which germspores are formed and
eventully dispersed.
Life cycle is haplontic. Heterothallism was first discovered by Blackslee in R.stolonifer.
Funaria
Funaria belongs to Division Bryophyta, Class Bryopsida, Order Funariales and family
Funariaceae.
Ithas 117 species and known as Cord moss, Fire moss and Mixohydric moss
The dominant stage in the life cycle Gametophyte has alga like Protonemal stage and
adult Gametophore with multicellular rhizoids having oblique cross walls, cauloid and
phylloids.
Stem has dead hydroids that conduct mineral water.
It vegetatively reproduces by Secondary protonema, Gemmae and Tubers.
Gametophore is monoecious, autoicous, protandrous and sexually reproduces by
zooidogamous oogamy.
Male branch has multicellular stalked antheridia that producesbiflagellated chemotactic
sickle shaped male gametes, capitate paraphyses and perichaetial leaves.
Female branch has stalked archegonia with twisted neck, 6 tomany NCC, VCC that form
sugary mucilage, an egg cell and one (Neck) and Two layered (Venter) jacket,
paraphyses and perichaetial leaves.
Sporophyte is semi-parasite on the female branch of gametophore, has Foot, Seta and
spore producing Capsule with photosynthetic Apophysis, fertile Theca and cap like
Operculum with Peristome (16 hygroscopic exostomal teeth, 16 endostomal teeth),
Annulus and Rim.
Spore sac of theca produces haploid meiospores due to meiotic divisions in spore mother
cells that have chloroplasts and oil droplets.
Peristome and Seta aid in spore dispersal.
Spores germinate and form protonema and buds of protonema form gametophores.
Life cycle is haplodiplontic and shows heteromorphic alternation of generations.
Pteris
It has 280 species and belongs to class Leptosporangiopsida, order Filicales and family
Polypodiaceae.
Dominant stage is sporophyte which has perennial Rhizome,Imparipinnate leaves with
open dichotomous venation in leaflets which show circinate vernation and brown hair
ramenta and adventitious roots.
Rhizome has epidermis with thick cuticle, sclerenchymatous hypodermis, dictyosetele
with mesarch xylem.
Sporophyll has 2 sori per leaflet and sorus is mixed, linear and coenosorus type with
false indusium, placenta, paraphyses and leptosporangia.
Sporangium has pedicel, capsule with 1-layered jacket having hygroscopic annulus and
stomium with lip cells, 1-2 layered tapetum and 48 spores formed from 12 spore mother
cells due to meiosis. Spores have trilete.
Spores are dispersed by Sting/Catapult movement of Annulus.
Gametophyte is monoecious, protandrous, dorsiventral, anterior-posterior, cordate,
parenchymatous with discoid chloroplasts, has unicellular rhizoids, antheridia at the
posterior and archegonia nearer to the notch.
Antheridium is globose, has 3-celled jacket and 32multiciliated, highly coiled male
gametes.
Archegonium has 16 jacket cells in 4 rows, a binucleate NCC, a VCC and egg. Its
mucilage rich in Malic acid attracts the male gametes (Chemotaxy).
Fertilization is zooidogamous oogamy. Embryo forms adult sporophyte that respectively
forms primary root, leaf, Rhizome and adventitious roots.
Life cycle is Diplohaplontic and Alternation of generations is heteromorphic.
Cycas
Genus Cycas is tropical or sub-tropical with 20 species .
Indian wild species of Cycas are C. circinalis (CrozierCycas occurs in deciduous forestes
of South India), C. beddomei (MadrasCycas occurs on Tirumal Hills of A.P.), C.
pectinata (NepalCycas Eastern India) and C. rumphii (RumphiousCycas Andaman
and Nicobar islands). C.revoluta (Sago Cycas) is ornamental species.
Its plant has caudex stem with persistent leaf bases, paripinnate foliage leaves with
circinatevernation, ramenta and some spinous leaflets, scale leaves and normal and
coralloid (with BGA Nostoc or Anabaena) adventitious roots.
Coralloid roots have periderm with lenticels (for gaseous exchange), cortex with drusses
and BGA, 2-3 layered pericycle and Triarch xylem.
Pinnule is hypostomatous with sclerenchymatous hypodermis, differentiated mesophyll,
Primary
and
secondary
transfusiontissue
for
lateral
conduction
and
diploxylicpseudomesarchopen vascular bundle. Cuticle is thick

It vegetatively reproduces by bulbils or adventitious buds formed at the basal region of
stem
It is dioecious. Male cone has few sterile and many fertile Triangular, spirally arranged
microsporophylls with apical sterile apophysis and many microsori (2-6 sporangia)
surrounded by indusial 1 or 2 celled hairs on abaxial side.
Microsporangium has 5-6 layered wall with exothecium having thickened radial and
tangential walls and haploid pollen grains released at 3-celled stage.
Pollination is direct and anemophilous. Adult male gametophyte has prothaliial,
vegetative, stalk cells and 2 multiciliated top shaped largest male gametes. Pollen tube
is haustorial in nature.
Megasporophyll has 2-12 largest ovules in two rows in the notches of margins of the
middle region.
Ovules are vascularised, orthotropous, unitegmic (Tripartite), crassinucellate, with
archegonial chamber and pollen chamber formed by the degeneration of nucellus and
forms multicellular female gametophyte (Endosperm) with 2-8 archegonia after
megasporogenesis.
Archegonia have 2 neck cells, VC nucleus and egg but lack NCC and venter. Fertilization
is siphonogamous and zooidogamous
Embryo respectively has haustorium, coiled suspensor, coleorhiza, radicle, hypocotyle,
2 cotyledons and plumule.
Seeds are haploid endospermic, perispermic, polyembryonic and ornithochorous and
show hypogeal germination.
Life cycle is diplohaplontic with heteromorphic alternation of generations.

1. [A]: In Spirogyra some cells in one of the two filaments become empty after
conjugation.
[R]: The aplanogametes from the cells of one filament pass through the conjugation
tubes into the cells of the other filament.
EAMCET-2006
*1) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

3) A is true but R is false
2.
Arrange the following in correct sequence with reference to sexual reproduction in

Rhizopus.
EAMCET - 09
I. Formation of Germ tube
II. Formation of Zygophores
III. Formation of Warty wall layer of Zygospore IV. Secretion of Trisporic acid
1) IV, III, II, I
*2) IV, II, III, I
3) II, I, IV, III
4) I, III, II, IV
Model Questions
1.
Choose the incorrect statement

1) All leaflets of Pteris are similar in shape
*2) All leaflets of Pteris leaf are arranged in pairs
3) Leaflets of Pteris are dissimilar in size
4) Basal most leaflets of Pteris leaf are the smallest
2.
Arrange the following structures of Cycas leaf let from adaxial side to abaxial side.
I. Phloem
II. Metaxylem of Centripetal xylem
III. Metaxylem of Centrifugal xylem
IV. Protoxylem of Centrifugal xylem
1) I, III, IV, II
*3) II, IV, III, I
2) II, III, IV, I
4) IV, II, III, I
Microbiology Bacteria
Weitage of this topic is 2 marks. One from bacteria and another one from viruses. It has
several examples which have to memorized with caution and time and again. Matching,
assertion and reason and item group questions are asked.
Roger Stanier opined for considering culture methods along with size of the organisms
for defining bacteria.
Bacteria were discovered by Leeuwenhoek, named by Ehrenberg and extensively

studied by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch.
Structurally they have peptidoglycan cell wall, Glycocalyx with polysaccharides,

variously distributed flagella made of flagellin, adhering appendages pili made of pilin,
cell membrane with respiratory functions, chlorosomes vesicles or photosynthetic cell
membrane invaginations, some with gas vacuoles (Halobacterium), nucleoid having only
one circular chromosome made of DNA, some with extrachromosomal DNA rings
(plasmids) and reserve foods in the form of Glycogen or PBH.
Nutritionally bacteria are recognized as Photoautotrophs (Chlorobium, Chromatium),

