66-11972

512.81 sl*6s
Selby
Sets, relations, functions

AT

148 00145 8371

SAMUEL SELBY

Professor of Mathematics and Chairman

of the Department

LEONARD SWEET

The University of Akron

Assistant Professor of Mathematics

The University of Akron

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New

York

Toronto

San Francisco

lone/on

Relations

Sets

1963

Copyright
Reserved.
This
in

Printed

book, or

any

Functions:

form

An

by McGraw-Hill,
in

United

the

parts thereof,
without

may

permission

Introduction

he

States

All

of

Rights

America.

not be reproduced

of

the

publishers.

Card Number 62-18862

Library of Congress Catalog

II

Preface

The advent

of the space age has created national concern for a more

mathematics program in our schools. Several professionally
recognized committees such as the Commission on Mathematics of the
College Entrance Examination Board (C.E.E.B.), the School Mathematics Study Group (S.M.S.G.), the Committee on the Undergraduate
Program (C.U.P.), and many others have become busily engaged in suggesting reforms to the present mathematics curriculum.
A primary aim of the recommendations proposed is to make an integrated course in calculus and analytics a standard beginning course for a
To institute the necessary changes will
college freshman program.
require a rearrangement in the academic experiences of the student and,
in many instances, a retraining of present elementary and secondary
teaching personnel. Concepts and ideas previously reserved for more
advanced courses in mathematics will have to be reshuffled and placed in
effective

courses at lower levels.

The concept of a set becomes important to the elementary teacher if

the principles of arithmetic starting from kindergarten and upward are
The secondary school teacher must
to be taught more effectively.
become familiar with sets as a communication medium for presenting
algebra and geometry in a better fashion. He must be familiar with
absolute value the number system
ideas such as the use of inequalities
viewed as a structure postulational proof the ordered pair and its
implications for explaining more adequately the definition of a function
versus a relation and many other such notions.

The

section titles of the chapters in this book indicate the type of

This text is not an "end-all." The primary objective

material stressed.

of the authors is to present those ideas and symbolisms from set theory
that will aid the reader to develop a keener insight into what has already
been experienced in his mathematical background. The material is

developed so as to provide him with a broader base of understanding in

order to reach higher levels of abstraction. The authors believe that the
utilization of the language and concepts of set theory should not be an
end in itself, but its use as presented in this text should prove fruitful
in terms of understanding, appreciation, and enthusiasm, to
mathematics.

PREFACE

distinctive feature of this text

that after set language

is

medium

this

is

and

set

not abandoned

symbolisms are introduced in Chapter

as a communication means for presenting other mathematical concepts
1

the remaining portion of the book. The

corresponding texts is either that too much

in

usual criticism leveled at other

that the reader

is lost

is

included on set theory so

in its complexities or that, after

an

initial

presenta-

made to actual problem

tion, no further application of set theory is
material in algebra, geometry, and other mathematical experiences of
the reader.

The

text contains approximately 200 worked-out examples

Each new idea

and 150

presented with several

reemphasized before being

is

graphical representations.
illustrations, and if it is a basic concept it is
integrated into a newer idea. As a consequence, the authors

may

be

accused of repetition, but from a pedagogical point of view they stand

ready to accept this criticism. The exercise material involves about 1200

problems for which an answer section to selected problems is included.

Scattered throughout the text are various supplementary exercises
These project exercises were inspired by the
referred to as projects.
authors experiences with groups of elementary and secondary teachers
who were participants of National Science Foundation institute programs held at the University of Akron during the years 1960-1961 and
1961-1962. This type of project problem proved both interesting and
7

challenging.

The expository material as presented may be used either for its own
sake as a text in a senior high school class or as a supplementary reference
book to other current standard high school or first-year college texts in
mathematics.

It

especially serviceable as text material for teachers

is

both the elementary and secondary levels where local school systems
are conducting in-service programs or National Science Foundation
of

institute programs.

The authors wish

Ferrer, St.

to express their sincere appreciation to Sister

Xavier College, Chicago,

Illinois,

to

whom

Mary

they are most

grateful for the reading of the first and second versions of the manuscript
and for the constructive suggestions which were incorporated into the
final

form.

Thanks

are also due to Miss Sally Haake, a

major at the University of Akron,

manuscript and prepared

The authors take

found in

all

who typed and

mathematics

critically

read the

the figures contained therein.

full responsibility for

this material

any shortcomings that may be

they welcome constructive criticisms from its

users.

