Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

LABORATORY MANUAL
Electrical Measurements & Measuring Instruments

EE-209-F

(3rd Semester)

Prepared By:
PRIYAJIT DASH(A.P)
B. Tech. (EEE), M. Tech. (EEE)

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

BRCM College of Engineering &Technology
Bahal-127028 (Bhiwani).
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Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Index
S. No

Name of Experiment

Self-inductance measurements: Ammeter and Voltmeter method, SelfInductance Measurement by General four-armss bridge network method.

Measurement of the unknown inductance by using Hays bridge method

To measure self inductance of two coils, mutual inductance between these

and the coefficient of coupling

Measurement of the unknown inductance by using Maxwell bridge method

Measurement of medium resister by the voltmeter and ammeter method

Measurement of the medium resistance by using whetstone bridge method

Measurement of the low resistance by using Kelvin Double bridge method.

Page No

Measurement of the high resistance by using loss of charge method

Measurement of the unknown capacitance sharing bridge method

10

To study of DC potentiometer

11

ToStudy of C.R.O. Voltage measurement on C.R.O. Current measurement

on C.R.O. Frequency measurement on C.R.O. Phase difference measurement
on C.R.O
To study Digital Instruments Digital Voltmeter, Digital Frequency Meter,
Digital Panel Meter, Digital Storage Oscilloscope

12
13

To Study the Working Principles of single phase& Three phase induction

type electronics energy meter
2

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment no 1
OBJECTIVE :. Self-inductance measurements: Ammeter and Voltmeter method, SelfInductance Measurement by General four-armss bridge network method.
MATERIAL REQUIRED :- Inductance, Ammeter and Voltmeter, General four-armss
bridge network method
THEORY:- Inductance Meters instruments for measuring the inductance of circuits with
lumped parameters, the windings of transformers and chokes, and inductance coils. Their
principle of operation depends on the method of measurement.
The voltmeter-ammeter method (Figure 1) is used for measuring relatively large inductances
(from 0.1 to 1,000 henrys [H]) when the resistance of the windings is significantly lower than
the inductance. In this case Lx = U/( f I), where U is the voltage, I is the current in the
circuit whose inductance is being measured, and f is the frequency of the alternating current,
usually 50 hertz (Hz). Such inductance meters have an error of 23 percent.An AC measuring
bridge (for frequencies of 100, 400, and 1,000 Hz) with standard capacitance or, much less
frequently,standard inductance (Figure 2) is the main component of inductance meters. When
the bridge is balanced,
rx = (R1 R2)/R3Lx = Cs R1 R2
where rx is the ohmic resistance of the wire of the inductance coil winding. Bridge
measurement methods have an error of 13 percent; the range of measurement is 0.1 to
1,000 H.
Resonance methods are based on the resonant properties of an oscillatory circuit composed of
the inductance being measured (Lx) and a standard capacitance Cs (Figure 3). By varying C
the circuit can be tuned to resonance with the generator (at frequencies of 10 kHz to 1.5
MHz); the inductance is then calculated using the formula Lx = (2.53 l0)(f20 c), where Lx is
the inductance in mH, f0 is the resonance frequency in kHz, and C = Cs + Cc is the total
capacitance of the circuit in picofarads. Resonant inductance meters have an error of 25
percent; the range of measurement is 0.05 .H to 100 mH.
For each value of Rx, find the expected value of current that will flow (assuming a
voltage source of 10 V) by dividing 10 V by the value of Rx.
3- Based on the value of current expected to flow, calculate the required value of the
DRB to convert the ammeter to the suitable full scale deflection (FSD).
4- Set the DRBX to the value of Rx.
5- Calculate the required value of DRBV to a value suitable for a FSD of voltage of 10 V.
6- Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2 below. Remember that the voltmeter
shown might include DRBV in series. Also remember that the ammeter shown might
include DRBA in parallel.
3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

Figure 1. Diagram of the measurement of inductance by the

voltmeter-ammeter method:(A) ammeter, (V) voltmeter, (Lx) inductance, (l)
current, (U) voltage

Figure 2 Diagram of resonance method of inductance measurement: (Lc) coupling loop,

(Lx) inductance being measured,
(Cc) self-capacitance of coil, (Cs) standard capacitance
Procedure:1) Study the circuit provided on the front panel of the kit.
2) Connect unknown inductance LX1 in the circuit. Make all
connections to complete the bridge.
3) Put the supply ON
4) Set the null point of galvanometer by adjusting variable resistance R3.
5) Note value of R2, R3, and C4 by removing connection by patch cords.
6) Calculate theoretical value of LX1 using L=R2R3C4
7) Measure value of LX2 by LCR meter and compare it.
8) Repeat process for LX2.
Result:- The unknown inductance is measured using Hays bridge and is
found to be___
Precautions :
1.connections should be tight.
2.Instrument should be handled
carefully.