Photoheterotrophs (Rhodo bacteria), Chemoautotrophs (Hydrogen, Nitrifying, Sulphur
and Iron bacteria) and Chemoheterotrophs (Saprophytes, Parasites and Symbionts).
They asexually reproduce by Binary Fission in favourable conditions and by Endospore

formation (Bacillus, Clostridium) in unfavourable conditions.
Though true sexual reproduction is absent they show genetic recombination by ways of
Transformation (Griffith in Streptococcus pneumoniae), Conjugation (Lederberg and
Tatum in E.coli) and Transduction (Zinder and Lederberg in Salmonella typhimurium).
They behave as friends to man because they are useful in Agriculture (Ammonifying,
Nitrifying, Diazotrophic and Bio-pesticidal bacteria); In Industries for the production of
Acetone, Butonol (Clostridium acetobutylicum), Vinegar (Acetobacter sps.), Lactic acid
(Lactobacillus), Propionic acid (Propionibacterium), Ethanol (Zymomonas mobilis,
Thermoanaerobacter), Fiber retting (Clostridium sps.), Curing of Tobacco (Bacillus sp.)
and Tea (Micrococcus sp.) and Gobar gas (Methanogenic bacteria) production.
They are used in the production of medicinal importance substances like Lysine
(Corynebacterium) and Antibiotics like Streptomycin, Chloremphenicol, Cycloheximide,
Neomycin, Amphoterican, Oxytetracyclin (Streptomyces sps.), Bacitracin and Polymyxin
B (Bacillus sps.).
In the area of Biotechnology, E. coli,Agrobacterium and Brevibacterium are extensively

used.
They behave as foes to man by spoiling the food stuffs and causing diseases in Plants
(Xanthomonas, Pseudomonas, Erwinia, Agrobacterium), Animals (Bacillus anthracis,
Mycobacteriumsps., and Vibrio tetus) and Man (Pasteurella, Neisseria, Treponema,
Corynebacterium etc.).
Viruses
Viruses are infectious, ultramicroscopic, acellular, nucleoprotein particles

Vaccinia virus is the largest (actually Mimivirus parasitic on amoeba) and smallest is f2
bacteriophage.
Viruses may be rod like (TMV), rectangular (Vaccinia virus), Polyhedral

(Adenovirus), Spheroidal (Polio virus), Tadpole shaped (Bacteriophage) and Bullet
shaped (Rhabdo virus).
Chemically all viruses have protein coat Capsid made of capsomers and one of the
nucleic acids which may be ssRNA (TMV, Polio virus, Influenza virus), dsRNA (Reo
virus, Wound Tumour virus, Rice dwarf virus, Maize rough dwarf virus, Blue tongue
virus, Bacteriophage 6), ssDNA (Bacteriophages M13 and X174) and dsDNA (Most
animal viruses, Bacteriophages, Cyanophages, CMV, DMV).
Most of the animal viruses have an additional carbohydro-lipoproteinaceous covering

Peplos or Envelope made of units Peplomers (HIV, Influenza virus).
Viral symmetry is based on arrangement of capsomers and can be Helical (TMV),

Cubical (Adeno virus) and Binal (Bacteriophage).
Infectious nucleic acid particles are called as Viroids (Potato spindle tuber virus, Citrus
exocortosis virus).
Infectious protein particles are called as Prions. They cause diseases such as Scrapie in
Sheep and Mad cow disease.
TMV is 300 X 18-19 nm, its central hole is 4nm, 39 X 106 daltons mol.wt., capsid with
helically arranged capsomers, each capsomer with 158 amino acids and ssRNA having
6500 nucleotides.
Bacteriophage was discovered by Twort and named by Herelle. T4 Phage has a head
with dsDNA (1000 times longer than Phage) and semipermeable capsid, a tail with core
surrounded by sheath having 144 helically arranged capsomers and sealed by hexagonal
end plate with 6 spikes and 6 jointed tail fibres, a collar between Head and Tail.
Bacteriophages replicate by Lytic and Lysogenic cycle. Lytic cycle is shown by T even
phages and has 1. Adsorption stage (Virus attaches to bacterium with tail fibres), 2.
Penetration stage (Viral DNA is sent into the bacterium after the action of lysozyme and
contraction of tail sheath), 3.Latent stage (Viral DNA takes over the functions of
bacterium and destroys the bacterial DNA {Eclipse} and forms viral particles by
synthesizing capsid proteins and viral DNA {Maturation stage} and 4.Lytic stage in
which the bacterial cell wall is broken and viruses are released.
Lysogenic cycle is shown by bacteriophages in which the viral DNA is integrated into
bacterial DNA and carried to successive generations of bacteria.
Viral plant diseases are Chlorosis (Peach yellows), Mosaic (Tobacco mosaic), Vein
clearing (Bhendi vein clearing), Vein banding (Citrus vein banding), Ring spots (Tomato
spotted wilt), Dwarfing (Rice stunting), Malformation (Swollen shoot of Cocoa) and
Floral break (Tulip mosaic break).
Viral diseases are transmitted through vegetative parts (In crops like Potato, Banana,
Sugar cane), Mechanical methods (Potato virus), Seeds (Bean, Lettuce mosaic), Pollen
grains (Cherry ring spot), Insects (Rice Tungro, Potato leaf roll, Papaya mosaic),
Nematodes like Xephenema and Longidorus, Fungi (TNV) and parasitic angiosperms like
Cuscuta.
Exclusion of source of Infection, Isolation of source of infection, Eradiacation of Vectors,

Chemotherapy by using Cytovirin-2, Thiouracil, Zinc sulphate and Malachite green and
Breeding disease resistant varieties are the control measures to prevent viral diseases.

1.
Study the following and identify the correct match.

EAMCET - 2006
A. Streptomyces rimosus
I. Cyclomeximide
B. Streptomyces nodosus
II. Neomycin
C, Streptomyces grieseus
III. Oxytetracyclin
D. Streptomyces fradiae
IV. Amphoterican
V. Bacitracin
*1) A-III, B-IV, C-I, D-II
2) A-III, B-I, C-V, D-II
3) A-I, B-III, C-V, D-IV
4) A-I, B-II, C-III, D-V
2.
Identify the correct pair of events when termperate Phages infect bacteria
EAMCET - 2009
I. No prophages are formed
II. Bacterial cell undergoes many divisions
III. Bacterial cell undergoes immediate lysis IV. Prophages are formed
1) I, II
2) II, III
3) III, IV
*4) II, IV
Model Questions
1. [A] : All spirochaetes are spirillae.
[R] : All spirillae are spirochaetes.
1) A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A
2) A and R are correct but R is not the correct explanation of A

Disease
Transmitting agent
A. Bean mosaic disease I) Nematode
1)
A
V
B
II
C
I
D
III
B. Papaya mosaic disease II) Seeds
2)
II
IV
C. Tobacco necrosis
III) Pollen grains
3)
II
IV
D. Cherry ring spot
IV) Fungus
*4)
II
IV
III
V) Insects
Plant Physiology
This is the very very important Chapter from which 7 to 11 questions are asked. The
questions are of all the types. The biochemical pathways have to drawn and memorized
again and again. Problem based questions are asked from metabolism.
Absorption of Water and Ascent of Sap
Amount of energy available in a substance is called as free energy. The amount of free
energy present in a substance is called as Chemical potential.
Water potential of a system is the difference between chemical potential of pure water
(set as zero) and chemical potential of water of the system. This term was given by
Slatyer and Taylor and measured in Bars or Mega Pascals. It is indicated with the
symbol . It usually has negative value. Water moves from a region of higher to a
region of lower . Its components are Osmotic potential, Pressure potential and Matric
potential.
The change in the of a system due to addition of solute is called as Osmotic or Solute
potential( or s). It always has negative value.
The change in due to positive hydrostatic pressure is called as Pressure potential or

or P. It has positive value. It is zero in flaccid and plasmolysed cells. It is negative in
open systems under tension.
The change in due to adsorption of water to hydrophilic substances is called as Matric

potential(mor ). It has negative value.
The water potential of a system or solution is algebraic sum of pressure potential, osmotic
potential and matric potential. = + + . In a normal living cell the influence of
matric potential on the water potential is negligible. Hence the of a cell is + .
Diffusion of a solvent from a region of low concentrated solution to a region of high

concentrated solution through semipermeable membrane is called as Osmosis. It is
demonstrated by Thistle Funnel and Potato Osmoscope experiments.
The pressure developed in a system due to entry of water is called as Hydrostatic