Samuel Selby
Leonard Sweet

Contents

Preface
List

of Symbols

The Vocabulary and Symbolism of Sets

1.2
1.3

Finite

1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

4
Mapping and one-to-one correspondence

1.10
1.11
1.12

and

infinite sets

Description of sets

Equal

13

Number

of subsets of a set
21
Operations on sets

24
Venn diagrams
The number of elements
Laws of operations
34

2.1

18

in set

30

37

Real Numbers and Conditions

2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13

11

sets

Subset and universe

Projects

1
Introduction
Concept of a set

1.1

JL.

ix

Introduction
Concept of a

41

41

number system

41

42
Natural numbers
44
Integers
Rational numbers
46
47
Real numbers and the coordinate line
of
50
the
real-number
system
Properties
55
Factorization of polynomials
Solution sets
57
61
Concept of order
63
Order properties solution of inequalities
66
Concept of absolute value
Interval notation
69

Ordered

Pairs,

Cartesian Product, and Relations

73

3.1

Introduction

3.2

Ordered pairs

73
vii

73

CONTENTS

viii

Cartesian-product set
79
Relations

74

3.4
3.5

Equivalence relations

82

3.3

3.6

Complementary

relations

3.7

Inverse relations

85

89

Projects

Relations

and

96

Functions

96

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Subsets of

4.3

Inequalities in

4.4

Relations involving compound conditions

117
Relations involving absolute value

4.5
4.6

4.7
4.8

R X R
e

96

two variables

102
108

120
Concept of a function
121
and
language of functions
Phraseology
The operations of union and intersection as applied to
130
tions and functions

4.10

difference, product, and quotient functions

Inverse functions
140

4.11

Composition of functions

4.9

143

145

Mathematical Structures
5.1

Introduction

154

154

5.2

Concept of a mathematical structure

5.3

5.4

The mathematical system called an "algebra

The membership method and Venn diagrams

5.5

Proof of theorems

5.6

Simplifying, factoring,

5.7

The

5.8

5.10

Boolean algebra
169
The binary Boolean algebra of the two elements
The "algebra of circuits"
175

5.11

The "algebra

5.12

Concept
Concept
Concept

5.9

5.13

5.14

Projects

rela-

138

Sum,

Projects

84

168

of propositions"

group

182

193

204
an ordered field

209

Answers

to Selected

Index

227

159

161

of laws and definitions

164
and multiplying polynomials
166

of a field
of

of sets"

by use

duality principle

of a

154

Problems

213

206

and

173

List

E
^z?

JV
-P
.Z"

<7

or

< >

'&

5^

CZ

CZ!

ZD

<
>
<
>
U
>

is
is

of

Symbols

an element of, belongs to

not an element of, does not belong to

set of natural numbers

set of primes
set of integers
set of rational numbers
set of real numbers
set of complex numbers
such, that, for which

equivalent to
equal to
defining condition involving
is not equal to
is included in
is not included in
is a proper subset of
is not a proper subset of
is a superset of
is
is

is less than
is greater than
is less than or equal to
is greater than or equal

to

implies
universe
null set or

number

empty set
of elements in set A.

union
intersection
of set A.

-4'
/\

complement
and

_V

or (inclusive)
or (exclusive)

Tx

a;

LIST

|a|

[a,b]

{x

& Re\
G Re

{x

]a,&]

{#

]a,b[

{x <E

(x^y]

R~~ l

f
/1

f(x)

/
/

absolute value of a

[a,&[

A XB
PW
R
R

x
a;

x
x

<
<
<

b}
6}

b}

<b]

complement of the relation

inverse of the relation R
function
inverse of the function /
value of the function / at x
domain
range

\a

<
<
<
<

relation

R*
g
9
fg

a
a
a

ordered pair <-> coordinates of a point in the plane

cartesian product of set A with set B
defining condition involving x and y

D*

sum

function

difference function

product function

quotient function

composite function
operation
is congruent modulo
is congruent to

* in a * b
===

OF SYMBOLS

1
The Vocabulary and Symbolism of Sets

1.1

INTRODUCTION

Certain ideas in mathematics, because of their scope and simplicity,

The theory of sets, which is one
such idea, was developed by Georg Cantor (1845-1918). Few concepts
in the past hundred years have had as great an impact on mathematics
constitute reservoirs of untold richness.

as has the notion of a set.

which

clarifies

and

Set theory has contributed a foundation

mathematics already developed. It

the

unifies

provides a language and a symbolism which make it possible to synand the new, to examine familiar concepts, and to view new
and exciting milestones along the mathematical highway. To reach the
first milestone on the highway, a familiarity must be established with the
thesize the old

vocabulary and symbolism of set theory

1.2

CONCEPT OF A

the objective of Chapter

1.

SET

any well-defined collection of objects. Other words, such as

and aggregate, are used synonymously with the term set.
Well-defined" means that it is possible to determine readily whether an
For example, the set of the five
object is a member of a set or not.
set

is

collection, class,
"

This is so because the

greatest living statesmen is not a well-defined set.
criteria or standards as to what determines a great living statesman are
not commonly agreed upon by everyone. Given the name of a particular
statesman, we should have difficulty in determining definitely whether
this individual is a member of or is not a member of the set.
However,
with the set of 50 states of the United States no difficulty would be
experienced in determining definitely whether any given object is or is
not contained in this set.
If
The individual objects that belong to a set are called its elements
.

denote sets and small letters a, b, c,

A, B, C,
u
then
notation
"a G A" is read a belongs io
the
represent elements,
capital letters

A"

or

(t

is

an element

The symbol

of

A."

read "b does not belong to #."

not
(does
belong to) is referred to as the
A means
notation .TL, x 2) x*, ...,
is

The

relation."

