Chapter 4

Thermal Physics

Outline

Distinction between temperature and heat

Thermometers and temperature scale
States of matter
Thermometry, specific heat
Change of phase, latent heat
Heat transfer and thermal conduction

Thermometers
Apparatus used to measure the temperature
of an object or a system
Make measurement of physical properties
that change with temperature
Other physical properties such as:
Volume of a liquid
Length of a solid
Pressure of a gas held at constant volume
Volume of a gas held at constant pressure
Electric resistance of a conductor
Color of a very hot object

Thermometers
Common
thermometers
used
today
include
the
liquid-in-glass type and
the bimetallic strip.

Liquid in Glass Thermometers

Mercury or alcohol
thermometer
The level of the
mercury rises due to
thermal expansion

Temperature Scales
Three different temperature scales
are commonly in use:
Celsius
Kelvin
Fahrenheit

Celsius Scale
Temperature of ice-water mixture is defined
as 0 C
This is the ice point or the freezing point of
water
Temperature of water-steam mixture is
defined as 100 C
This is the steam point or the boiling point
of water
Distance between these points is divided into
100 segments or degrees

Kelvin Scale
When the pressure of a gas goes to zero, its
temperature is 273.15 C or absolute zero

This is the zero point of the Kelvin scale

273.15 C = 0 K

Convertion: TCelcius = TKelvin 273.15

The change of temperature in the Kelvin scale
is the same in a Celsius degree.
TK = TC

Example 1
1. Change the following temperature unit to
either Celsius or Kelvin.
a) 58.0 K
b) 32.5 oC
[Ans: -215.15 oC, 305.65 K]
2. Find the temperature change from 139 oC to
600 K in
a) Celsius
b) Kelvin
[Ans: 188 oC, 461 K]
9

Solution 1

Fahrenheit Scales
Most common temperature scale used
in the US
Temperature of the ice point is 32 F
Temperature of the steam point is 212 F
180 divisions between the points

Converting Among Temperature Scales

Example 2
Among the highest and lowest temperatures
recorded are 136F in the Libyan desert and 129F in Antarctica.
1. What are these temperatures on the Celsius
scale and Kelvin?
[Ans: 57.8oC, -89.4oC]
2. Express difference of these temperatures in
Kelvin scale.
[Ans: 147.2 K]
13

Solution 2
High:

Low:

14

Example 3

Heat
Represent by symbol Q,
is the transfer of energy between a
system and its environment due to
the difference in temperature
between these systems.

16

Units of Heat
Calorie (cal)
An historical unit, before the connection between
thermodynamics and mechanics was recognized.
A calorie is the amount of energy necessary to
raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 C .
Commonly food calorie are in the units of kcal
1 cal = 4.186 J
This is called the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

17

Temperature vs Heat

Example 4
An average active person consumes about 2500
kcal a day.
(a) What is energy consumed in joules and
kWh?
(b) What is average power consumed?

[Answer: (a) 1.05 x 107 J, 2.9 kWh; (b) 121.5 W]

19

Solution

20

State of matter
Solids
Have definite volume
Have definite shape
Molecules are held in specific
locations by electrical forces

Vibrate about equilibrium

positions
Can be modeled as springs
connecting molecules

 External forces can be applied to the solid and

compress the material
In the model, the springs would be compressed
When the force is removed, the solid returns to its
original shape and size
This property is called elasticity

Liquid
Has a definite volume
No definite shape

Exists at a higher temperature than

solids
The molecules wander through
the liquid in a random fashion
The intermolecular forces are not
strong enough to keep the
molecules in a fixed position

Gas
Has no definite volume
Has no definite shape

Molecules are in constant random motion

The molecules exert only weak forces on each
other
Average distance between molecules is large
compared to the size of the molecules

Specific Heat
Every substance requires a unique amount of
energy per unit mass to change the
temperature of that substance by 1 C
The specific heat, c, of a substance is a
measure of this amount

25

Units and Values of Specific Heat

SI unit - J / kg C
Historical unit - cal / g C
See the following table for the specific heats
of various materials
These values are typical
They may vary depending on the temperature and
state of the material

26

Specific heat capacity

28

Heat and Specific Heat

Q = m c T
T is always the final temperature minus the initial
temperature

Q T

When the temperature increases, T and Q are

positive (+Q) and energy flows into the system
When the temperature decreases, T and Q are
negative (-Q) and energy flows out of the system
29