pressure.
Shrinkage of protoplast of a plant cell when kept in hypertonic solution due to exosmosis
is called as Plasmolysis. In this state the of cell is zero. Hence the = .
Plants mostly absorb the soil water by passive osmotic mechanism driven by the
difference in water potentials of soil solution and root hair.
Absorbed water mostly moves from root hair to endodermis through cell walls. It is called
as Apoplastic pathway. From endodermis it move into xylem via pericycle through
protoplasm and cell membrane. It is called as Symplastic pathway.
Unidirectional upward movement of water from Root to topmost part of the plant through
xylem against gravitational force is called as Ascent of Sap.
Out of all theories, Dixons Cohesion and Tension theory best explains Ascent of sap. It
is based on 3 principles i.e. Transpiration Pull, Cohesive force of Water (-30MPa) and
Adhesive force of water. The main force is Transpiration pull or tension developed in the
xylem due to transpiration.
The 2 drawbacks of the theory are 1. Fail to explain ascent of sap when there is embolism
due to cavitation and 2. Stating tracheids as more efficient than vessels.
Transpiration
Opening and closing of stomata is controlled by size, shape, turgor changes of guard
cells. Photoactive stomata are opened during day time and scotoactive during night time
(Bryophyllum).
Levitt and Bowlings K+ pump hypothesis best explains stomatal movement. In light,
Malic acid formation from starch, expulsion of H+ of Malic acid into subsidiary cells by
using ATP, influx of K+ and Cl- in to guard cells decreases of guard cells and stomata
are opened Active process.
In the absence of light K+, Cl-, malate- move passively into subsidiary cells and H+ into
guard cells. Malic acid is oxidized in respiration. It results in increased , water moves
into subsidiary cells and stomata are closed Passive process.
In the presence of light, increase in temperature, availability of more water, gentle wind
velocity and less atmospheric humidity, transpiration rates increase.
With increase in leaf area, stomatal frequency, root-shoot ratio, transpiration rates
increase.
Transpiration has several advantages and few disadvantages to plant. Hence it is
described as necessary evil by Curtis and as unavoidal evil by Barnes.
PMA, ABA, Asprin decrease transpiration by acting as metabolic inhibitors. Waxes,
Silicon oils and Plastic emulsions are film forming antitranspirants. High CO2
concentration also acts as anti-transpirant.
Nutrition in Plants
Soil provides the required minerals to the plant because minerals are formed from rock by
weathering during pedogenesis. Soil also consists of water, microorganisms and organic
matter. Clay of soil is negatively charged colloidal substance which can hold all
positively charged minerals. Humus is organic matter in colloidal dimensions.
A given plant has about 30-40 elements and PlantKingdom as a whole has 70 elements.
Sachs and Knops discovered some of the essential elements by water culture or
Hydroponis experiments. To know the essentiality of mineral elements, Arnon and Stout
proposed 3 critaria. They are 1. An essential element must be involved in growth and
reproduction of plant. 2. Its functions should not be carried out by some other element. 3.
The element must be involved in metabolism. By following these criteria, 17 elements
were found as essential. They are C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, B, Cu, Zn, Mo, Cl
and Ni. The first 9 are Macro elements and the rest Microelements.
C, H and O are frame work elements and non-mineral elements. They are absorbed as
CO2 and H2O. without these there is no formation of organic substances.
Nitrogen is absorbed mainly as NO2, and it is integral part of Porphyrin structure of

Chlorophyll and Cytochromes and one of the major components of cell membranes,
proteins, and nucleic acids.
Phosphorus is a structural component of cell membranes, some proteins, nucleic acids and
ATP.
Potassium is required for ionic balance in the cell and helps in stomatal movement.
Calcium is part of Middle lamellum and helps in cell division. Mg is activator of several
respiratory and Photosynthetic enzymes and part of Middle lamellum and Chlorophyll.
Sulphur is a component of amino acids methionine, Cystein and Cystine and Vitamins
such as Biotin, Thiamine and Co.A. It stabilizes the structure of proteins.
Fe is a part of cytochromes and needed for chlorophyll formation. Mn helps in photolysis

of water and activator of IAA oxidase. Zn is activator of Carbonic anhydrase and needed
for IAA synthesis. Cu is a part of Plastocyanin and cytochrome oxidase. Boran is required
for pollen germination and helps in transport of photosynthates. Mo is a part of
Nitrogenase and activator of Nitrate reductase. Chlorine is needed for photolysis of water
and helps in maintaining the cationic and anionic balance in the cells.
Hoagland, Epstein and Knops carried out experiments on ion absorption. Absorption of
ions according to concentration gradient without utilizing metabolic energy is called as
Passive or Non-metabolic abosorption.
Entry of ions into the cytoplasm against concentration gradient by using ATP or energy is
called as Active absorption. It was shown by using respiratory inhibitors such as Azide
and Cyanide.
In Active absorption ions are carried by carrier proteins of membrane known as Porter.
They are uniporters which carry a single ion at a time (H+ ATPase, Na+ ATPase).
Cotransporter carry two ions either in same direction (Symporters) or in opposite
directions (Antiporters).
Movement of ions against concentration gradient by direct usage of ATP is called as

Primary Active Transport. In H+ ATPase pump it generates Proton Motive Force which is
responsible for the movement of other ion against concentration gradient and it is known
as Secondary Active Transport. The carriere such as Symporter is subjected to 3
conformational changes during secondary active transport.
Rhizobium is used as biofertiliser in Legume crops, Azospirillum in cereal other than

Paddy, Cyanobacteria like Nostoc and Anabaena and Pteridophyte Azolla in Paddy fields.
Mycorrhizal fungi like Glomus are used as fertilizers in crops like Potato, Red gram,
Soybeans, Wheat, Maize etc. which not only improve mineral uptake but also make the
crops tolerant to water stress and pests. Mycorhiza increase Phosphorus uptake.
Enzymes
Dixon and Web defined enzyme as protein with catalytic properties due to its power of
specific activation. The term enzyme was given by Kuhne.
Enzymes are named on the basis of substrate name, type of reaction and both (Succinate
dehydrogenase).
IUB system of enzyme classificatioin has 6 classes with sub classes, sub-sub classes and
numbering in the sub-sub class. The classes are 1. Oxidoreductases (dehydrogenases,
reductases, oxidases), Transferases (Transaminases, Kinases), Hydrolases (Phosphatases,
Peptidases), Lyases, Isomerases and Ligases.
Lock and Key model of Fisher, Paul Fields and Woods and Induced fit theory of
Koshland best explains the mechanism of enzyme action.
Enzyme activity is either reduced or totally hampered by agents or substances named as

Competitive inhibitors (Malonic acid of Succinate dehydrogenase), Non-competitive
inhibitors (Cyanide, Salts of heavy metals) and Allosteric inhibitors (end products of
biochemical pathways or reactions.
Photosynthesis
Synthesis of carbonic compounds from CO2 and H2O by illuminated green regions of
plant and evolution of O2 as by product is called as Photosynthesis.
Chloroplast of green cells is involved in this process. Thylakoids carry out light reaction
and stroma dark reaction of photosynthesis. Thylakoid membranes have photosynthetic
pigments, e- carriers. Pigments are organized as Photosystems which have a reaction
centre with specialized chlorophyll a molecule as P700 (PSI) or P680 (PSII) and
surrounding it the LHC with different photosynthetic pigments. LHC absorbs photons and
transfers them to RC by inductive resonance where it is converted as excitation energy
used for the transfer of electrons among various electron carriers.
Chlorophylls
(Chl.a-C55H72O5N4Mg,
Chl.b-C55H70O6N4Mg),
Carotenes
(C40H56),
Xanthophylls (C40H56O2) and Phycobilins are the photosynthetic pigments.
Only visible light is absorbed in photosynthesis. Red light is absorbed more and least
absorbed one is Green light. A pigment molecule (P700 or P680) is in excited state for 109S
Robert Hill showed the liberation of O2 from isolated illuminated chloroplasts in the
presence of Potassium Ferric oxalate (Hill reagent). Liberation of O2 from water was
shown by Ruben et.al by using O18 isotope.
Decrease in photosynthetic rate when a green organism is exposed to longer wavelength

