Assignment 1

NAME: Mark Anthony R. Raymundo

DATE: July
08, 2016
PBDIT 4073 (Data Communications & Networking)
SCORE:
_________
Topics
1.0 Data Communication and Networking Concepts
1.1 Definition of data communication, networking
1.2 Benefits of networking
1.3 Types of network configuration
1.4 Types of network
1.5 Elements of networking
1.6 Network topology
2.0 Basic Network Media and Network Devices
2.1 Network interface card
2.2. Wired media
2.3. Wireless media
2.4. Connectivity devices
3.0 Network Protocols and IP Addressing
3.1. TCP/IP
3.2. IP Addressing
4.0 Network Standards
4.1. OSI Reference Model
4.2. IEEE 802.x Standard
Question:
1. What are the benefits of networking? Discuss briefly. What are the
disadvantages of networking? (10pts)
2. Differentiate a peer-to-peer network from a server-based network
according
to size, cost, security, operating
system, and
administration. (10pts)
3. Differentiate a LAN from a WAN. (5pts)
4. Enumerate the elements of networking and their functions. (10pts)
5. Identify, describe and compare the standard network topologies.
(15pts)
6. Describe the role of the network interface card in a network. (5pts)
7. What are the commonly used wired network media? (5 pts)
8. Differentiate hub, switch, repeater, bridge and router. (10pts)
9. What is an IP address? What are the five classes of networks?(10pts)
10.
Describe each of the seven layers of the OSI model. (15pts)
11.
Describe what each of the IEEE 802 standards categories
represents. (15pts)
12.
Describe the layers of the TCP/IP model and identify the protocols
in each layer.(10pts)
Answer:
1. The benefits that humanity has enjoyed since the invention of
networking began are the following:
a. Resource Sharing
Many users (of different computers can access data on a particular
computer easily. A single hardware can also be shared by two or
more computers. Moreover networking makes communication
among networks easier and less expensive than the conventional
system used before its implementation.
b. High Reliability

It is considered an advantage because an enterprise, for example,

can assure that the tools and data each of its arms is looking for
came from one source only.
c. Efficiency
With networking the exchange of communication is no longer a big
deal in any enterprise. The effectiveness of data transfer is very
high to the point that you can realize that distance is no longer a
factor in providing high-speed data collaboration among the sectors
of an industry.
d. Cost-Effectiveness
By networking business computers, you can reduce the amount of
money spent on computer hardware by sharing components and
peripherals. In conjunction with this advantage, your workplace
becomes easily manageable as well for you have to fewer types of
equipment to utilize; and each of them would be utilized to their full
extent.
e. Access to Power Communication Medium
Without the invention of networking, effective sharing of information
would only be a fantasy. Internet and VOIP would not materialize, so
the flow of information everywhere would be as slow as a snail mail.
The disadvantages of networking are the following:
a. Security Difficulties
Security is at risk because there are many other users who have
access to your computer files. There might be illegal activities that
will occur that you need to be aware of, so be careful all the time.
b. Presence of Computer Virus and Other Malwares
These elements can easily be spread because of the ease of access
of many users to a specific file (the one that has virus or malware,
for example).
c. Lack of Independence
Many users always rely on the abilities of their computer than on
their own.
2. Depending on its configuration, a network can be classified as either
Work Group
or Peer-to-Peer (P2P), or Client/Server-Based. A P2P Network, in its
simplest form, is created when two or more hosts are connected and
share resources without going through a separate server computer.
Connections can be done through the use of Universal Serial Bus (for
ad hoc connection) or through the use of copper wiring (for permanent
connection).
On the other hand, a Client/Server-Based network utilizes a server for
providing security and most network functions to the system where it
belongs. It has been considered the standard model for network
serving for more than 10 years now.
Peer-to-Peer Network vs Server-Based Network
Factor
Peer-to-Peer
Server-Based
More than 10 PCs plus
Size
Not more than 10 PCs
specialized server(s)
Cost
Less expensive
Expensive
Security
Operating
System
Administration