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment No :-2
Object:- Measurement of the unknown inductance by using Hays bridge method.
Apparatus:- Multimeter
LCR meter
Hays bridge kit,
Patch cords.
Theory:The hays bridge is the modification of the Maxwell Bridge. This bridge uses a
resistance in series with the standard capacitor. The bridge has four resistive
arms in which the arms one is consists of the resister R1, Lx .The arm 2 is
consists of the variable resistance R3.The low value of the resistance is obtain
by the low resistive arms of the bridge. The value of R4 and C4 is the standard
value of the capacitor and resistance.
By using the unknown inductance having a resistanceR1. R2, R3,R4-is the
known non-inductive resistance and C4 is standard value of the capacitor. The
unknown value of inductance and Quality factor of the Bridge is obtained by
formula.
Lx = (R2R3C4) /(1+ 2R42C4
2) Quality factor (Q)=(1/ 2R42C42)
Basic AC bridges consist of four arms, source excitation and a balanced
detector. Commonly used detectors for AC bridges are:
(1) Head phones
(2) Vibration galvanometers
(3) Tunable amplifier detectors
Vibration galvanometer is extremely useful at power and low audio
frequency ranges. Vibration galvanometers are manufactured to work
at various frequency ranging from 5 KHZ to 1 KHZ. But one most
commonly used between 200HZ.
Advantage-1) This Bridge gives very simple expression for unknown for
High Q coil. 2) This bridge also gives a simple expression for Q factor.
Disadvantage-1)The hays bridge is suited for the measurement of the High Q
inductor. 2)It is used to find the inductor having the q value of the smaller
then 10.
Procedure:1) Study the circuit provided on the front panel of the kit.
2) Connect unknown inductance LX1 in the circuit. Make all
connections to complete the bridge.
3) Put the supply ON
4) Set the null point of galvanometer by adjusting variable resistance R3.
5) Note value of R2, R3, and C4 by removing connection by patch cords.
6) Calculate theoretical value of LX1 using L=R2R3C4
7) Measure value of LX2 by LCR meter and compare it.
5

8) Repeat process for LX2.

Circuit Diagram:-

Figure 1. Diagram of a bridge for measuring inductance: (U) current

source; (G) galvanometer; (R3), (R2), and (R3) ohmic resistances; (Cx,) standard
capacitance; (Lx) inductance being measured
Result:- The unknown inductance is measured using Hays bridge and is
found to be___
Precautions :
1.connections should be tight.
2.Instrument should be handled
carefully.
6

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment no 3
Object: To measure self inductance of two coils, mutual inductance between
these and the coefficient of coupling
Apparatus required: Ammeter 0-2am,0-10A MI Voltmeter 0-500V MI100V
Theory:
When the two coils are connected for additive polarity the fluxes produced by
the current in the two coils will aid each other and hence the impedance is high. This
require the equivalent inductance to be very high. In this case, the mutual inductance
terms will have the same sign as that of the self inductance terms. Thus, if the two
coils having inductance L1 and L2 respectively and a mutual inductance of M between
them are connected for additive polarity, the equivalent inductance
L1 = L1 + L2 + 2M (1)
When the two coils are connected for subtractive polarity, the two fluxes will oppose
each other and the inductance and hence the impedances are low. In this case the
mutual inductance terms will have the opposite sign as that of the self inductance
terms. Hence the equivalent inductance
L11 = L1 + L2 - 2M (2)
From (1) and (2), we can find out M, L1 and L2. Thus the coefficient of coupling is
calculated by the formula
K

L1 L2
Procedure: First the polarity is to be checked. For this connect the 0 10A ammeter and 0
500V voltmeter in the circuit. Then switch on the supply with autotransformer in its minimum
position. Then vary the autotransformer and note the variation of readings in the ammeter and
voltmeter. If the current variation is high, for a small voltage the polarity is subtractive.
Otherwise, the polarity is additive. After checking the polarity put the required range of meters
in the circuit. For additive polarity, give the rated voltage (ie 220 + 200 = 420V) and note the
ammeter and voltmeter readings.
For subtractive polarity, pass the rated current (7.5A) by adjusting the autotransformer and
note the ammeter and voltmeter readings. For measuring the resistance, keeping the current
limiting rheostat at its maximum position supply is switched on. Then the ammeter and
voltmeter readings are noted.
Circuit diagram:
For additive polarity

For subtractive polarity

Tabulation

V1
Volts

Additive
Polarity
I1
Amp

Z1
_

Subtractive
Polarity
V2
I2
Volts
Amp

Z2
_

Resistance Measurement
V3
I3
R
Volts
Amp
_

Calculation
L1 = L1 + L2 + 2M .. (1)
L11 = L1 + L2 - 2M .. (2)
L1 + L11 = 2 (L1 + L2)
L1 + L2 = (L1 + L11) / 2 .. (3) (L1 - L11)/4 = M .. (4)
Z1 = V1 / I1
Z2 = V2 / I2
R = V3 / I3
Z1 2 R 2

X1

L1 = X1 / 2 f
X2
Z22 R2
L2 = X2 / 2 f
L
1

N
1

E
1

L2
E2
2
Solve for L1 L2 and M.