of red light (>680nm) is called as Red drop. Increase in Photosynthetic rate when the
organism is subjected to both longer and shorter (<680) wavelengths of red light is called
as Emersons enhancement effect. From this Emerson concluded that two Photosystems
(PSI and PSII) are operated in Photosynthetic light reaction.
PSI is present in non-appressed regions of grana thylakoids and stroma thylakoids, has
P700 as reaction centre, LHC has 100 chlorophylls with chl a and chl b in 4:1 ratio, has
more carotenes and absorgs longer wavelength of red light.
PSII is mainly present in appressed regions of grana thylakoids and a little in nonappressed regions, has P680 as its reaction centre, LHC has 250 chlorophyll molecules
with Chl a and Chl b in 1:1 ratio, rich in xanthophylls and absorbs shorter wavelength of
red light.
Light reaction has both Cyclic and Non-cyclic electron transport. Non-cyclic electron
transport was given as Z scheme by Hill and Bendal which involves both PSI and PSII.
Absorption of light is first step in photosynthesis. PSII reduces the Cytochrome b/f
complex and PSI oxidizes it.
During Non-cyclic electron transport, by absorbing 2 photons by PSII and 2 by PSI, the 2
electrons or a water molecule are carried to NADP+ via Oxygen evolving complex, P680,
Pheo, Plastoquinone, Cytochromeb/f complex, PC, P700, Fe-S protein, Fd to form
NADPH + H+. During this 2 H+ of water and 4 H+ of stroma (through PQ cycle)are
accumulated in lumen of thylakoid. This e- transport is inhibited by DCMU.
In Cyclic e- transport discovered by Frankel in Rhodospirillum rubrum, only PSI is

involved. The e- liberated from P700 reach the same P700 after passing through Fd,
Cytochrome b6, PQ, Cytochrome f, and PC during which 2H+ of stroma are carried into
lumen by PQ cycle operation.
Photophosphorylation was discovered by Arnon. It is best explained by P. Mitchels

Chemiosmotic hypothesis. This theory states that formation of ATP in CF1 of CF is due to
establishment of proton gradient across thylakoid membrane between stroma and Lumen
during electron transport. For each 3 H+ carried through CF0 of CF there is formation 1
ATP in CF1.
If 6 molecules of water is involved in non-cyclic electron transport, there is accumulation
of 72 H+ in lumen which results in the formation of 24 ATP.
NADPH + H+ and ATP formed in light reaction are used for the assimilation of CO2 into
carbohydrates (Sucrose or Starch) in dark reaction. Hence the chemical energy is called as
Assimilatory Power.
CO2 is fixed during dark reaction through C3, C4 and CAM pathways by using ATP and
NADPH formed in light reaction. It takes place in the stroma of chloroplast.
C3 cycle was discovered by Calvin and his associates in Chlorella by using C14 isotope
and Autoradiography and Chromatography techniques. In this, the CO2 acceptor is RuBP
and first formed stable product is PGA. It has Carboxylation (1 reaction), Reduction (2
reactions) and Regeneration (10 reactions) stages. Both ATP and NADPH are used in
Reduction stage and only ATP is used in Regeneration stage.
The intermediates of this cycle in a swquence are 1. PGA (Rubisco), 2. BPGA (Kinase),
3. GAP (Dehydrogenase), 4. DHAP (Isomerase), 5. FBP (Aldolase), 6. FMP
(Phosphatase), 7. EMP and XMP (Transketolase), 8. SBP (Transaldolase), 9. SMP
(Phosphatase), 10. RMP and XMP (Transketolase), 11. RuMP (Epimerase) and 12. RuBP
(Kinase) and has 13 reactions.
Sucrose is formed in Cytosol and Starch in Chloroplast stroma. For the fixation each CO2,
2 NADPH and 3 ATP are used.
Though Malate formation in C4 cycle was first noticed by Kortschak, Hartt and Burr, the
reactions of this cycle were described in detail by Hatch and Slack in Sugarcane. It is also
known as carboxylaton pathway and Hatch Slack cycle. C4 plants show Kranz
(Garland) Anatomy with chloroplasts in both mesophyll and bundle sheath cells of its
leaves.
Primary carboxylation takes place in Mesophyll cell cytosol and Malic acid and PEP are
formed in the chloroplast stroma. Calvin cycle and Pyruvate formation take place in
Bundle sheath cell chloroplast. For formation of 1 Hexose, 12 NADPH and 30 ATP are
used. C4 plants are more efficient than C3 plants.
Light induced CO2 liberation in green cells of C3 plants is called as Photorespiration. It is
also known as C2 cycle and Glycolate pathway. Chloroplast, Peroxisomes (usage of O2)
and Mitochondria (liberation of CO2 ) are involved in this metabolism. NADH and ATP
are used. 10% of the fixed carbon is lost as CO2. 75% of carbon of Glycolate is recovered
as PGA. The various intermediates formed are PGA, Phospho Glycolic acid, Glycolic
acid (Chloroplast), Glyoxylate, Glycine, Hydroxy Pyruvic acid, Glyceric acid
(Peroxisome) and Serine (Mitochondria).
Photosynthesis is influenced by External factors (Light, Temperature, CO2, O2, H2O) and
Internal factors (Chlorophyll, Leaf structure, End products).
Respiration
Each ATP, upon hydrolysis, releases 7.6 K.cal. of energy.
Cellular respiration is of 2 types known as Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration.
The overall aerobic respiration can be represented in the form of a simple equation as
C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 6CO2 + 12H2O + 686 K.cal. Both cytosol and mitochondria are
involved in this process and has 4 stages, 6 oxidation reactions, 3 decarboxylation
reactions and 3 substrate level phosphorylation reactions
Glycolysis is conversion of a molecule of Glucose into 2 molecules of Pyruvic acid
through 10 biochemical reactions.
It was discovered by Embden, Maherhof and Paranas.
O2 is not required for this process. Net energy gain of this process is 2NADH2 and 2ATP.
The formed pyruvic acid is transported to mitochondrial matrix by Pyruvate translocator.
2 PA is oxidatively decarboxylated to 2 Acetyl Co.A by dehydrogenase complex. In this 2
NADH2 and 2 CO2 are formed. It requires NAD, TPP, FAD, Lipoic acid, Co.A and Mg+2.
Krebs cycle is oxidation of Acetyl Co.A into CO2 and release of more energy by using
water in mitochondrial matrix through 10 reactions.
It is also known as Amphibolic pathway, citric acid cycle, Oragnic acid cycle and
Tricarboxylic acid cycle. It has 4 oxidation, 2 decarboxylation and 1 substrate level
phosphorylation reactions.
When 2 Acetyl Co.A are oxidized through Krebs cycle, there is formation of 6 NADH2, 2
FADH2 and 2 ATP.
ETS is the 4th stage in aerobic respiration operated in the inner membrane of
mitochondrion and coupled to ATP generation in Oxysomes by consuming oxygen
(Oxidative phosphorylation). In this Complex I, II, III, IV, UQ, cytochrome C and
Oxygen are involved
When 1 Glucose is oxidized, there is removal of 128 H+ from matrix and transport of 104
H+ into perimitochondrial space.
The above transported protons are energy rich and energy present in them is used for ATP
generation in Oxysomes during Oxidative Phosphorylation. This ATP generation occurs
as per Chemiosmotic theory of P.Mitchel. 3H+ are transported for generation one ATP.
3ATP are formed during oxidation of each matrix NADH and 2 ATP during oxidation of
glycolytic NADH and Succinate to Fumarate conversion.
In this way during oxidation of a molecule of Glucose in aerobic respiration, there is
formation of 32 ATP in Oxysomes, 4 ATP in Cytosol and 2 ATP in matrix.
The net gain of ATP is 36 because 2 ATP are consumed in Glycolysis
Only about 40% of energy present in a molecule of Glucose is trapped as ATP and the
remainder is lost as heat.
It is partial oxidation of glucose into CO2 and Ethyl alcohol and liberation of 56 K.Cal of
energy without using oxygen.
It is operated in the cytosol and has Glycolysis and Fermentaion stages.
Fermentation has 2 reactions. 1) Pyruvic acid is decarboxylated to Acetaldehyde by
decarboxylase and 2) Acetaldehyde is reduced to Ethyl alcohol by dehydrogenase by
using the 2 glycolytic NADH.
The net gain of ATP in anaerobic respiration is 2.
It is ratio between the volume of CO2 liberated to volume of O2 consumed in respiration.
It is measured with Ganongs respirometer and indicates the type of substrate oxidized in
respiration.
R.Q for fats is around 0.7 (0.7 for Triolein and Tripalmitic acid and 0.71 for Oleic acid).
For Proteins it is 0.8 to 0.9. For organic acids it is more than 1 (1.33 for Malic acid, 1.6
for Tartaric acid and 4 for Oxalic acid) it is 1 for carbohydrates.
Nitrogen Metabolism
Transport of N2 from atmosphere to soil and from soil to atmosphere through plants,
animals and microorganisms is called Nitrogen cycle. It has 1. Nitrogen fixation, 2.
Nitrogen assimilation, 3. Ammonification, 4. Nitrification and 5. Denitrification stages
Nitrogen fixation is conversion of N2 into NH3, NO2 and NO3. It has two types 1.
Physical nitrogen fixation and 2. Biological Nitrogen fixation.
In BNF, Nitrogenase converts N2 to 2NH4- by using 8H+, 6e- and 16ATP. In this Pyruvic
acid supplies e- and H+ and Ferridoxin acts as electron carrier.
During root nodulation in Legumes, Rhizobia chemotactically(Sugars, Aminoacids,
Falvanoids) move towards roots, multiply, cause Shepherds crooke of root hair, dissolve
cell wall of root hair, enter into root hair by the invagination of plasma membrane of root
hair as infection thread, harbor in root cortical cells, become bacteroids, promote leg
haemoglobin formation and ultimately hyper growth of root cortex that externally
appears as root nodule.
Usage of absorbed NO3- to form organic nitrogenous compounds such as proteins by
plants is called as Nitrogen assimilation.
Liberation of NH3 from organic nitrogenous substances of plant and animal dead bodies
and their excreta by the action of Bacillus species is called as Ammonification (a
mineralization process).
Conversion of NH3 into NO2- by Nitrosomonas and later to NO3- by Nitrobacter is called
as Nitrification.
Liberation of N2 from NO3- by species of Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas and Micrococcus is
called as Denitrification. These bacteria carry out Nitrate respiration in which electron
acceptor is Nitrate.
The chemical language on mRNA in the form of Nucleotide sequence to indicate amino
acids to form proteins is called as Genetic code. It has 64 codons (61 sense codons and 3
Non-sense codons). It is triplet code, degenerate, continuous, non-overlapping, non-
ambiguous, universal, has Start codons as AUG or GUG and Stop codons as UAA,
UAG and UGA.
Proteins synthesis is an integral part of Nitrogen assimilation and has 2 stages
Transcription and Translation.
Transcription is formation of mRNA on DNA strand by the action of RNA polymerase.
It takes place by copying process in the nucleus. In Eukaryotes the formed mRNA
(hnRNA) is subjected to processing by spliceosomes and later released into cytoplasm.
Translation is arrangement of amino acids by tRNA in a sequence on ribosomal surface
according to information on mRNA and formation of peptide bonds between them to
form proteins. It has stages known as 1. Activation of Amino acid and its transfer to
tRNA, 2. Chain initiation, 3. Chain elongation and 4. Chain termination.
Aminoacids are activated and attached to tRNA by using 1ATP for each amino acid in the
presence of Aminoacyl RNA synthetase.
Chain initiation requires Ribosme, Factors IF3, IF1, IF2, GTP, mRNA, tRNAfmet. In this,
IF3 attaches to smaller subunit of ribosme. Later IF1 attaches to it. In the mean time GTP
and IF2 are associated which in turn attached to earlier formed complex to form s.subunitIF3-IF1-IF2-GTP comlex. To this mRNA is attached and later tRNAfmet is attached. Now
the larger subunit of ribosme is attached during which GTP is hydrolysed to detach the IF
factors. In this way initiation complex is formed. tRNAfmet occupies P site of Ribosomal
large subunit.
In Chain elongation, for the addition of each amino acid to the first amino acid 2GTP are
used and there is role of EFT, EFG and Peptidyl transferase. By using 1 ATP, EFT brings
the 2nd Aminoacyl tRNA to the A-site of ribosme and attaches to it. Peptidyl transferase
breaks the bond between f.met and tRNA of P-site and establishes peptide bond between
the carboxylic group of formyl met. and amino group of second aminoacid at A-site. As a
result aminoacyl tRNA of A-site becomes Peptidyl tRNA. Now the Peptidy tRNA is
shifted from A-site to P-site of Ribosome by EFG by using GTP due to movement of
Ribosome a codon distance towards 5 end of mRNA. In this way the remaining amino
acids are attached one after the other till a non-sense codon is exposed at A-site.
Chain termination takes place when a non-sense codon such as UAA or UAG or UGA
is exposed at A-site. These non-sense codons are recognized by R1 or R2 factors. These
factors in turn recognized by R3 factor. In the process Peptidyl transferase detaches the
Polypeptide chain from last tRNA at P-site and eventually the ribosomal subunits. mRNA
and tRNA too are detached.
The Polypeptide chain enters into E.R. and packed into its respective structure, processed
in Golgi and later release into cytoplasm of the same cell secreted out of the cell.
Plant Growth and its regulators