Less secured

Very tight security

Desktop

Network Operating System

Decentralized

Centralized

3. Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN) are the two
types of networks that allow interconnectivity between two or more
hosts. As its name implies, LAN is used for smaller, more localized
networkingin school, computer shop, home. WAN, on the opposite
direction, covers large areas such as cities, countries and even the
entire world. With this distinction we can conclude that a LAN is more
secured and faster than WAN, but WAN is more widespread than the
other when it comes to the hosts connectivity radius.
Considering the connection speed, physical connectivity, component,
fault tolerance, data transmission error, set-up and maintenance cost,
bandwidth and congestion, these networks have very noticeable
differences with each other. When it comes to the connection speed,
LAN can achieve a rate of 1,000mbps while its counterpart can reach
150mbps only. Also the data transfer rate LAN is higher than to that of
WAN.
4. The elements of networking are the following:
a. Network Media
It is the actual path over which an electric signal travels as it moves
from one component to another. Examples of it include copper coaxial
cable, copper twisted pair cable, fiber optics cable and radio frequency
wave.
b. Network Interface Card (NIC)
NIC is a circuit board or card installed in a host so that it can be
connected to the server in or with other hosts within the network
through the use of different network media. Its functions are the
following:
Preparing data
Sending and controlling data
Receiving incoming data
c. Network Connectivity Device
It includes NICs, Modems, Hubs, Repeaters, Bridges and Routers.
d. Networking Standards
The primary reason for standards is to ensure that hardware and
software produced by different vendors can work together. Without
networking standards, it would be difficultif not impossibleto
develop networks that easily share information. Standards also
mean that customers are not locked into one vendor. They can buy
hardware and software from any vendor whose equipment meets
the standard. In this way, standards help to promote more
competition and hold down prices.
e. Networking Protocols
They refer to the rules and procedures for communication (TCP/IP,
UDP).
f. Networking Operating System
It is the software that supports a computer's basic functions, such
as scheduling tasks, executing applications, and controlling
peripherals.
5. Topology is defined as the arrangement or physical layout of
computers, cables, and ancillary parts of a network system. The
standard network topologies are as follows:
a. Bus

It is a network type in which every computer and network device is

connected to a single cable. If it has two endpoints, then it is called
Linear Bus Topology.
Features:
It transmits data in one direction only.
Every device is connected to a single network
Advantages:
It is cost effective
Cable requirement is least compared to other network topologies
Useful in small networks
It is easy to understand
Easy to expand two joining networks together
Disadvantage:
When cable fails, the whole network fails as well
If network traffic is heavy or if nodes are too many, the
performance of the network decreases
Cable has a limited length
It is slower than the ring topology
b. Star
In this type of topology, all the computers are connected to a single
hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes
are connected to the central node.
Features:
Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub
Hub acts as a repeater for data flow
Can be used with twisted pair, optical fiber, or coaxial cables
Advantages:
Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic
Hub can be upgraded easily
Easy to troubleshoot
Easy to set-up and modify
The rest of the network can work smoothly even if a node is
malfunctioning
Disadvantage:
Cost of installation is high
Expensive to use
If the hub fails, the peripherals of the network will fail as well
Performance is based on the hub, ie., t depends on its capacity
c. Ring
It is called ring topology because the network forms a ring as each
computer is connected to another computer, with the last one
connected to the first. It means that each device has exactly two
neighboring ones.
Features:
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large
number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data
to the last node in the ring topology with 10 nodes for example,
then the data will have to pass through 9 nodes to reach the 10 th
node. Hence, to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having two connections between each Network
Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data
flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the
second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data
transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till
the destination node.
Advantages:
Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding
more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data
Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages:
Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology
Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity
Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network
d. Mesh
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the
network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-2)/2 physical
channels to link n devices.
The two techniques used in transmitting data over the Mesh
Topology are:
1) Routing- In routing a node uses the shortest medium available to
connect to other networks. It also avoids connection of a node to
broken ones.
2) Flooding- The same data is transmitted to all the network nodes,
so no routing logic is required.
Features:
Nodes are fully connected to each other
Robust
Not flexible
Advantages:
Each connection can carry its own data load
Connection is strong
Fault can be diagnosed easily
Provides security and privacy
Disadvantage:
Installation and configuration is difficult
Cabling cost is the most expensive compared with other network
topologies
Bulk wiring is required
Other types of network topology (Tree and Hybrid) are just
combinations of any of the four I stated above.
6. The role of the network interface card is to act as a translator for data
being sent and received via a network. The computer peripheral
handles changing data back and forth between a format of bytes that
the computer can work with and a format that can be transmitted
along cables.
7. The commonly used network media are the following:
a. Twisted Pair
It is a type of wiring-- can reach up to 100 meters-- in which two
conductors of a single circuit are twisted together for the purpose of
cancelling out any electromagnetic interference.