Coefficient of coupling
K

L1 L2
Result Self inductance of primary coil L1 = __________________
Self inductance of primary coil L2 = __________________
Mutual inductance M = __________________
Coefficient of coupling K = __________________
Precautions :
1.connections should be tight. 2.Instrument should be handled carefully.

10

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India
EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment no 4
Aim:- Measurement of the unknown inductance by using Maxwell bridge method.
Apparatus:Digital multimeter, Patch
cords. R2=100 =1M ,
R3=9.97K , C4=1 f
LX1=318mH LX2=73 mH
Theory:The Maxwells bridge is used an inductance is measured by comparison with a
standard variable capacitance. One of the ratio arms has a rsistance and the
capacitance in the parallel.
In this bridge at the balance in condition there is no current is flow in the
galvanometer.henced the balance equation for the bridge using the admittance of the
arm 1 instead of the impedance.
ZX=(Z2* Z 3*Y1)
Where the Y1 is the admittance of the arm-1. Z2=R2
Z3=R3
Y1=(1/R1+j)
By separating the real and imaginary term the unknown value of the resister (Rx) and
the unknown value of the capacitor (Cx) has given below.
Rx=(R2*R3/R1).
LX= (R2*R3*C1)
Advantage1) This bridge is very useful for measurement of a wide range of a
inductance at the power and audio frequencies.
2) The frequency does not appear in any of the two equations.
Disadvantage1) This bridge requires a variable standard capacitor, which may be Vary
expensive if the calibration to a high degree of the accuracy.
2) The bridge is limited the measure the low Q value.
Procedure:1) Study circuit on kit from panel.
2) Connect unknown inductance LX1 in circuit. Make all possible connections to
complete the network. Switch the supply on.
3) Set null point of galvanometer by adjusting variable resistance R3
4) Note values of R2, R3, C4 by removing their connections. Calculate theoretical
values of LX using L1=R2R3C4.
5) Measure actual value of LX1 using LCR meter. Compare this value with
calculated. also calculate Q factor by using above equation.
Circuit Diagram :
11

Result:- Unknown inductance measured using Maxwells bridge is found to be

LX1=____
Precautions :
1.connections should be tight. 2.Instrument should
be handled carefully

12

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment No-05
Aim:- Measurement of medium resister by the voltmeter and ammeter method.
Apparatus:- DC ammeter(0-500mA)
DC Voltmeter (0-5V)
Dc power supply (0-30V)
Variable Resistance -100 ohm.
Connecting wires.
Theory: Two types of the connections are done one employed for the ammeter
voltmeter method as shown in the figure voltmeter and ammeter are connected in series, where
ammeter measures the total current flowing through the circuit and voltmeter measures the
voltage across the unknown resistance .The voltmeter should have ideally infinite resistance
and ammeter should have ideally zero resistance so that it will measure total current flowing
through the unknown resistance. But practically it is not possible and measured value Rm of the
resistance is the sum of resistance of ammeter and actual resistance.
Rm=R1+Ra Where
R1=Actual resistance. Ra=resistance of
the ammeter.
It is clear from the expression that the value of measured resistance is equal to actual
resistance when ammeter has zero resistance.
Procedure:1) Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2) Switch on the supply and note down the readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
3) Calculate the value of the unknown resistance by ohms low.
4) Perform the procedure for the other case similarly.
Circuit Diagram:-

Observation Table:-

13

Result: - Hence we study the measured and the actual vale of the unknown resistance is
found.
Precautions :
1.connections should be tight. 2. Instrument should be handled carefully

14

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment No.-6
Aim: - Measurement of the medium resistance by using whetstone bridge method.
Apparatus: - Power supply,Resistor: - 10K_-1no, 5K_-1no, 11K_-1no Unknown resistor=100_,
Pot =1K-1no. Wheat stone bridge kit. Digital multimeter-1no, Patch codes.
TheoryA very important device used in the measurement of medium resistances is the
Wheat stones bridge .it is an accurate and reliable instrument .The wheat stone bridge is an
instrument based on the principle of null indication and comparison measurements. The basic
circuit of a wheat stone bridge is shown in fig . it has four resistive arms, consisting of
resistances P,Q,R and S together with a source of emf and a null detector , usually a
galvanometer G or other sensitive current meter is used. The current through the
galvanometer depends on the potential difference between points b and d .The bridge is said
to be balanced when there is on current through the galvanometer or when the potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero. this occurs when the voltage from point b to
point a equals the voltage from point d to point a or by referring to other battery terminal
, when the voltage from point d to point c equals the voltage from point b to point c.
For bridge balance; I1P=I2 R . .1)
I1=I3=E/P+Q (2)
I2=I4=E/R+S (3)
E=emf of battery.
Combining equ (1) and (2) we get P/P+Q=R/R+S (4)
QR=PS
Equ . (5)
Shows the balance condition of wheat stone bridge. If three of the resistances are known
then fourth may be determined by formula R=S*P/Q
Where R is the unknown resistance, S is called the standard arm resistor and P and Q are called
the ratio arms.
Procedure: 1) Connect the patch cord as per the circuit diagram.
2) Note the resistance of P and Q using multimeter.
3) Adjust the resistance of P, Q, R, S
4) Switch on the power supply and adjust the resistance S such that galvanometer shows
the zero deflection.
5) Now calculate R, R=P*S/Q
Circuit Diagram:-