Growth curve is S shaped and has 1. Lag or Formative phase with steady and slow
growth, 2. Log or Exponential phase with maximum growth and 3. Senescence phase
with declining growth activity and cell maturation.
Photohormones are organic substances which show their influence on growth and
development of plant in minute concentrations at a place away from the place of its
synthesis.
The Phytohormones that promote growth are Auxins, Gibberellins and Cytokinins and
which inhibit growth are Abscisic acid. Ethylene is Fruit ripening hormone.
Auxins
Darwin confirmed the ideas of Sachs by demonstrating downward movement of organ
forming substances from coleoptile in Canary grass in his book The Power of
Movements in Plants. Boysen-Jensen and Paals experiments supported it. Went gave
Bioassays for Auxins as Avena curvature test.
Auxins are formed from Tryptophan. Zn is essential for auxin synthesis. Shoot apices are
main centres of Auxin synthesis. Its transport is polar in both Acropetal and Basipetal
manner in 1: 3 ratio.
IAA, PAA and 4-chloro IAA are natural Auxins. NAA, IBA, 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are
synthetic auxins.
Auxins promote Cell elongation, Xylem differentiation, Root initiation, Tropic
movements (Phototropism and Geotropism), Apical dominance, Parthenocarpy and
Female flower formation in Cucurbits.
In Agriculture and Horticulture auxins (IBA, IAA, NAA) are used for root initiation and
dicot weed control (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T).
Gibberellins
GA is diterpene and formed from Acetyl co.A. GA12 and GA22 are C-20 GAs and GA3
and GA20 are C-19 Gibberellins. Its transport is non-polar.
GAs remove genetic dwarfism, promote seed germination, bolting, flowering,
parthenocarpy and male flower formation.
GAs are used in Grape gardesn to increase productivity and quality of grapes. They
increase flower formation in Roses, Rhododendrons and Poinsettias.
Cytokinins
CKs are formed from AMP and Isopentyl pyrophosphate. These are mainly formed in
roots and their transport is polar.
CKs promote Cell division, Cell elongation in leaves, Morphogenesis, delay in
senescence and stomatal opening.
These are used in Agriculture and Horticulture to increase the shelf life of Spinach,
Asparagus and Vase life of flowers.
Abscissic acid
ABA is sesquiterpene and formed anabolically from Acetyl co.A and catabolically from
carotenoids. It is rich in dormant seeds and senescent leaves and mainly synthesized in
mature leaves. Its movement is non-polar. It is absent in bacteria.
ABA promotes dormacy in buds and seeds, closure of stomata, formation of perennating
buds and leaf senescence.
It prevents sprouting of potatoes during storage and minimizes transpiration.
Ethylene
It promotes fruit ripening, Triple response growth (Stem elongation prevention, Lateral
growth stimulation, induction of transverse geotropism), delays or prevents flowering but
promotes flowering in Pine apple.
In Agriculture it is used in the form of Ehephon to promote fruit ripening and uniform
senescence with decrease Nicotine content in Tobacco leaves.
Photoperiodism
Influence of day length on flowering is called as Photoperiodism. It was discovered by
Garnar and Allard in Maryland mammoth variety of tobacco.
Minimum photoperiod required to induce flowering is called as Critical day length. It is
usually 10-14 hrs.
Nicotiana,Soybean, Chrysanthemum are SDP, Spinach, Beet root are LDP and
Cucumber, Maize are DNP.
Vernalisation
Induction of early flowering in certain plants by giving cold treatment to seeds or young
shoots is called as Vernalisation (Lysenko). In annuals it is secondary for flowering and
in biennials it is primary.
Biennials are made to flower in the first year itself by cold treatment which reduces the
vegetative growth of the plant.
Questions from Previous Exams
1. The net requirement of assimilatory power for the formation of 6 hexose molecules
in maize plant is
EAMCET - 2008
1) 72 ATP, 48 NADPH
2) 90 ATP, 60 NADPH
3) 108 ATP, 72 NADPH
*4) 180 ATP, 72 NADPH
2.
The following statements are given about plant growth hormones. EAMCET 2006
I. Kinetin is degradative substance of DNA molecule
II. ABA is present in all the plants
III. Low ratio of Cytokinin to auxins favours root formation
IV. ABA is synthesized catabolically through mevalonate pathway
The correct combination is
1) I and II
2) II and III
*3) I and III
4) III and IV
Model Questions
1.
If in a unit area of leaf there are 500 epidermal cells, 1500 mesophyll cells and 20
stomata, the stomatal index of the leaf is
*1) 0.04
2) 0.004
3) 0.03
4) 0.05
2.
The phenomenon of inductive resonance is involved in the transfer of energy from

