Chapter 3

Chemical components of Cells

Levels of organization within the human body

The periodic table of the elements

An atom consists of a nucleus

surround by an electron cloud

(+)

2 x 10-5 nm

0.1-0.4 nm

(-)

The number of protons in an atom

determines its atomic number

Atoms mass (atomic weight) = protons + neutrons

Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

The orbits of the electrons

Isotopes

Avogadros number
One proton or neutron weights approximately 1 / (6 x 1023) gram

Whats a mole and molarity?

1 mole = 6 x 1023 molecules

C
C6H12O6
NaCl

1 Molar (M)=

1 mole of the substrate (gram)

1 liter of solution (liter)

The distribution of elements in Earths crust

differs radically from that in the tissue of an animal

96.5%

An elements chemical reactivity is based on

how its outermost electron shell is filled

Elements ordered by their atomic number

form the periodic table
(Sum of the protons and neutrons)

99%
0.9%
Required in trace amounts
Unclear

Covalent and noncovalent chemical bonds

have different lengths and strengths

Bond strength kcal/mole or kJ/mole

1 calorie = 4.184 joules

Atoms can attain a more stable arrangement of electrons

in their outermost shell by interacting with one another

Covalent bond: share a pair of electrons

Ionic bond: electrons are donated by one atom to another

Sodium Chloride is held together by ionic bond formation

Cation

Anion

The hydrogen molecules is held together

by a covalent bond

Covalent bond are characterized by particular geometries

Atoms

Ball-and-stick model

Covalent bonds

109

Covalent bond are characterized by particular geometries

Covalent bond

Carbon skeletons

Alternating double bonds

C-H, C-O, C-N compounds

Phosphates

In polar covalent bonds,

the electrons are shared unequally

Large molecules can bind to one another

through complementary charges on their surfaces

Electrostatic attractions

Hydrogen bonds

Water

Hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules

Hydrophilic & Hydrophobic

Water as a solvent

The pH value

Acids & Bases

Acids: -COOH + H2O -COO- + H3O+

Bases: -NH2 + H2O -NH3+ + OH-

Acids & Bases

Protons move continuously in aqueous solutions

The approximate chemical composition of a bacterial cell

Sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides

constitute the four main families of
small organic molecules in cells

Monosaccharides

The six-carbon sugars (C6H12O6)

Monosaccharides

Ring formation & Isomers

The structure of glucose, a simple sugar,

can be presented in several ways

3-D chair configuration

Ball-and-stick model

C
H
O

Space-filling model

Optical isomers

Sugar derivates

Disaccharides (C12H22O11)

Two monosaccharides can be linked to form disaccharide

Polymerization of sugars

Monosaccharide: 1
Disaccharide: 2
Oligosaccharide: 3-50
Polysaccharide: > 100

Oligomer of sugars

Carbohydrate polymers (1)

In plants

In animals

Carbohydrate polymers (2)

Plant cell walls

Insect exoskeletons and fungal cell walls

Several oligosaccharides can be covalently linked

to protein or lipid

Fatty acids have both hydrophobic

and hydrophilic components

The properties of fats dependent on the fatty acid

side chain they carry
Triglycerol moleculaes

Fatty acids & Triglycerols

Phospholipids aggregate to form cell membrane

Amphipathic

Phospholipids

Lipid aggregates

Steroids & Glycolipids

Steroid hormones are come from steroid

20 amino acids

Alanine is one of the simplest amino acids

Protein are held together by peptide bonds

Peptide bond

Peptide bond formation

Amino acids and peptide bonds

Amino acids (1)

Amino acids (2)

A nucleotide

nucleotide

nucleoside

The pentose sugars

Types of nitrogen bases

DNA only

RNA only

Ribonucleotide & Deoxyribonucleotide

ATP & dATP

Nucleoside & Nucleotide

Nucleotide (1)

Nucleotide (2)

Nucleotide (3)

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide whose

reactivity residues in its terminal phosphate group

Phosphoanhydride bond

O
N
P

ATP serves as an energy carrier in cells

The ATP cycle

A short length of one chain of a DNA molecule shows

the bonds linking four consecutive nucleotides

phosphodiester bond

The double helix of DNA

Hydrogen bond

DNA & RNA

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962

The DNA double-helix, 1953

Who discovered the structure of DNA?

Rosalind Elsie Franklin

(1920-1958)

X-ray crystallography

Macromolecules are abundant in cells

Construction of macromolecules

Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids

are made from monomeric subunits
Covalent bond

Macromolecules are formed by

adding subunits to one end

Hydrolysis

Most proteins and many RNA molecules fold into a

particularly stable 3-D shape, or conformation

Hydrogen bonds in water

Hydrogen bonds in water

Electrostatic attractions

Van Der Walls attraction

Hydrophobic forces

Noncovalent bonds mediate interactions

between macromolecules

Small molecules join together to form macromolecules,

which can assemble into large macromolecular complexes