& B"

"b

(belongs to) or

"membership

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

G A.
be collections of sets. For example, the set of baseball
also
Sets may
in
the
National
teams
League is a set of teams where each team is an
each
element.
player is an element of the set constituting the
Further,
team on which he plays.

that each x

The

following examples illustrate the

"

concept of set" and the

"mem-

bership relation."

Example
e

G, but r

Example

&
G

3.

excluding zero).

G =

the set of vowels in the English alphabet, then

B =

the set of

G.
If

2.

then January

Example

If

1.

B, but

Let

May

Hence

months beginning with the

letter

,7,

B.

the set of natural numbers (counting integers,

N and

11

G AT,

but f

$?

and

(=

the set of primes (a natural number is a prime

Example 4. Let P
has two distinct divisors, itself and 1). Hence 2 G P and
E P,
but 1 $ P and 8
P.

if it

f>

Example 5. Let / = the

and zero). Then 6 /, 3

set of integers (positive

/,

and

-5

7;

and negative integers

7.
^ / and

but |

6.
Let F = the set of rational numbers (a number is rational
can be expressed as the quotient p/q, of two integers p and q where

Example
if it

fE^,

F, and log 17

F.

Then
sin 12

and

Table

-5

or

F;

but

&

THE

VOCABULARY AND SYMBOLISM OF SETS

N=

the set of primes,

the set of natural numbers, P
and F = the set of rational numbers, then the
membership relation (E or g) for each of the numbers 0, 1,
2, f,
f,
8, TT, 3-|, 5, sin 30, and cos Or/10) is indicated in Table 1.

Example

If

7.

the set of integers,

Example
2x

T =

Let

8.

Hence 6

5.

the set of integers satisfying the equation

(note that 6 is the only element of T).

ET

Exercise

1. A set must be a well-defined collection of objects.

objects form sets according to this definition?
a. The set of the three greatest musical compositions

e.

The set of all months of the year beginning with the

The set of the 10 greatest living Americans
The set of words appearing in this book
The set of the five most talented actors

2.

Let

6.
c.

d.

Q denote
"

connectives

Which

letter

of the following

the set of all the quadrilaterals of plane geometry. Using the

relation for each of the following

and g," indicate the membership

figures.

Example.
a.
d.
g.

3.

a.
6.
c.

d.
e.

triangle

Answer:

A rhombus
A hexagon h
A trapezoid z
r

6.

A square D

e.

A.

rectangle

c. A
/.A

&Q

parallelogram p

pentagon

h. A. circle c

Which of the following sets have elements that are also sets?
The set of football teams in the National Football League
The Cleveland Symphony Orchestra
The American Federation of Labor
The United Nations
The set of all counties in the United States

4. Give two examples of sets that are well-defined; two examples of sets that are
not well-defined.

FINITE

1.3

The

AND

INFINITE SETS

numbers 1, 2, 3,
represent an infinite set of
n,
a
Given
natural number, then by adding 1 another natural
formed. Consequently, this infinite set has no last element.

natural

elements.

number

is

b.
c.

d.
e.

If

The
The
The
The
The

This property characterizes

a.

infinite sets.

Examples

of infinite sets are:

set of all circles in a plane

set of

odd primes

by 3
numbers greater than zero
set of points on a line
set
As a consequence,
is finite, then it has a last element.
&
set of integers divisible
set of rational

it is

SETS

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

always possible to determine the number of elements that belong to the

set.
a.
b.
c.

of finite sets are

Examples

The
The
The

months

set of

of the

year (12 elements)

set of letters in the English alphabet (26 elements)

set of all books in the Library of Congress (nearly 12 million

elements)
d.

The

set of all the grains of

(though this set

e.

The

set of

of generalization,

defined as a finite set.

set

and

number

very large
even primes (one element)

For the purpose

empty

sand on the beach at Atlantic City

contains a finite

it

is

a set containing no elements is

no elements is called the null or

set containing

symbolized by the notation

is

of elements)

or

Examples

}.

of

null sets are:

a.

The

between
6.

set of

positive

integers

and 4

The

set of students in

your

classroom whose birthplace was the

planet Jupiter
c.

The

set of integers satisfying

the equation 9# 2
FIG -

d.

The

==

set of all points that

both squares shown in Fig.

Exercise 2
1.

Give two examples

of finite sets;

2.

Give two examples

of

empty

two examples of

infinite sets.

sets.

State whether each of the following sets is finite or infinite.

finite, indicate the number of elements it possesses.
3.

a.
6.
c.

d.
e.

/.

g.

h.
i.

j.