1) PS II to PS I
2) P680 to Pheo
3) PC to P700
*4) carotene to P700
3.
The total number of matrix protons transport through complex I during aerobic
breakdown of a molecule of glucose is
*1) 32
2) 40
3) 16
4) 24
4.
[A] : Genetic code is degenerate.

[R] : Methionine has more than one codons.

5.
Choose the correct statement
1) All flowering plants require certain photoperiod exposure for flowering

2) All seed plants require cold treatment for preparing the plant for flowering
3) Vernalin is activated after cold treatment
*4) Vernalin is formed after cold treatment
Plants and Human Welfare

3 to 5 questions can be asked from this. This is also one of the important chapters with lot
of applications. Much attention is required while reading this topic.
Crop Improvement
It is also known as plant breeding.
The various methods that are commonly used are 1. Introduction, 2. Selection, 3.
Hybridization, 4. Mutational breeding and 5. Polyploidy breeding.
Introducing a plant into a new locality from its growing locality is called as Introduction.
It is fastest, simplest and easiest method which does not require any scientific knowledge
and skill. Introduced plant serves as Germplasm bank and can be used directly in
Agriculture.
Selection is the oldest plant breeding method and basis for crop improvement. It is of 3
types called Mass selection, Pureline selection and Clonal selection.
Choosing the plants with desirable characters from a mixed population and collecting the
seed from them to raise the crop in the next year is called Mass selection. It has been
practiced by farmers. It improves the yield and quality of the crop. It is applicable to cross
pollinated crops and the variety is in heterozygous condition. It takes 8 years for the
development of a variety.
It is the easiest of all selection methods which does not require Scientific knowledge.
Dharwar American, Dodahatti local and Cambodias varieties of cotton and Pusa Moti of
Bajra are developed by this method.
Developing and choosing the purelines with desirable characters for cultivation is called
as Pure line selection. It was first developed by Johannsen in Phaseolus vulgaris. It is
applicable to self pollinated crops. All individuals are phenotypically and genotypically
same and homozygous. It takes 10 years time for the development of a variety.
Ground nut varieties TMV-3, RSB-17 and Paddy varieties CO-4,6,10, 14 are developed
by this method.
Developing and choosing desirable clones for cultivation is called as Clonal selection. It
is applicable to vegetatively propagated crops. Individuals of a clone are heterozygous
and phenotypically and genotypically same. It takes about 9 years time for the
development of a clone.
Kufri Red, Kufri Safed varieties of Potato and Mundapa Peddaneelam Mango variety are
developed by this method.
Hybridization is cross between genetically unlike parents with desirable characters. It is
the most important method which causes much genetic variability.
Hybridization method has a series of steps that include Selection of Parents,
Emasculation, Bagging, Artificial cross pollination, raising F2 generation plants,
Improving and multiplication of F2 generation and distributing the seed to farmers.
By this method several desirable characters can be incorporated into a single variety and
usually the hybrids show vigour which is exploited for the improvement of Crops.
Hybrid vigour is superiority of the hybrid over its parents in having desirable characters.
It was first discovered by Kolreuter and the term Heterosis for this was given by Shull.
Presence of more dominant genes and Heterozygosity are the two main reasons for
Hybrid vigour.
Mutations were discovered by Hugo de Vriese in Oenothera lamarkiana. Exploiting
desirable mutations for the improvement of crops is called as Mutationla breeding.
Experiments on Drosophila by Muller and on Barley by Stadler by using X- rays laid
foundations for mutational breeding. It is the quickest method to bring genetic variability
in the crop variety.
UV, X, , and rays are physical mutagens. The chemical mutagens are Colchicine,
Formaldehyde, EMS and Maleic hydrazide.
Disease resisance in IR-8, Winter hardiness in Sweedish variety of Barley and Aruna
variety of Castor are developed by Mutational breeding.
Utilisatiion of Polyploidy for the improvement of crops is called as polyploidy breeding.
Embryos are subjectied to cold treatment and buds of plants to X-rays, Cochicine,
Acenaphthene and Coumarins treatment to induce polyploidy.
Allohexaploid Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) is developed by this method by using
Triticum monococcum, Aegilops speltoides and Aegilops squarrosa.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is a laboratory technique of gene manipulation. This method has
various steps such as Isolation of gene from donor organism ( treating the cells with cell
wall degrading enzymes, protoplasts subjecting to detergents, treating protoplasm with
proteases, phenols and RNAases, gradient centrifugation of such treated protoplasm to
separate genomic DNA by precipitation, Cutting the DNA into fragments by restriction
endonucleases such as EcoRI, subjecgting DNA fragments to Gel electrophoresis to
separate them and later identifying the desired gene by Southern blotting in which gene
specific probes are used), Inserting the gene into vectors such as Plsmids (pBR 322, pUC
19, pUC 101) by using Restriction endonucleases and Ligases to form recombinant DNA,
inserting the rDNA into host cell by transformation to get several copies of the desired
gene (Gene cloning), and ultimately selecting the desired transformed cells by methods
using probes (colony hybridization) or without using probes.
In Plant transgenics Ti plasmid of Agrobacterium tumifasciens is used as Vector. Papaya
resistant to ring spot, Bt cotton resistant to insects, Roundup soybean resistant to
herbicide, Tomato resistant to Pseudomonas infection, Potato resistant to Phytophthora
fungal pathogen, Bruise resistant tomato Flavr Savr, Golden rice with Vitamin A, male
sterile Brassica napus and Basumati rice resistant to abiotic and biotic streses are
developed due to Plant genetic engineering. Transgenic plants are used as bioreactors in
molecular farming.
Tissue Culture
It is obtaining plants from cells or tissues or organs by growing them on artificial nutrient
media in controlled conditions. It is based on the principle of cellular totipotency which
was demonstrated by Steward in Carrot. The various steps are preparation of nutrient
medium, Sterilisation of nutrient medium, Preparation of Explant, Inoculation of explant
on to the nutrient medium, Incubation and acclimatization and transfer to normal
conditions.
Organic and inorganic nutrients, vitamins are dissolved in distilled water and pH is
adjusted to 5.6-7 and if required Agar is added to make it solid or semisolid. Such
medium is minimal medium. To this Auxins and Cytokinins are added for organogenesis.
Such medium is filled into the flasks or tubes and plugged with non-absorbent cotton.
The prepared medium is made microbial free by autoclaving at 121oC, 15lb pressure for
15 minutes.
The explant is prepared by surface sterilization with detergent and later with sodium or
calcium hypochlorite solution or aseptic seedlings can be obtained from seeds in minimal
medium upon surface sterilization with 0.1% Mercuric chloride.
The explant is inoculated on to culture vials in laminar air flow chamber and later
transferred to culture room for incubation for 3 to 4 weeks.
During incubation, plantlets from explat or plantlets via callus formation, or plantlets via
embryoid formation or plantlets via callus and embryoid formation are obtained due to
organogenesis by using Auxins and Cytokinins. The embryoids can be encapsulated by
sodium alginate to form synthetic seed for storage and transport.
The plantlets are transferred to plastic pots with soil rite and organic manure and covered
with beakers to maintain humidity during acclimatization.
Mushroom cultivation
Mushrooms belong to order Agaricales of Basidiomycotina of fungi and can live as
symbionts, saprophytes and parasites (Armillariella mellea which causes root rot in Apple
and other forest trees, bioluminescent shows Fox-Fire phenomena and used in mines for
light).
Agaricus bisporous (white button mushroom), Vovariella volvacea (Paddy straw
mushroom), Pleurotus sojar-caju (Oyster mushroom) and Lentinus edodes (Shiitake
mushroom) are commonly cultivated mushrooms.
Amanita phalloides (Death cap), A. muscaria (Fly Agaric) and A.virosa (Destroying
angel) are poisonous mushrooms commonly called as Toad stools.
Mushrooms have low carbohydrate and Fat content (diet to diabetics and people with
high blood cholesterol), high protein content, amino acids Lysine and Tryptophan,
vitamins Ascorbic acid, pantothenic acid, Vitamin B12, minerals P, K, Cu, Fe, high K to
Na ratio and fibre content.
Spawn is the seeding material of mushrooms produced either on grains or straw under
controlled conditions.
Compost is prepared by using Paddy straw, cotton seed, Rice bran, urea, Gypsum. Good
compost is dark brown, non-greasy, has 7-7.5 pH, 2.2% nitrogen content, 65-70%
moisture and subjected to pasteurization for 2 days.
In Spawning the spawn is spread over the compost beds and allowed for spawn running
for 15-20 days at 70-80% humidity and 23-270C temperature.
In Casing, the spawn run beds are covered with pasteurized soil and incubation is
continued for 8-10 days. When the mushrooms appear from the beds, the temperature is
brought down to 16 2oC and the moisture is increased to 95%.
The first mushroom crop appears in the third week after casing and crop production is
continued for 10-12 weeks. Every crop comes in a span of 7-10 days. Mushroomsare
harvested when they are in Button stage and each crop is called as Flush. Good growers
obtain 10-15 kg of mushrooms per 100 kg of compost.
Mushrooms can be eaten fresh or stored for a week at 5oC. They can be cleaned, washed,
kept in cans with salt solution, cans are kept in boiled water, cans are sealed and dipped in
cold water during processing for storage upto 6 months.
Questions from Previous EAMCET
1.
[A]: Somaclonal variations may be present in plants produced from callus.EAMCET - 2009
[R]: Somaclonal variations are caused due to recombination during meiosis.
2.
The characteristics of a molecular probe are
EAMCET - 2009
I. Very long molecule
II. Double stranded
III. DNA or RNA
IV. Complementary to a part of desired gene
1) I, II
2) II, III
*3) III, IV
4) IV, I
Questions for the web