Heat and Specific Heat

Explanation example:
The amount of energy to raise the temperature of an
object from 25 oC to 35 oC is same as it does for the
same object to go from 402 oC to 412 oC.
Conditions:
1. This is only true as long as energy is not lost from
the object.
2. This is only true as long as there is no change in
phases.
30

Example 5
(a)

(b)

Solution

Example 6
In a half-hour, a 65 kg jogger can generate 8.0 x
105 J of heat. This heat is removed from the
body by a variety of means, including the
bodys
own
temperature-regulating
mechanisms. If the heat were not removed,
how much would the body temperature
increase?

chuman body 3500 J kg C

33

Solution

34

Thermal Equilibrium

Calorimeter
One of the technique for determining the
specific heat of a substance
A calorimeter is a vessel that is a good
insulator which allows a thermal equilibrium
to be achieved between substances without
any energy loss to the environment

38

Calorimetry
Analysis performed using a calorimeter
Conservation of energy applies to the
isolated system
The energy that leaves the warmer
substance equals the energy that enters
the water
|Qcold|= |Qhot|
39

Example 7

Example 8
The calorimeter is made of 0.15 kg of aluminium and contains 0.20
kg of water. Initially, the water and cup have the same temperature
of 18.0 oC. A 0.040 kg mass of unknown material is heated to a
temperature of 97.0 oC and then added to the water.
After thermal equilibrium is reached, the
temperature of the water, the cup, and the
material is 22.0 oC. Ignoring the small
amount of heat gained by the thermometer,
find the specific heat capacity of the
unknown material.
-1 K-1
Answer:
1296
J
kg
c Water 4186 J kg C
c Aluminium 9.00 10 2 J kg C
cunknown ?

41

Solution

42

Example 9

Solution

Phase Changes
A phase change occurs when the physical
characteristics of the substance change from one
form to another
Common phases changes are
Solid to liquid melting
Liquid to gas boiling
Phases changes involve a change in the potential
energy, but no change in temperature
45

Phase Changes

46

Latent Heat
The energy Q needed/removed to change phases of a
given pure substance is

Q mL

L is called the latent heat of the substance

Latent means hidden
L depends on the substance and the nature of the phase
change

positive sign
adding energy to the system

negative sign
energy removed from the system

47

Latent Heat, cont.

SI unit of latent heat are J / kg
Latent heat of fusion, Lf,
for melting or freezing

Latent heat of vaporization, Lv,

boiling or condensing

48

Table of Latent Heat

49

Example 10

Example 11

Example 12
How much heat must be added to 0.45
kg of aluminum to change it from a solid
at 130 oC to a liquid at 660 oC (its melting
point)? The latent heat of fusion for
aluminum is 4.0 x 105 J/kg.
(cAl = 9.00 x 102 J kg-1 Co-1)
[Answer: 3.9 x 105 J]
52

Solution

53

Graph of Ice to Steam

At B
Q = miLf

At A
Q = miciT

At C
Q = mwcwT

At D
Q = mwLv

At E
Q = mscsT. 54

Example 13
Ice at 0oC is placed into a Styrofoam cup
containing 0.32 kg of lemonade at 27oC. The
specific heat capacity of lemonade is virtually
the same as that of water. After the ice and
lemonade reach equilibrium temperature, some
ice still remains. Assume that mass of the cup is
so small that it absorbs a negligible amount of
heat. Find the mass of the ice melted.
cWater 4186 J kg C
L f (ice) 3.36 105 J/kg

[Answer: 0.11 kg]

55

Solution 5

56

Methods of Heat Transfer

In heat transfer, we need to know

the rate of energy is transferred

Mechanisms or method responsible for the

transfer

Methods include

Conduction

Convection

Radiation
57

1: Conduction
The transfer can be viewed on an atomic
scale

Exchange of energy between atoms by

collisions or vibrations

Less energetic particles gain energy

during collisions with more energetic
particles

Rate of conduction depends

characteristics of the substance

upon

the

58

In general, metals are good conductors

They contain electrons that are relatively

free to move

They can transport energy from one

region to another

Conduction can occur only if there is a

difference in temperature between two parts
of the conducting medium

59

 The molecules vibrate

about their equilibrium
positions
Particles near the stove
coil vibrate with larger
amplitudes

These
collide
with
adjacent molecules and
transfer some energy
Eventually, the energy
travels entirely through
the pan and its handle
60

61

The slab of material allows energy to transfer

from the region of higher temperature to the
region of lower temperature
62


Thot Tcold
Q
P
kA
t
L
Power, P is in watts when
Energy, Q is in joules and
t is time in seconds
cross-sectional area, A
Through a certain length
of the object, L
Thermal conductivity of
the material, k
63

For conduction and insulation with multiple

materials, each portion will have a specific

thickness and a specific thermal conductivity.