15

Observation Table: -

Result:- Hence we have studied the low resistance by using whetstone bridge.
Precautions:1. Connections should be tight. 2. Instrument should be handled carefully

16

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment No:-07
Aim: - Measurement of the low resistance by using Kelvin Double bridge method.
Apparatus: - Regulated dc supply-1no
Standard resistance coil-1no
Kelvins double bridge kit.
Digital multimeter-1no,
Patch codes.
Theory: Kelvins bridge is a modification of whetstones bridge and always used in measurement
of low resistance. It uses two sets of ratio arms and the four terminal
resistances for the low resistance consider the ckt. As shown in fig. The first set of ratio P and
Q. The second set of ratio arms are p and q is used to connected to galvanometer to a pt d at an
Approx. potential between points m and n to eliminate the effects of connecting lead of
resistance r between the known std. resistance s and unknown resistance R
.The ratio P/Q is made equal to p/q. under balanced condition there is no current flowing
through galvanometer which means voltage drop between a and b, Eab equal to the voltage
drop between a and c, Eamd.
Now Ead=P/P+Q ; Eab=I[R+S+[(p+q)r/p+q+r]] -------------- (1)
Eamd= I[R+ p/p+q[ (p+q)r/p+q+r]] --------------------------- (2) For
zero deflection->Eac=Ead
[ P/P+Q]I[R+S+{(p+q)r/p+q+r}]=I[R+pr/p+q+r] ---- (3)
Now, if P/Q=p/q
Then equa (3) becomes R=P/Q=S - (4)
Equation (4) is the usual working equation. For the Kelvins Double Bridge .It indicates the
resistance of connecting lead r. It has no effect on measurement provided that the two sets of
ratio arms have equal ratios. Equation (3) is useful however as it shows the error that is
introduced in case the ratios are not exactly equal. It indicates that it is desirable to keep r as
small as possible in order to minimize the error in case there is a diff. between the ratio P/Q
and p/q. R=P/QS
Circuit Diagram: -

Observation Table: -

17

Procedure: 1) The circuit configuration on the panel is studied.

2) Supply is switched on and increased upto 5v.
3) The unknown resistance is connected as shown .
4) The value of P,Q was selected such that
a. P/Q=p/q
5) S was adjusted for proper balance and balance value of s was balanced.
6) The value of known resistance was calculated.
Result- The observed value of unknown resistance is
Precautions1) Check all the connections before turning ON the power supply.
2) Do not exceed the value of 5v.
3) Note the readings accurately.

18

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment No-08
Aim:- Measurement of the high resistance by using loss of charge method.
Apparatus:- Multimeter 1no Ammeter-(0-200ma)-1no
Voltmeter (0-30v)-1no Capacitor-10uf-1no Resister-100K-1no
Power supply-(0-30v)-1no
.
Theory:In this method the resistance which is measured is connected in parallel with
the capacitor C and the electronic voltmeter V. The capacitor is the charged up to some
suitable voltage by means of the battery having the voltage V and is then allowed to
discharge through the resistance.
The terminal voltage is observed over the considerable period of the time
during discharge.
Let ,
V=initial voltage on the charged capacitor.
.v=instantaneous discharging voltage.
I=the discharging capacitor current through the unknown resistor at time t.
Q=the charge still remaining in the capacitor.
I=dq/dt=-cdv/dt since[I=V/R]
V/R+C dv/dt=0 (1)
1/RC dt+1/V.dV=0 integrating
both sides t/RC+logev+K=0 (2)
K is const. of integration At
initial condition
When T=0 , v=V from equ. (2) K=logeV
now equ. (2) Becomes t/RC+logev-logeV=0
therefore. Loge (v/V)=-t/RC v/V=e-t/RC
v=V*e-t/RC
Taking log on both sides
logev=logeV+logee- t/RC
R=t/C*loge(V/v)
R=0.4343*t/C*log10(V/v)
Procedure:1) Connections are make as per the circuit diagram.
2) Close the switch s and keep s2 open the capacitor charge by own leakage method.
3) New open reading and voltmeter .as its own resistance.
4) Note down the reading of the voltmeter Vs equal interval of the time

19

Circuit Diagram:-

Observation Table:-

Result:- High resistance of the resistance is calculated by using loss of charge method.
Precautions1) Check all the connections before turning ON the power supply.
2) Do not exceed the value of 5v.
3) Note the readings accurately.