1.4

The set
The set
The set
The set
The set
The set
The set
The set
The set
The set

of letters in the
of

odd

When

the set

is

word Massachusetts

positive integers

of all positive two-digit integers

of integers satisfying the equation
of rational

xz

5x

numbers satisfying the equation x z

of quadrilaterals
of primes greater

than 2 and

less

*
5

than 75

of students in your school who have two heads

of all lines passing through a fixed point in a plane
of intersection points of

two

circles in

a plane

DESCRIPTION OF SETS

Two methods used frequently to describe sets are the "tabulation

method" and the "defining-property method/' The first, the "tabulation method/' enumerates or lists the individual
elements, separates
them by commas, and encloses them in braces.

THE VOCABULARY

AND SYMBOLISM OF

SETS

Example 1. {3,2,5} is the set whose elements are the numbers 3, 2,

5.
The order of listing is unimportant; the set {3,2,5} is identical

and

with the set {5,3,2}.

{3,2,5},

{3,5,2},
it

important,

In

{5,3,2},

must be

there are six

fact,

{5,2,3},

{2,5,3},

ways

and

of listing this set:

{2,3,5}.

If

the order

a set contains only one element, it is called a unit set.

an example of a unit set whose only member is x. Note that
If

not the same as

Enumeration
by three dots.

A =
of

A =
A =

{x} is

{x\ is

x.

an infinite

is

so specified.

set consists in listing a

{1,2,3,4,

few elements followed

the notation for the infinite set

is

.}

numbers. The same notation is used for a finite set, but the
element is always included. The set of natural numbers less than
= {1,2,3,
1000 can be written as
,998,999}.
Some sets cannot be described by an enumeration. A second method,
which defines a property, is often more compact and convenient. For
example, the set of rational numbers between 5 and 6 and the set of even
integers between 1 and 25 are described by
of natural

last

F =

{all

{all

numbers between 5 and 6}

even integers between 1 and 25}
rational

This defining condition may take different forms. It may consist of

descriptive words, symbols from mathematics, or a combination of both.
The defining condition spells out specifically the requirements that an
The defining-property
object must satisfy in order to belong to the set.
method provides, in a precise form, a test for membership of all the
elements belonging to the set, which the tabulation method lacks.
This is especially true with regard to those elements absent from a listing
of the set.

The set of one-digit primes could be represented by

according to the tabulation method. By the definingproperty method we have A = {x x is a one-digit prime} or
Example

A =

2.

{2,3,5,7}

A =

{x

is

a one-digit prime}

is a one-digit prime."
elements x such that
":" is read "such that" or "for which." The
notation then takes the general form {x some defining condition about x}
or {x C x \, where C x represents the defining condition involving x.

This

is

The

vertical bar "|" or

read "the set of

all

Frequently, the notation

A =
Here

is

the set of

elements x of

{x
all

is

modified and written

GP

#
|

is

a one-digit number}

primes and

such that

re

is

is

now

read "the set of

a one-digit number."

all

those

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

The letter x is called a variable or placeholder. It should be noted

that any other desired symbol such as ?/, z, a\, a 2? *, A, D? r a could be
used to represent the variable. This symbol holds the place for any
element of the set that is being defined. The elements of the defined
When a defined set
set are referred to as the values of the variable.
consists of just a single value, for example, TT, we call the variable a conThus a variable may hold the place for either a finite number of

stant.

values or an infinite

number

depending upon the defined set.

placed on the
"defining conditions'

of values,

The

following sentences are

elements:

is

is

an even integer.
an integer such that ;r + 7 = 8.
a natural number such that # 2
an integer greater than 5.

is

a natural

is

is

number

divisible

by

3x

0.

3.

The following examples illustrate the use of defining conditions in

describing sets.
Example

Let

3.

and

denote the set of real numbers,

i.e.,

the collection

numbers. Irrational numbers are numbers

such as \/2> V^7 an d ^ which are not replaceable by quotients of two
Thus {x
R e (x
integers.
S)(x + 5) =0} Js another way of
the
set
while
describing
\/3 ~ 0} is another way
5,5},
[x G R e x
of all rational

irrational

of describing the set

Example
tion set

G =

{x

v/3

a;

= -4 and

The

Re-

solu-

be described as

G Re and x

x
|

Given: the condition

4.

G may

= -4}

G =

or

{x

x*

e
\

+4

0}

This leads to what is called the empty set, since the square of every real
is a nonnegative (zero or
The empty
positive) real number.

.number

set is written
in
of

or

Thus G =

}.

or

}.

It is

important to keep

mind that and do not have the same meaning from the standpoint
sets.
Thus
is not equal to
or {0}, since {0} is a set with one

element "0" while

or
is the set that contains no elements.
Then
"0" would not be an element in the empty set but could be used to
indicate the number of elements possessed by this set.
{

Example

{x

set of

5.

If

x
|

G =

Re
then

\x <E

= -4},

x2

-4}, then G - 0. However, if

Here C represents the
{2i,-2i}.

complex numbers.

Example
{x

6.

xi or

x* or

qr

rp

xn

= {xi^Xz,

,x n

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY

SETS

Exercise 3
1.