1.
By emasculation one can make

1) Monoclinous flower into diclinous flower 2) Diclinous flower to monoclinous flower
*3) Monoclinous flower as pistillate flower 4) Monoclinous flower as staminate flower
2.
Study the following lists and choose the correct match

List I
List II
A) Interferon
I)
B) Probe DNA
II) Taipei
III
C) Golden Rice
Sensitive biological detector

)
IV
D) Baculo virus
3.
Insecticide
Viral vaccine
)
V) Host protein
1)
IV III I
2)
IV III II
3)
III I
II
*4)
III II
The first plant developed through tissue culture has the following morphological
characters
4.
I. Involucel
II. Storage roots
III. Pedicellate flowers
IV. Didynamous androecium
*1) I, II, III
3) I, II, IV
2) II, III, IV
4) I, II, III, IV
Arrange the following components of SCP Methylophilous methylotropous in a

sequence of their gradual increase in the amount.
5.
I. Lipids
II. RNA
III.-carotene
IV. Carbohydrates
*1) III, IV, I, II
2) III, II, IV, I
3) IV, III, I, II
4) III, I, IV, II
[A]: Mushrooms are good food for people with hypertension

[R]: Mushrooms show high Sodium to Potassium ratio
Quick Recapitulation
Jr. Inter
Plants
Morphological character
Root
1.Raphanus sativus
2.Daucus carota
3.Beta vulgaris
4. Asparagus, Ruiellia, Dahlia
5. Ipomoea batatus
Fusiform storage roots

Conical storage roots
Napiform storage roots
Fasciculated roots
Single storage adventitious
roots
6. Vanda
Epiphytic roots
7. Tinospora, Trapa, Taeniophyllum
Photosynthetic roots
8. Avicellina, Rhizophora, Jussiaea
Respiratory roots
9. Viscum, Loranthus, Cuscuta, Rafflesia, Balanophora, Parasitic roots.
Orobanche, Striga, Santalum album
10. Fabaceae
Root nodules
Stem
1. Vitis, Cissus, Passiflora
Tendrils
2. Bougainvillea, Duranta, Punica, Carissa
Thorns
3. Hugonia, Artabotrys
Hooks
4. Opuntia, Casuarina, Cocoloba
Phylloclades
5. Asparagus, Ruscus
Cladode
6. Dioscorea, Oxalis, Globba, Agave
Bulbils
7. Bulbophyllum, Knol-Khol
Tuberous stem
8. Oxalis, Hydrocotyle, Lippia
Runners
9. Jasminnum, Nerium
Stolons
10. Mentha, Chrysanthemum
Suckers
11. Pistia, Eichhornia, Agave
Off-sets
12. Zingiber, Canna Curcuma, Musa
Rhizome
13. Colocasia, Amorphophallus
Corm
14. Solanum tuberosum, Stachys tubifera, Helianthus Stem tuber
tuberosus
15. Allium, Lilium
Bulb
Leaf
1. Pisum, Lathyrus, Gloriosa, Smilax, Nepenthes, Clematis Tendrils
2. Opuntia, Argemone, Euphorbia, Zizyphus, Acacia, Spines
Parkinsonia
3. Acacia melanoxylon, Parkinsonia
Phyllodes
4. Casuarina, Zingiber, Allium, Ruscus, Asparagus
Scale leaves
5. Bryophyllum, Scilla, Begonia
Reproductive leaves
6. Nepenthes, Drosera, Dionaea, Utricularia
Trap leaves
Inflorescence
1. Crotalaria, Croton
Terminal inflorescence
2. Dolichos, Hibiscus
Axillary inflorescence
3. Callistemon
Intercalary inflorescence
4. Crotalaria, Asparagus, Althaea
Simple raceme
5. Mangifera, Yucca
Compound raceme
6. Cassia, Gynandropsis
7. Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, Pyrus malus
8. Allium, Smilax
9. Coriadrum sativum, Daucus carotus
10. Achyranthes, Amaranthus
11. Oryza
12. Casuarina, Acalypha, Morus
13. Colocasia, Amorphophallus, Lemna
14. Cocos, Musa
15. Tridax, Helianthus
16. Chrysanthemum
17. Vernonia
18. Sphaeranthus, Echinops
19. Hibiscus, Datura
20. Bougainvilleae, Jasmine
21. Hamelia
22. Heliotropium, Solanum
23. Ipomoea, Clerodendron
24. Nerium
25. Leucas, Leonites
26. Euphorbia, Poinsettia
27. Ficus sp.
Senior Inter - Bacteria
1. Thiomargarita namibiensis
2. Bacillus species
3. Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter
4.
Rhizobium,
Rhodospirillum,
Chlorobacterium,
Clostridium
5. Bacillus thuringiensis
6. Clostridium butyricum
7. Clostridium felcinium
8. Bacillus megatherium
9. Micrococcus
10. Methanococcus, Methanobacillus
11. Clostridium acetobutylicum
12. Acetobacter species
13. Lactobacillus delbruckii
14. Propionibacterium
15. Zymomonas mobilis, Thermoanaerobacter ethanolicus
16. Corynebacterium glutamicum
17. Streptomyces griseus
18. Streptomyces venezuelae
19. Streptomyces fradiae
20. Streptomyces kanamyceticus
Simple Corymb
Compound Corymb
Simple Umbel
Compound umbel
Simple Spike
Compound Spike
Catkin
Simple Spadix
Compound spadix
Heterogamous Head
Homogamous head ray
florets
Homogamous head Disc
florets
Compound head
Solitary cyme
Simple cyme
Helicoid cyme
Scorpioid cyme
Dichasial cyme
Polychasial cyme
Verticellaster
Cyathium
Hypanthodium
Largest bacterium
Ammonifying bacteria
Nitrifying bacteria
Nitrogen fixing bacteria
Bioinsecticide
Sunhemp retting
Flax retting
Tobacco curing
Tea curing
Gobar gas
Acetone, Butanol
Vinegar
Lactic acid
Propionic acid
Ethanol
Lysine
Streptomycin,
Cycloheximide
Chloramphenicol
Neomycin
Kanamycin
21. Streptomyces nodosus
22. Streptomyces rimosus
23. Bacillus polymyxa
24. Bacillus licheniformis
25. Brevibacterium
26. Agrobacterium tumifaciens
27. Clostridium botulinum