20

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment no-9
Aim:- Measurement of the unknown capacitance sharing bridge method.
Apparatus:- Sharing bridge kit digital multimeter, patch cords,
Theory:- The schering bridge one of the most important ac bridge is used the
extensively for the measurement of capacitors.
In the schering bridge the arm 1 now contains a parallel combination of the
resistor and the capacitor and standard arm contain only one capacitor. The
standard capacitor is usually a standard high quality mica capacitor.
in the balance condition of the bridge the sum of the phase angles of the arms 1
and 4 is equal the sum of the phase angle of arms 2 and 3.at the balance in
condition there is no current flow in the galvanometer.
The balance equation is derived in the usual manner, and by substituting the
corresponding impendence and the admittance the value of the unknown
capacitor and the resister is find as given below.
Cx=C3(R1/R2).
Rx=R2(C1/C2)
Procedure: 1) Study the circuit provided on the front panel on the kit.
2) Connect the unknown capacitance of the position given.
3) Set the null point of galvanometer by adjusting the variable
4) Calculate the value of unknown capacitance by formula given
Circuit Diagram

Result: -The values of unknown capacitance is measured by shearing bridge

Precautions1) Check all the connections before turning ON the power supply.
2) Do not exceed the value of 5v.
3) Note the readings accurately.
21

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment no-10
Aim:- To study of DC potentiometer.
Apparatus:- Power supply,(0-50v)
Battery,(0-30V)
Resister-100
Theory:The potentiometer although not consider a bridge has circuit that using a simple
circuit thermo becomes identical to the whetstone bridge. The potentiometer
is a device for measuring the voltage while presenting a very high impedance
to the voltage source under the Test.
The variable resister R1 is the precision device that can be set to an accurate
value. the resister is adjusted so that no current is flow through the
galvanometer. which is the similar to balancing the bridge.
At this point the zero current flow several important
characteristics of the potentiometer cab be determine.
Circuit Diagram

Result:- To study the working of the DC potentiometer.

. Precautions1) Check all the connections before turning ON the power supply.
2) Do not exceed the value of 5v.
3) Note the readings accurately.
22

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment no 11
OBJECTIVE: ToStudy of C.R.O. Voltage measurement on C.R.O. Current
measurement on C.R.O. Frequency measurement on C.R.O. Phase difference
measurement on C.R.O.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Cathode-ray oscilloscope, millimeter, and oscillator.
Theory
INTRODUCTION: The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory
instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals
over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make
it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a
cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1.

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of
the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is
called an electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its
intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair
of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair
23

oriented ot give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the
horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections
allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron
beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This
coversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light
on an otherwise darkened screen. In the most common use of the oscilloscope the
signal to be studied is first amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates
to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly
with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be
deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the verical
plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves
as a uniform time scale. The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is
accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope
circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of a sawtooth wave as shown
in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly
with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time
across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a)
(b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial position. The
horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this
periodicity is adjustable by external controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the
unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle
of the sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two
deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain
stationary. The persistance of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the
fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron beam
is cut off (blanked) during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO Operation: A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in
Fig. 3. In general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be
displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the verical deflection
plates of the CRT. A portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the
sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse
coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns
on the sweep generator, initiating the sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth wave is
amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates.
Usually, additional provisions signal are made for appliying an external triggering
24

signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for triggering. Also the sweep generator may be
bypassed and an external signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.
CRO Controls

The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating

conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these
controls are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

CATHODE-RAY TUBE
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the
graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.
VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION
Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the
calibrated steps. Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is
in the fully clockwise position.
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AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to
vertical amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input
directly to the amplifier; selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going
to the amplifier thus blocking any constant component.
HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external
signal to horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated
position is fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to
horizontal aplifier through Ext. Horiz. Connector.
TRIGGER
The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-)
portion of trigger signal.
Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier
EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT.
TRIG. INPUT. LINE - 60 cycle triger
Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It
also allows automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).
CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or
vertical) amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case.
Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal
amplifier. The lower terminal is graounted to the case of the oscilloscope.
External Tigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.
Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 millivolts
for use in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers.
Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.
Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable.