Describe the following sets in mathematical notation. Indicate whether the set
If the set is finite, indicate the number of elements that belong

finite or infinite.

is

to

the set
.

b.
c.

d.
e.

/.
g.

h.
1.

The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The

and enumerate where possible.

word Mississippi

set of letters in the

set of even positive integers

set of real numbers satisfying x 2
set of real numbers satisfying x 2

5x + 4 =
x + 1 ~

set of two-digit negative integers

set of primes greater than 6 and less
set of positive integers divisible by 5

than 40

set of consonants in the English alphabet

set of all equilateral triangles

x is a prime less than 15}. The sentence "x is less

2. Consider the set G = {x
than 15" can be considered a "set selector," since it selects from the set of primes
If the elements of G are enumerthose elements that satisfy the given requirement.
= {2,3,5,7,11,13}. Indicate the set selector for each of the following
ated, then G
\

and describe the

a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

H
T
F

{z

E =

g.

h.

{x

L =

i.

j,

less

=s

is

a positive even integer less than 10}

is

is

a positive

x
|

x
z

is

a rational

is

less

having

:c

{x

by

13}

than 30 days

integer)

1000}

x}

number and x

2x

-f-

and 2x

a positive integer

=32-1-5}

5}

a proper fraction having one-digit numerators

reduced to lowest terms}

is

and denominators

5; all fractions

Q = {x x
S = {x\x
m. T = {x x
|

3.

odd

an integer and x

is

1.

of the year

k.

n.

month

than 8}

less

a negative integer greater than

is

{a

than

x
|

{x

a positive three-digit integer divisible

{x

/.

is

{x

by enumerating the elements.

2 but
an integer greater than

set

{x

is

{x

{x

x
|

E N and 2x - 5 is less than 6}

N and x is less than 17}
E / and x is less than 17}
G N and 8x is greater than x
2

Use the defming-property method

Example.

B =

{2,4,6,8}

c.

D =

4.

Given: TV
/

or

D =

=
=

{natural
{all

b.

C =

{2}

d.

E =

{200,201,

numbers)

integers)

= - where

(all real

p,q

E / and

\
J

numbers}

Answer: {x

{1,2,3,4,5}

a.

to describe each of the following sets.

is

less

,299}

than 6}

Select

from the indicated

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

set those elements,

any, which satisfy the given require-

if

ment.

5.

Indicate the weakness of using the tabulation method for describing a set
by a defining property. Discuss this with respect to the set A described in

specified

the following two ways:

A =
where I +

[p

is

G /+

7+

and p

n2

-f

3(n

l)(n

{1,4,9,

l)(n

3)1

.)

(Hint- The second form could suggest the elements 16, 25,
the listing 1, 4, 9,
.)
.

If

the set of positive integers, or

A =

6.

2)(2n

...

as those following

the following refer to figures in plane geometry, determine the truth or falsity

of each statement.
a.

If

b.

If

c.

If

d.

If

x
#
x
x

e.

If

/.

If

g.

If

h.

If

x
2
z

i.

If

re

1.5

squares), then x
{rectangles}.
{quadrilaterals}, then x
{polygons}.

G
G
G
G
G

G
G

{equilateral triangles), then x

{equiangular triangles).

then x G (equilateral triangles}.

(equilateral triangles}, then x G {isosceles triangles}.
free tangles }, then x G {parallelograms}.
{parallelograms}, then x G {rectangles}.
{rhombuses}, then x G {parallelograms}.
{rectangles}, then x G (squares).
{isosceles triangles),

MAPPING AND ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE

of a set

"into" a set

is a matching procedure that

a unique element a' E B. This mapping
may be represented by the notation " a -> a'," (read, a "maps into" a')
where a' is called the image of a under the designated
mapping. If in this
matching procedure every element of B is used as an image, then the
mapping is said to be "A onto B" as well as "A into B."

mapping

assigns to each element a

THE VOCABULARY

AND SYMBOLISM OF

Example 1. If A = {1,2,3} and B = {b,c}, then

mapping of set A "onto" set J5. However,
defines a mapping of A "into" B since the element c
of any of the elements of A.
defines a

SETS

->

>

c,

&,

c,

3 -> 6

>&, 3

&

B is not an image

Example 2. Let C = (all the names in a given telephone directory}

and D = {all the numbers of the pages of the directory}. If each name
is associated with the corresponding page number on which the name is
printed, then a

Example
4, 5

Here each

>

mapping

6,

a'

A =

If

3.

>

8, 9

of

onto

B =

and

{1,3,5,7,9}
>

has been defined.