It can be classified as Shielded or Unshielded twisted pair. Shielded

twisted pair cabling, or STP, has a metallic foil that encases the
twisted wire pairs inside a cable. This protects against
electromagnetic interference and allows for a faster transmission of
data. Unshielded twisted pair comes without any type of shielding at
all but is still very capable of handling imbalances that interfere with
data transmission.
b. Coaxial Cable
It is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair
cabling; and it consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by a
dielectric insulator, then by a metallic shield (foiled and/or braided),
and a plastic jacket on the outermost part. Like a twisted pair cable,
it can give 10-100Mbps connection speed.
Based on the diameter of the cable, it can be classified as Thinnet
cable (0.2 inches) or Thicknet cable (0.4 inches).
c. Fiber Optic Cable
It carries
digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses
of light, thus it has the highest data transmission speed among
other types of cables. Additionally it also gives clean signals
because of the absence of many signal-interrupting factors.
8. Compared with switch, repeater, bridge and router, hub is considered
the simplest device. It has no ability to filter data, so data packets are
sent to all connected devices or computers. In this case the
device has to make decision whether or not to accept the transmitted
data packet. You can realize that this indiscriminating data
transmission causes the entire network to slow down. It also does not
offer a smart way to find out the best path for data packets, which
consequently leads to inefficiencies and wastage. Despite these
comparable disadvantages among other devices, it is still useful for
small networks that do not require very high data transmission rating.
And it is also the cheapest among the five.
A bridge is more complex in construction and functioning than a hub,
though it has a single incoming and outgoing port. It connects two
LANs or two segments of the same LAN that uses the same protocol. It
divides a network into two collision domains, allowing two independent
conversations to occur simultaneously.
When compared to a bridge, a switch has multiple ports. It can perform
error checking before forwarding a datum to its intended destination. It
is also efficient because it transfer data from one host to another
through the use of the network medium directly or shortly connected
them. It means that the traffic is minimal as to compare with the ones I
already discussed. This device is useful in large-scale enterprises.
A repeater is a form of digital amplifier (built into the hubs or switches)
that regenerates weakened signals and passes them to the next
network segment. And lastly a router, unlike a switch, is a device that
can support different WAN technologies. It forwards packets based on
software while a switch forwards them using hardware.
9. An IP (Internet Protocol) address is unique string of numbers separated
by periods that identifies each computer using the IP to communicate
over a network. It is a software address that can be used for finding
hosts on a local network. IP addressing allows a host in one network to
communicate with a host on a different network.
Networks can be categorized as Class A to E.
Clas
Range of the
Number of
Humber of
Subnet Mask

1st Octet

Networks

A
B
C
D
E

1-126
128-191
192-223
224-239
240-254

27-2
214-2
221-2

Hosts per
Network
224-2
255.0.0.0
216-2
255.255.0.0
28-2
255.255.255.0
Multicast Group
Experimental

10.
Operating System Interconnection (OSI) describes how
information makes its way from application programs through a
network medium to another application program in another computer.
The OSI model then consists of the following layers:
a. Application Layer
The application layer serves as the window for users and application
processes to access network services. The application layer makes
the interface between the program that is sending or is receiving
data and the protocol stack. When you download or send e-mails,
your e-mail program contacts this layer. This layer provides network
services to the end-users.
b. Presentation Layer
Presentation layer is also called translation layer. It presents the
data into a uniform format and masks the difference of data format
between two dissimilar systems.
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the
application layer. It can be viewed as the translator for the network.
This layer may translate data from a format used by the application
layer into a common format at the sending station, and then
translate the common format to a format known to the application
layer at the receiving station.
c. Session Layer
The session protocol defines the format of the data sent over the
connections. Session layer establish and manages the session
between the two users at different ends in a network. Session layer
also manages who can transfer the data in a certain amount of time
and for how long. The examples of session layers and the
interactive logins and file transfer sessions. Session layer reconnect
the session if it disconnects. It also reports and logs and upper layer
errors.
d. Transport Layer
Transport layer manages end to end message delivery in a network
and also provides the error checking and hence guarantees that no
duplication or errors are occurring in the data transfers across the
network. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the
successful data transmission and retransmits the data if no error
free data was transferred.
The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free,
in sequence, and with no losses or duplications. It relieves the
higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data
between them and their peers. The size and complexity of a
transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from
the network layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit
capability, a minimal transport layer is required.