26

Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the
controls as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into a standard ac wall receptacle (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do
not advance the Intensity Control. Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two
minutes, then turn the Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.
PROCEDURE:
I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the output
from the generator to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. Establish a steady trace of this
input signal on the scope. Adjust (play with) all of the scope and signal generator controls
until you become familiar with the function of each. The purpose for such "playing" is to
allow the student to become so familiar with the oscilloscope that it becomes an aid (tool)
in making measurements in other experiments and not as a formidable obstacle. Note: If
the vertical gain is set too low, it may not be possible to obtain a steady trace.
II. Measurements of Voltage: Consider the circuit in Fig. 4(a). The signal generator is
used to produce a 1000 hertz sine wave. The AC voltmeter and the leads to the vertical
input of the oscilloscope are connected across the generator's output. By adjusting the
Horizontal Sweep time/cm and trigger, a steady trace of the sine wave may be displayed
on the screen. The trace represents a plot of voltage vs. time, where the vertical
deflection of the trace about the line of symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of
the voltage at any instant of time.

To determine the size of the voltage signal appearing at the output of terminals of
the signal generator, an AC (Alternating Current) voltmeter is connected in parallel
across these terminals (Fig. 4a). The AC voltmeter is designed to read the dc "effective
value" of the voltage. This effective value is also known as the "Root Mean Square
value" (RMS) value of the voltage. The peak or maximum voltage seen on the scope face
27

(Fig. 4b) is Vm volts and is represented by the distance from the symmetry line CD to the
maximum deflection. The relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage
displayed on the scope and the effective or RMS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC
voltmeter is
VRMS = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave).
Thus

Agreement is expected between the voltage reading of the multimeter and that of
the oscilloscope. For a symmetric wave (sine or cosine) the value of Vmmay be taken as
1/2 the peak to peak signal Vpp
The variable sensitivity control a signal may be used to adjust the display to fill a
concenient range of the scope face. In this position, the trace is no longer calibrated so that
you can not just read the size of the signal by counting the number of divisions and
multiplying by the scale factor. However, you can figure out what the new calibration is
an use it as long as the variable control remains unchanged.
Caution: The mathematical prescription given for RMS signals is valid only for
sinusoidal signals. The meter will not indicate the correct voltage when used to
measure non-sinusoidal signals.
III. Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied, voltage
measurements can still be taken from the vertical deflection. Moreover, the signal is
displayed as a function of time. If the time base (i.e. sweep) is calibrated, such
measurements as pulse duration or signal period can be made. Frequenciescan then be
determined as reciprocal of the periods.
Set the oscillator to 1000 Hz. Display the signal on the CRO and measure the period
of the oscillations. Use the horizontal distance between two points such as C to D in Fig.
4b.
Set the horizontal gain so that only one complete wave form is displayed.
Then reset the horizontal until 5 waves are seen. Keep the time base control in a
calibrated position. Measure the distance (and hence time) for 5 complete cycles and
calculate the frequency from this measurement. Compare you result with the value
determined above.
Repeat your measurements for other frequencies of 150 Hz, 5 kHz, 50 kHz as set
on the signal generator.
IV. Lissajous Figures: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are input to the
horizontal and vertical amplifiers a stationary pattern is formed on the CRT when the ratio
of the two frequencies is an intergral fraction such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, etc. These
stationary patterns are known as Lissajous figures and can be used for comparison
28

measurement of frequencies.
Use two oscillators to generate some simple Lissajous figures like those shown in
Fig. 5. You will find it difficult to maintain the Lissajous figures in a fixed configuration
because the two oscillators are not phase and frequency locked. Their frequencies and
phase drift slowly causing the two different signals to change slightly with respect to
each other.
V. Testing what you have learned: Your instructor will provide you with a small
oscillator circuit. Examine the input to the circuit and output of the circuit using your
oscilloscope. Measure such quantities as the voltage and frequence of the signals.
Specify if they are sinusoidal or of some other wave character. If square wave, measure
the frequency of the wave. Also, for square waves, measure the on time (when the
voltage is high) and off time (when it is low).

Result:- Study is completed

Precautions: 1.Operate cro carefully
2.Take all reading carefully
3.Use correct power supply

29

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India

EMMI LAB Laboratory

Experiment no 12
Objective. To studyDigital Instruments Digital Voltmeter, Digital Frequency
Meter, Digital Panel Meter, Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Theory: Digital Voltmeter.
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a
scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical
display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.
Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a
panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instruments,
usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter,
are standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work. Any
measurement that can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is
suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical
process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full
scale, and are used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts.
Digital meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially
calibrated test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory instruments
capable of measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters using amplifiers
can measure tiny voltages of microvolts or less.
Part of the problem of making an accurate voltmeter is that of calibration to check its
accuracy. In laboratories, the Weston Cell is used as a standard voltage for precision
work. Precision voltage references are available based on electronic circuits.