G Z? is the image of at most one a

be reversed; that

is,

defines a one-to-one

1,

mapping

>

of

3,

>

5,

onto A.

then

{2,4,6,8,10},

10 defines a one-to-one

>

2,

of ^1 onto #.

mapping
A. The mapping may
7,

10

>

9,

which then

Thus each odd number

in

can be said to have a distinct even number in B as its image, while in

the reverse mapping each even number of B has a distinct odd number
in A as its image.
In this case the two sets A and B are said to be in

one-to-one correspondence.
are said to be in 1-1 correspondence when there
sets A and
a 1-1 mapping of A onto B. It is important to note that a 1-1
mapping of A onto B always ensures a 1-1 mapping of B onto A. If
two sets A and B can be placed in 1-1 correspondence, they are said to be
The equivalence of A and B is symbolized A -> B.
equivalent.

Two

exists

Example

may

The

4.

sets {b,c}

and {ej\ are equivalent.

be

<-> e

\/

or

Example

The

5.

but no element

Example
bers {1,2,3,

{Tom, Dick, Harry} and {Mary, Jean} are not

be matched with Mary, and Dick with Jean,
the second set remains to be paired with Harry.
sets

Tom may

equivalent.

We

The mappings

be performed in the following manner:

of

6.
.

Establish a 1-1 correspondence between the set of

,26} and the set of letters of the alphabet {a,6,c,
.

have
1

25

26

num.

,z}.

It should be observed that there are

a
7.

When

many other possible ways

to establish

For example,

this 1-1 correspondence.

Example

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

10

26

Xp

\p

\p

the students in a classroom are seated one to a

all

chair, a 1-1 correspondence

It is being
set of students.

set up between the set of chairs and the

assumed that there are just as many chairs

is

as students.

Example

8.

The

points on the coordinate line are in 1-1 correspond-

ence with the set of real numbers (see Section

Example
with the

9.

The

set of points in

set of ordered pairs of real

All the sets in

Examples 8 and

a plane are in 1-1 correspondence

numbers

(see Section 3.3).

through 7 are

Examples

2.6).

while those of

finite sets,

9 are infinite sets.

The primary purpose

correspondence is to determine the equivacan be shown to be equivalent if

they both contain the same number of elements, but the establishment
of 1-1

Two

lence of infinite sets.

finite sets

two infinite sets by counting would lead to failure

because of the unlimited number of elements contained by these sets.
However, if two infinite sets can be placed in 1-1 correspondence, then
of the equivalence of

these sets are equivalent.

N
set

{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,
of even natural
.

From

,n,

For example, the set of natural numbers

.} can be shown to be equivalent to the
.

E=

numbers

{2,4,6,8,10,12,

up a one-to-one correspondence according

setting

scheme

this

12345
*

arrangement

10

it is

to

,2n,

.}

by

the following

n
$

2n

evident that each natural

number may be

matched with an even natural number. In this case, there are just as
many even natural numbers as there are natural numbers, and N <- E.
Exercise 4
1.

Show

2.

Give an example of two

that the set (1,2,3} is equivalent to the set {a,b,c}.

are there of matching the elements of these two sets?
sets that are equivalent

How many ways

but do not contain the same

elements.
3.

Show that the

numbers.

set of natural

numbers

is

equivalent to the set of odd natural

THE VOCABULARY
4.

Show

AND SYMBOLISM OF

SETS

11

that the set of points on the line segment AB can ho placed in 1-1 correset of points in the base EF of the triangle EFG (Fig. 2).
Show

spondence with the

that the set of points on

EF

is

equivalent to the set of points on GF.

FIG. 2

5. Consider the sets

{a,b,c},
{Tom, Dick, Harry), {-f-, ,-*-}, (apple, orange,
banana), and {flute, trumpet, violin). These sets are all equivalent to each other,
since they each have the same number of elements and can be placed in 1-1 correspondence with each other. All five sets share a common property in that the number "3" may be used to designate the number of elements in each set. Such a number
is referred to as a "cardinal number" and is associated with the collection of sets,
all of which are equivalent to each other.
This collection of sets is called an "equivalence class of sets," and the cardinal numbers are associated with equivalence classes.
The cardinal number associated with the equivalence class of sets containing the set
)

and

all

other sets equivalent to {a,6,c,d}

is 4.

Example:

Sample element of equivalence

class

Cardinal number of the class

{1,2}

(3,4,5)

16,7,8,9)

'

=0

a. What is the cardinal number of the equivalence class of sets having the sample
element {a}; the sample element IDjA, Ol; the sample element (1,2,3,4,5,6,7).
b. List two other sets that belong to the same equivalence class as {a,j8,7j; as

1.6

EQUAL SETS

When two

are equal, A = B, then this implies that each

an element of B and that each element of B is an element

sets

and

element of A is
of A.
If either of the two sets contains a distinct element not contained
Note that if two
in the other, then A ^ B (set A does not equal set B).
sets A and B are equal, then it follows that they are equivalent, but the
converse does not hold.

Example

A =

then

The

B.

since 1

2)(x

3)

0}

order in which the elements of a set are listed has no

>

but

It should be

r.

Example

Example

(x

e
|

l)(z

2)(x

3)

0}

a prime less than 7} and

is

set

may be

since

by

described through the use of different defin-

For example,

E=
is

E=

or

be equal and yet outwardly

not considered a prime.

3.