The rate of conduction through each portion is

equal.

64

Example 14:
One end of a 33-cm-long aluminum rod with a

diameter of 2.0 cm is kept at 460C, and the

other is immersed in water at 22C. Calculate

the heat conduction rate along the rod. The

thermal conductivity of the rod is 200 J/(smCo).

[Answer: 83.3 Watt]

65

Solution

66

Example 15

Example 16:

One wall of a house consists of

plywood backed by insulation.
The thermal conductivities of
the insulation and plywood are,
respectively, 0.030 and 0.080
J/(smCo), and the area of the
wall is 35 m2.
Find the amount of heat
conducted through the wall in
one hour.
[Answer: 9.5 105 J]
68

Solution

69

Example 17:

A copper rod 81 cm long is used to poke a

fire. The hot end of the rod is maintained at
105

oC

and the cool end has a constant

temperature

of

21

oC.

What

is

the

temperature of the rod 25 cm from the cool

end?

[Answer: 47 oC]

70

Solution

71

2: Convection
Energy

transferred

by

the

movement

of

substance

When the movement results from differences

in density, it is called natural convection

When the movement is forced by a fan or a

pump, it is called forced convection

72

Air

directly

above

the flame is warmed

and expands.

The density of the air

decreases,

and

it

rises.

The

mass

of

air

warms the hand as it

moves by.
73

Boiling water
Upwelling
Cooling automobile engines
Algal blooms in ponds and lakes
Radiators
The radiator warms the air
in the lower region of the
room
The warm air is less dense,
so it rises to the ceiling
The denser, cooler air sinks
A continuous air current
pattern is set up as shown
74

3: Radiation
Radiation does not require
physical contact

All objects radiate energy

continuously in the form of
electromagnetic waves due to
thermal vibrations of the
molecules

Intensity of radiation, I, is
given by Stefans Law

Q P
4
I
eAT
tA A

75

 The electromagnetic waves carry the energy

from the fire to the hands

No physical contact is necessary

Cannot be accounted for by conduction or
convection
76

P eAT

The power of radiation, P is the rate of

energy transfer, in watts

Stefan-Boltzmann constant, = 5.669 6

10-8 W/m2.K4

the surface area of the object, A

Emissivity, e (varies from 0 to 1)

Temperature, T in kelvins
77

The rate at which the object at temperature T with

surroundings at To radiates is

Pnet = Prad - Pabs = A e (T4 - To4)

When an object is in equilibrium with its

surroundings, it radiates and absorbs at the

same rate (temperature will not change)
78

An Ideal absorber is defined as an object that

absorbs all of the energy incident on it

e=1
This type of object is called a black body
Q in= Q out
An ideal reflector absorbs none of the energy
incident on it
e=0
79

Applications of Radiation

80

 Clothing
Black fabric acts as a good absorber
White fabric is a better reflector
Thermography
The image of the pattern formed by
varying radiation levels is called a
thermogram

Body temperature
Radiation thermometer measures the
intensity of the infrared radiation from the
eardrum
81

Example 18:
The supergiant star Betelgeuse

has a surface temperature of about

2900 K and emits a power of

approximately 4.0 1030 W.

Assuming that Betelgeuse is a
perfect emitter and spherical, find
its radius.
[Answer: 2.8 1011 m]
82

Solution

83

Example 19:
Radiation from the human body
(a)

If total surface area of the human body is

1.20 m2 and the surface temperature is 30
C = 303 K, find the total rate of radiation of
energy from the body. Assume human
bodys emissivity is 1.

(b)

If surroundings are at a temperature of 20

C, what is the net rate of heat loss from
the body by radiation? The emissivity of
the body is very close to unity, irrespective
of skin pigmentation.

[Answer: (a) 574 W; (b) 72 W]

84

Solution

85

Example 20:
Two identical objects are placed in a room at 21
oC.

Object 1 has a temperature of 98 oC, and

object 2 has a temperature of 23 oC. What is the

ratio of net power emitted by object 1 to that
radiated by object 2?
[Answer: 56]

86

Solution

87