e. Network Layer
The network layer determines that how data transmits between the
network devices. It also translates the logical address into the
physical address e.g computer name into MAC address. It is also
responsible for defining the route, managing the network problems
and addressing
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding
which physical path the data should take based on network
conditions, priority of service, and other factors.
f. Data Link Layer
The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from
one node to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it
to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link.
Data Link layer defines the format of data on the network. A
network data frame, packet, includes checksum, source and
destination address, and data. The data link layer handles the
physical and logical connections to the packet's destination, using a
network interface.
This layer gets the data packets send by the network layer and
convert them into frames that will be sent out to the network
media, adding the physical address of the network card of your
computer, the physical address of the network card of the
destination, control data and a checksum data.
g. Physical Layer
The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned
with the transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit
stream over a physical medium. It describes the electrical/optical,
mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and
carries the signals for all of the higher layers. Physical layer defines
and cables, network cards and physical aspects. It also provides the
interface between network and network communication devices.
This layer gets the frames sent by the Data Link layer and converts
them into signals compatible with the transmission media. If a
metallic cable is used, then it will convert data into electrical
signals; if a fiber optical cable is used, then it will convert data into
luminous signals; if a wireless network is used, then it will convert
data into electromagnetic signals; and so on. When receiving data,
this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together and check for its integrity.
11.

The IEEE 802 Standards are the following:

Name
Description
IEEE 802.1
Higher Layer LAN Protocols
IEEE 802.2
LLC
IEEE 802.3
Ethernet
IEEE 802.4
Token bus
IEEE 802.5
Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring
IEEE 802.6
MANs (DQDB)
IEEE 802.7
Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable

IEEE 802.8
IEEE 802.9
IEEE
802.10
IEEE
802.11
IEEE
802.12
IEEE
802.13
IEEE
802.14
IEEE
802.15
IEEE
802.16
IEEE
802.17
IEEE
802.18
IEEE
802.19
IEEE
802.20
IEEE
802.21
IEEE
802.22
IEEE
802.23
IEEE
802.24
IEEE
802.25
12.
Laye
r

Fiber Optic TAG

Integrated Services LAN (ISLAN or
isoEthernet)
Interoperable LAN Security
Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (WiFi certification)
100BaseVG
Unused
Cable modems
Wireless PAN
Broadband Wireless
Access (WiMAX certification)
Resilient packet ring
Radio Regulatory TAG
Coexistence TAG
Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
Media Independent Handoff
Wireless Regional Area Network
Emergency Services Working Group
Smart Grid TAG
Omni-Range Area Network

Name

Description
It corresponds to the Physical and Data-Link Layer
of the OSI Model.

Nework
Interphase Responsible in putting data to the network media
from the sending computer and pulling data from
the network media to the receiving computer.
Internet
It corresponds to the Network Layer of the OSI
Model
Responsible
packets

for

routing

and

delivering

data

It uses the following protocols:

a. Internet Protocol (IP)- performs addressing
and route selection
b. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)- determines

hardware (MAC) address that corresponds to

an IP address
c. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)Used by routers to control the flow/speed of
data.
It corresponds to the Transport Layer of the OSI
Model.
Responsible in establishing and maintaining endto-end communication between two hosts.
3

Transport

Applicatio
n

It uses the following protocols:

a. Transmission Control Protocols (TCP)- for
reliable transmission of data from one node to
another
b. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)- for end-to-end
transmission of data.
It corresponds to the Session, Presentation, and
Application Layers of the OSI Model.
Connects applications to the network then
presents them in a form legible to be read by
humans.
It uses the following protocols:
a. HyperText Transfer Protocol
b. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
c. Simple Network management Protocol
d. File Transfer Protocol