{x

noted

and

{2,4}, then
that sets specified

e A (s - 1)U - 2)(s - 3)(s - 5) = 0}

= {1,2,3,5}. 1 g K,
Here X = {2,3,5} and

ing properties.

E=

[x\ x

{z

(?.

definition, 1 is

[x

K=

If

2.

K^

may

{1,2,4}

Hence

{1,2,3}

then

l)(x

defining property or a tabulation

look different.

or

(x-

Re

{a:

set

A = B or A ^ B. Thus if C =
=
D. But if D = {1,2,4} and T =
C

then

{2,1,4},

by a

and the

{1,2,3}

on whether

bearing

D =

A
B =
If

1.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

{x

if

E =

/ and x

is

then

between

and 4}

when any natural number is divided by 4

the remainder

I and z(z

{x\x

{0,1,2,3},

l)(x

2) (a?

3)

0}

Exercise 5
1.

Determine whether the relation

A = B or A ^ B

holds for each of the following

pairs of sets:
a.

b.

A =
B -

{x

{x

x
a?

N and x is less than 5}

E N and + I) is less than
(E

2
28
(a;
Answer: A = 5, since J.
and 2 is less than 6}

=
{1,2,3,4} and B
A = {x\ x E. N
B - {x x E JV and (x + I) is less than 40}
A = {x x G -AT and x is odd)
= {x
G N and z is odd}
A = {x x E A and x is less than 20 and greater than 8}
B - {a
G N and z - 7s + 12 = 0}
=
A
is a square with an area greater than nine
{x
square units}
B s* {x x is a square with a perimeter greater than 12 linear units
A = {x
G N and x is an even prime number
B - {x\x E/andz 2 - 2z *= 0}
A = x x is a positive even integer divisible by 5}
B = {$ x is an even prime number greater than 3}
A = {$ x is a quadrilateral}

{1,2,3,4}.

c.

"

d.

a?

a;

/.

g.

re

h.

{$

x
|

is

a polygon

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY

1.7

SETS

13

AND UNIVERSE

SUBSET

A set B is said to be a subset of a set A

if and only if each element of B is

For example, the set of vowels is a subset of the set of
in the alphabet, since each vowel is a letter in the alphabet.

an element
all letters

of

A.

Further, the set

B =

{1,2,3,4} is a subset of the set

since every element of

also

is

an element

of

A =

{1,2,3,4,5,6},

is a subset of A, then B is included in A.

Every element of B is
an element of A. The notation "C 77 means inclusion. Symboliu ^>"
means "implies," then B C A - if a G B, then a
A.
cally, if
=
If B is not a subset of A, we write B
A. For example, if B
{2,3}
and A = {2,3,4}, then B C A or {2,3} C {2,3,4}. Further, {2,3} C P
where P is the set of primes, but A
P since 4 P. From our defini-

If

also

tion of set inclusion,

set

it

follows that {2,3}

{2,3} or

B C

In general,

B.

a subset of

itself.
every
In addition, the agreement is made that the null set
is a subset of
must be an element
every set; that is, for any set A, each member of
Since
of A.
contains no elements, the requirement for inclusion is not
contradicted and we may write
A
is

The

equality of sets may be interpreted in terms of set inclusion.

B and B
A.
Thus, if A and B are sets, then A = B if and only if A
A set B is a "proper subset 77 of a set A if and only if B is a subset of

and

at least one element of

is

not an element of B]

B CA

i.e.,

and
A."

5 ^ A. To indicate that is a proper subset of A we write "B C

When B is not a proper subset of A, we write "B (T A.
Further, by
77

convention the entire set

(in the discussion)

and the

null set will be

77

referred to as "improper subsets.

For example, {a,6(
{a,b} is a proper subset of {a,6,c,rf}, but {a,6} (t {a,b\.

{a,6,c,d}, or

The

set of

even

a proper subset of the set of integers, and the set of primes is a

proper subset of the set of natural numbers. If B is a proper subset of
B. Thus if
A, then A is called a superset of B and written A
integers

is

A =

and

B =

then {3,4,5}
important ideas with the following examples.
{3,4,5}

{3,4},

We

{3,4}.

illustrate these

1.
Consider the following situation. You are requested to
In examining your wallet you
a contribution to the United Fund.

Example

make

discover that you have a $1

bill,

a $5

bill,

and a $10

bill.

Using only

these three elements and representing the possible contributions that you
can make in terms of a tabulation method, we have {!}, {5}, {10},
The set {1,5} indicates a
}.
{1,5}, {1,10}, {5,10}, {1,5,10}, and {

contribution of $6, or $1

contribution

U=

is

{1,5,10}.

made.

Each

$5, while the set

indicates that

no

of these sets is a subset of the entire set

Since {1,5,10}

is

one of the possible contributions,

we

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

14

or
Similarly we agree that
agree that {1,5,10} is also a subset of U.
formed
We
have
new
of
sets
from
or
[7.
a
subset
U
a
is
also
{

complete set U, each new set containing elements that are drawn from
The sets {!}, {5}, {10}, {1,5}, {5,10}, and {1,10} are proper subsets
U.
are improper subsets.
of {1,5,10}, while the subsets {1,5,10} and

Example

Given: the following sets of plane figures:

2.