Digital Instruments
Digital Frequency Meter,
30

A frequency counter is an electronic instrument, or component of one, that is used for

measuring frequency. Frequency is defined as the number of events of a particular
sort occurring in a set period of time. Frequency counters usually measure the
number of oscillations or pulses per second in a repetitive electronic signal.
Operating principle
Most frequency counters work by using a [counter] which accumulates the number of
events occurring within a specific period of time. After a preset period (1 second, for
example), the value in the counter is transferred to a display and the counter is reset to
zero. If the event being measured repeats itself with sufficient stability and the frequency
is considerably lower than that of the clock oscillator being used, the resolution of the
measurement can be greatly improved by measuring the time required for an entire
number of cycles, rather than counting the number of entire cycles observed for a pre-set
duration (often referred to as the reciprocal technique). The internal oscillator which
provides the time signals is called the timebase, and must be calibrated very accurately.
If the thing to be counted is already in electronic form, simple interfacing to the
instrument is all that is required. More complex signals may need some conditioning to
make them suitable for counting. Most general purpose frequency counters will include
some form of amplifier, filtering and shaping circuitry at the input. DSP technology,
sensitivity control and hysteresis are other techniques to improve performance. Other
types of periodic events that are not inherently electronic in nature will need to be
converted using some form of transducer. For example, a mechanical event could be
arranged to interrupt a light beam, and the counter made to count the resulting pulses.
Frequency counters designed for radio frequencies (RF) are also common and operate on
the same principles as lower frequency counters. Often, they have more range before they
overflow. For very high (microwave) frequencies, many designs use a high-speed
prescaler to bring the signal frequency down to a point where normal digital circuitry can
operate. The displays on such instruments take this into account so they still display the
correct value. Microwave frequency counters can currently measure frequencies up to
almost 100 GHz. Above these frequencies the signal to be measured is combined in a
mixer with the signal from a local oscillator, producing a signal at the difference
frequency, which is low enough to be measured directly.
Digital Panel Meters Digital Panel Meters are used to perform digital processing and
display of voltage, current, pulse signal and others. They can also compare input values
to set values, transfer data and perform other functions. OMRON Digital Panel Meters
feature a high tech
backlight LCD display that gives excellent read-out of values in dual color, thus provides
intuitive feedback of value

31

.
Digital Panel Meter
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope (also known as a scope, CRO, DSO or, an O-scope) is a type of electronic
test instrument that allows observation of constantly varying signal voltages, usually as a
two-dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences using the vertical or
'Y' axis, plotted as a function of time, (horizontal or 'x' axis). Although an oscilloscope
displays voltage on its vertical axis, any other quantity that can be converted to a voltage
can be displayed as well. In most instances, oscilloscopes show events that repeat with
either no change, or change slowly.
Oscilloscopes are commonly used to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical signal.
In addition to the amplitude of the signal, an oscilloscope can show distortion, the time
between two events (such as pulse width, period, or rise time) and relative timing of two
related signals.[1]
Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, and telecommunications
industry. General-purpose instruments are used for maintenance of electronic equipment
and laboratory work. Special-purpose oscilloscopes may be used for such purposes as
analyzing an automotive ignition system, or to display the waveform of the heartbeat as an
electrocardiogram.
Originally all oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element and linear
amplifiers for signal processing, (commonly referred to as CROs) however, modern
oscilloscopes have LCD or LED screens, fast analog-to-digital converters and digital
signal processors. Although not as commonplace, some oscilloscopes used storage CRTs
to display single events for a limited time. Oscilloscope peripheral modules for general
purpose laptop or desktop personal computers use the computer's display, allowing them
to be used as test instruments.
Digital Storage Oscilloscope

32

Basic Oscilloscope
Description
Display and general external appearance
The basic oscilloscope, as shown in the illustration, is typically divided into four
sections: the display, vertical controls, horizontal controls and trigger controls. The
display is usually a CRT or LCD panel which is laid out with both horizontal and vertical
reference lines referred to as the graticule. In addition to the screen, most display sections
are equipped with three basic controls, a focus knob, an intensity knob and a beam finder
button.
The vertical section controls the amplitude of the displayed signal. This section
carries a Volts-per-Division (Volts/Div) selector knob, an AC/DC/Ground selector
switch and the vertical (primary) input for the instrument. Additionally, this section
is typically equipped with the vertical beam position knob.
The horizontal section controls the time base or sweep of the instrument. The
primary control is the Seconds-per-Division (Sec/Div) selector switch. Also included
is a horizontal input for plotting dual X-Y axis signals. The horizontal beam position
knob is generally located in this section.
The trigger section controls the start event of the sweep. The trigger can be set to
automatically restart after each sweep or it can be configured to respond to an
internal or external event. The principal controls of this section will be the source
and coupling selector switches. An external trigger input (EXT Input) and level
adjustment will also be included.
In addition to the basic instrument, most oscilloscopes are supplied with a probe as
shown. The probe will connect to any input on the instrument and typically has a
resistor of ten times the oscilloscope's input impedance. This results in a .1 (-10X)
attenuation factor, but helps to isolate the capacitive load presented by the probe
cable from the signal being measured. Some probes have a switch allowing the
operator to bypass the resistor when appropriate.[1]

Result: Study is completed

33

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department

BRCM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
BAHAL 127028 ( Distt. Bhiwani ) Haryana, India
EMMI Lab
Experiment -13
Aim:-To Study the Working Principles of single phase& Three phase
induction type electronics energy meter
Electrical
Energy meter or watt-hour meter or is an electrical instrument that measures the amount of
electrical energy used by the consumers. Utilities is one of the electrical departments,
which install these instruments at every place like homes, industries, organizations,
commercial buildings to charge for the electricity consumption by loads such as lights,
fans, refrigerator and other home appliances.