28. Xanthomonas oryzae
29. Xanthomonas malvacearum
30. Xanthomonas axonopodis pv.citri
31. Pseudomonas solanacearum
32. Erwinia amylovora
33. Bacillus anthracis
34. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
35. Mycobacterium bovis
36. Vibrio tetus
37. Bacillus dysentriae
39. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
40. Vibrio cholerae
41. Solmonella typhii
42. Diplococcus pneumoniae
43. Mycobacterium leprae
44. Pasteurella pestis
45. Neisseria gonorrhoea
46. Clostridium tetani
47. Treponema pallidum
Amphoterican
Oxytetracyclin
Polymyxin B
Bacitracin
SCP
Vector
in
genetic
engineering. Crown gall of
angiosperms
Botulism
Blight or Rice
Angular leaf spot of cotton
Citrus canker
Wilt of Solanaceae plants
Fire blight of apple
Anthrax of Sheep
Tuberculosis of man, dog
and cattle
Actinomycosis of cattle
Vibriosis
Dysentry in man
Diphtheria
Cholera
Typhoid
Pneumonia
Leprosy
Plague
Gonorrhoea
Tetanus
Syphilis
SOME ADVICE
Prior to the Penultimate day of Your Exam
Start everything with positive frame of mind.
Dont attend any phone calls of relatives and friends not serious about the exam.
Disconnect the cable TV connections.
Eat healthy, protein and mineral rich food and avoid oily and spicy food stuffs.
Prepare a topic from first year and another one from second year and have a test from
them with a minimum of 20 questions with a feeling that you are writing the final exam.
Recollect the names of plants, numericals, the characters of plants, biochemical reactions
from the tables you prepared by closing one list and reading the other list of the table and
vice-versa.
In every practice exam, read the instructions, fill in the OMR sheet carefully, scan the
paper quickly. Notice and mark the easy, difficult and very difficult (time taking)
questions.
First answer all easy questions and ensure yourself that you bubbled it correctly.
Attempt the difficult ones at last.
Use elimination technique to answer thoroughly not known questions.
For unknown questions, select either 2 or 3 option and there is a minimum guarantee of
25% marking as correct.
Read every question completely and carefully, underline the important words or phrases
with pencil and pick the most correct options.
Notice the time you have taken to complete the paper. Try to enhance the speed of
answering with dates progress towards the final exam date. Reach a level where you can
finish the 20 questions in 15 minutes.
On 11th May
Look at the condensed and short listed tables and points.

Do not try to read the topic from the beginning from the text book. Look at only the
highlighted ones.
Do not read any untouched topics.
Do not be panic, if you are not able to recollect some of the points you read.
Believe yourself, you will come out with thumping success.
In the evening relax either by chatting with your family or watching the TV programme
you like or playing video games.
Have non-oily food rich in minerals, vitamins and carbohydrates.
Avoid aerated drinks and go for coconut water one in the morning and another time in the
evening.
Have a few dates, cashew and almonds to energize your brain and body.
Take as much water as you can with some addition of sugar.
Check your examination centre personally with your parents or brothers to avoid feeling
of new on the examination day.
In the night have head bath with soap nut fluid and go to bed as early as possible but
before 10 PM.
On Examination Day
Get up from the bed whenever you fell like.
Feel it as normal day like other days writing the test like practice test.
Feel the day is yours and you are going to succeed.
Keep your admit card and required stationary ready.
Look at the easily forgetting short-listed names and numericals.
Carry water bottle or butter milk with glucose added to it.
Reach the examination centre atleast 30 minutes before the start of exam, preferably in
auto or 4 wheeler to avoid hot sun.
Step into the examination hall with positive frame of mind to cut the nut.
Check your Hall ticket and required stationary.
Adjust the time of your wrist watch with the centers clock.
Fill in all the required particulars with care.
Relax till the start call is given.
Read the instructions, notice if any changes are made.
Do not look at other competitors. Do your work with calm and cool.
See all the pages of the question paper are intact. If you find some papers or questions are
missing, bring it immediately to the notice of the invigilator.
Even if the question paper has some difficult questions, do not be panic and come to any
conclusion. It is difficult to others also.
See the tip of the pencil lead is too sharp. If it is sharp, it takes much time for bubbling.
Before bubbling, in the first instance itself ensure you are bubbling the right option
against the right question to avoid last minute confusion.
Try to minimize the usage of Eraser.
Use the rough space neatly and effectively. It helps for cross verification.
Attempt the easy ones first. Very difficult ones at the last.
Dont take lot of time in attempting the difficult questions. If a question is unknown to
you mark it as 2 or 3 option.
After the exam dont discuss the paper with your friends. You can discuss with your
teachers.
You will come out with flying colours when you
Be strong in fundamentals.
Develop the techniques of application.
Plan properly and execute it effectively and you will that success is not difficult.
SAKSHI wishes you hilarious success in your EAMCET 2012 and all your future
endeavors.

Botany Eam Cet

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How to Prepare for EAMCET 2012 to be successful in

2007 2008 2009 2010 `2011

1st Year BOTANY

Study the following lists and identify the correct match

The oldest book on

Match the following

II) Medicinal plant

Fiber yielding plant

(Gynandropsis) and Multifoliate (Ceibapentandra).

Polychasialcyme (Nerium) are various types of Cymose inflorescences (terminal bud

Pentamerous(Hibiscus) and on the basis of form and structure as Actinomorphic

Polyadelphous (Citrus) with union at filament level, Syngenesious (Tridax, Helianthus)

In Duranta the nature of vascularised defensive structures represent the

[A] : All roots are positively geotropic.

1) A and R are correct and R is the correct explanation of A

*4) A is false but R is true

3. Study the following and identify the correct match

Arrange the following modified stems in a sequence of positively geotropic to

*2) iii, i, iv, ii

Ovule to female gametophyte

(Chiropteriphily in Kigeliapinnata) and Snails (Malacophily in Aroids).

Fertilisation, Post fertilization changes, Seed structure and its germination

3) II, IV, III, I

Questions from previous exams

Bentham and Hooker classified series directly into natural orders in

Questions from previous exams

Lysosomes arise from

iii) Cisternae of golgi iv) Tubules of golgi

Double membrane bound cell organelles are

3. Match the following and identify the correct match

II) Twisted ladder

III) Straight, unfolded, double stranded *2)

IV) Straight, unfolded, single stranded

Macrosclereids (Fabaceae seed coats), Bone like Osteosclereids (Cotyledons of dicots

Internal structure of Root

Internal Organisation of Stem

sclerenchymatous pericycle, Collateral or bicollateral (Solanaceae), conjoint, open

Internal organization of Leaf

Secondary Growth of Dicot stem

Questions from previous Exams

Cell walls with high water Photosynthesis in young stems

Suberised cell walls

Lignified cell walls

IV. Digestive glands

Breaking the substrate with out

*4) I and III

*2) II, III, I, IV

*2) II, III

4) recent annual ring of heart wood

Hydrophytes Plants that grow in water or very wet places

Cuticle is thin, stomata are either present (Epistomatous in Nymphaea) or absent or

[A]: All succulent stems of xerophytes are photosynthetic

4) A is false but R is true

Previous EAMCET questions

Study the following table and choose the correct combination

2nd Year Botany

diploxylicpseudomesarchopen vascular bundle. Cuticle is thick

Questions from previous exams

*1) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

Arrange the following in correct sequence with reference to sexual reproduction in

*2) IV, II, III, I

3) II, I, IV, III

Choose the incorrect statement