Watt-Hour Meter
The basic unit of power is watts and it is measured by using a watt meter. One thousand
watts make one kilowatt. If one uses one kilowatt in one hour duration, one unit of energy
gets consumed. So energy meters measure the rapid voltage and currents, calculate their
product and give instantaneous power. This power is integrated over a time interval, which
gives the energy utilized over that time period.

Two Basic Types of Watt-Hour Meter

The energy meters are classified into two basic categories, such as:
Electromechanical Type Induction Meter
Electronic Energy Meter
Watt hour meters are classified into two types by taking the following factors into
considerations:
Types of displays analog or digital electric meter.
34

Types of metering points: secondary transmission, grid, local and primary

distribution.
End applications like commercial, industrial and domestic purpose
Technical aspects like single phases, three phases, High Tension (HT), Low
Tension (LT) and accuracy class materials.
The electricity supply connection may be either single phase or three phase depending on
the supply utilized by the domestic or commercial installations. Particularly in this article
we are going to study about the working principles of single-phase electromechanical
induction type watt- hour meter and also about three-phase electronic watt hour meter
from the explanation of two basic energy meters as described below .
Single Phase Electromechanical Induction Watt Hour Meter
It is a well-known and most common type of age-old watt-hour meter. It comprises a
rotating aluminum disc placed on a spindle between two electromagnets. The rotation
speed of the disc is proportional to the power, and this power is integrated by the use of
gear trains and counter mechanism. It is made of two silicon steel laminated
electromagnets: shunt and series magnets.
Series magnet carries a coil which is of a few turns of thickness wire connected in series
with the line; whereas the shunt magnet carries a coil with numerous turns of thin wire
connected across the supply.
Braking magnet is a kind of permanent magnet that applies the force opposite to the
normal disc rotation to move that disc a balanced position and to stop the disc while power
gets off.

Single Phase Electromechanical Induction Energy meter

Series magnet produces a flux which is proportional to the flowing current, and shunt
magnet produces a flux proportional to the voltage. These two fluxes lag at 90 degrees due
to inductive nature. The interface of these two fields produces eddy current in the disk,
utilizing a force, which is proportional to the product of instantaneous voltage, current and
the phase-angle between them. A braking magnet is placed over one side of the disc,
which produces a break torque on the disc by a constant field provided by using a
permanent magnet. Whenever the braking and driving torques become equal, the speed of
the disc becomes steady.
35

A Shaft or vertical spindle of the aluminum disc is associated with the gear arrangement
that records a number proportional to the revolutions of the disc. This gear arrangement
sets the number in a series of dials and indicates energy consumed over a time.
This type of energy meter is simple in construction and the accuracy is somewhat less due
to creeping and other external fields. A foremost problem with these types of energy
meters is their proneness to tampering, which necessitate an electrical-energy-monitoring
system. These series and shunt type meters are widely used in domestic and industrial
applications.
Electronic energy meters are accurate, precise and reliable type of measuring instruments
when compared to electromechanical induction type meters. When connected to loads,
they consume less power and start measuring instantaneous. So, electronic type of three
phase energy meter is explained below with its working principle.

3-Phase Electronic Watt Hour Meter

This meter is able to perform current, voltage and power measurements in three phase
supply systems. By using these three phase meters, it is also possible to measure high
voltages and currents by using appropriate transducers. One of the types of three phase
energy meters is shown below (given as an example) that ensures reliable and accurate
energy measurement compared to the electromechanical meters.

3-Phase Electronic Watt Hour Meter

It uses AD7755, a single-phase energy measurement IC to acquire and process the input
voltage and current parameters. The voltage and currents of the power line are rated down
to signal level using transducers like voltage and current transformers and given to that IC
as shown in figure. These signals are sampled and converted into digital, multiplied by one
another to get the instantaneous power. Later these digital outputs are converted to
frequency to drive an electromechanical counter. The frequency rate of the output pulse is
proportional to the instantaneous power, and (in a given interval) it gives energy transfers
to the load for a particular number of pulses.
36

The microcontroller accepts the inputs from all the three energy measurement ICs for three
phase energy measurement and serves as the brain of the system by performing all the
necessary operations like: storing and retrieving data from EEPROM, operating the meter
using buttons to view energy consumption, calibrating phases and clearing readings; and, it
also drives the display using decoder IC.
Till now we have read about the energy meters and their working principles. For a deeper
understanding of this concept, the following description about the watt hour meter gives
complete circuit details and its connections using a microcontroller.

37