A =
B

{triangles}

C =
D =
E=
G=

{equiangular triangles}

H=
K=

{isosceles triangles}

{equilateral triangles}

{scalene triangles}
{right triangles}

{equilateral right triangles}

{isosceles right triangles}

Using the symbols C, =, D, and <, indicate the relation between each
of the following pairs of sets.

Pair

Relation

A,B
B,C
C,D
A,E
B,G

A D B or B C A
C C B or B D C
C = D
E C A. or A D E
B <t G or G <t B

a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

/TjlHjG
g.

/"Y

TTT

/-/

/> _._

JC/jVjr

J2j

(J_

(jr

Vn

xv.,

3.

Cr

T7I

*\

Cr

D Or
^ D
JLJ

jt>

s~p

ir
zl
IT*

_J

JL\.

Given: the following sets of numbers:

=
=
I
P=
F=
R =

Using the symbol

sets in pairs

/~Y

Or (/_ Ju

G, since
n Or
^* n

r~

XV

jDj/V.

Example

PIT

fl

Z.

<

TT r~

xv

(JT

Or

or

{re

{x

{#

{#

{#

a:

is

a natural number}

is

an integer}

is

a prime}
a rational number}
a real number}

is

is

<, determine

all

the relations connecting these

NCI

NCF

N CRe

ICF
1C Re
I(tP

PCN

PCI
P CF

FCRe

F(N
F(tl

R.<LN
R (tl
R (tP
e
e

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY

When

a decision

made

is

from which the elements

to

SETS

15

form subsets, there must be some source

of these subsets are to

be chosen; that

is,

any

particular discussion of sets must be limited to some fixed set called a

universal set or universe.
The universe (designated as U) represents

the complete set or largest set for the particular discussion, and all other
It should be noted that
sets in that same discussion will be subsets of U.
the universal set

not the same for

is

choice of a universe

is

For example, in one case

it

be the set of

may

all

dependent upon
it may be the set

The
discussions or problems.
considered.
the problem being
of rational

numbers; in another

all persons in Ohio, or the set of all triangles, or the

set of all points in a plane, etc.

In mathematics the defining conditions used to describe sets usually

2 = 6 or x > 5, together
consist of an equation or inequality, such as x
with a universe that represents the set of possible replacements for the

The universe is frequently a set of numbers such as the set of

x.
natural numbers, the set of integers, the set of rational numbers, or the
It is very important to specify the universe of the
set of real numbers.

variable

variable or, in other words, "the set of possible replacements for the
variable."
Once the universe is designated, any condition in the form of

an equation or inequality separates

this universe into

two subsets: the

and the set of

set of replacements for x that satisfy the given condition

replacements that do not satisfy this condition. For example, if U is

2 =
4 is the only integer that
the set of integers and 3x
14, then
2 =
14.
All other replacements
4)
yields the true statement 3(

from the

set of integers result in false statements.

According to the

2 =
14}.
defining-property method, this set is written {re (E I 3x
=
2
14 is called the "set selector/' since it
The equation 3x

from the universe a

selects

This set of elements

solution set of 3x

empty
tion.

is
==

set of elements that will satisfy the equation.

called the "solution set" of the equation.

14

is

4}

Sometimes the solution

The

set is the

set; that is, no elements from the universe satisfy the stated condiSometimes the solution set is identical with the universe; that is,

elements of the universe satisfy the stated condition. Thus, a solution

number (zero or some natural number) of elements

all

set can contain a finite

The solution set may

at other times, an infinite number of elements.
be specified by either the defining-property method or the tabulation
or,

U =

and
2x
3 =
are given the condition # 2
the set of integers, we may describe the solution set as either

{x

method.

z2

Example

4.

2x

we

if

Hence,

The

0} or {3,-!}.

solution set of a particular condition is a subset of

If the defining condition is x < 5 and the

the universe of the variable.

universe

U=

{x

x
\

N), then the solution

set

A "may

be written

RELATIONS

SETS

16

A =
A C

{x
[7.

GN
In

<

fact,

A =

5} or

FUNCTIONS

Thus

{1,2,3,4}.

U~

a proper subset of

is

a subset of

is

or

N.

Example 5. For each of the following sets the universe of the variable,
the set selector, and the solution set are:
a.

{x

GN

is

an even number}

Universe:

Set of natural

Set selector:

Solution set:
6.

C.

z2

{xGI\

(2,4,6,8,

= x(x-

numbers

Set of integers or {x

x2

Solution set:

{.

Re

Solution set:

x (x

x
\

G 1}

1)

,-4,-3,-2,- 1,0,1,2,3,

.}

or {x

x
\

/},

since every integer will satisfy the equation

X}

numbers} or {#

{real

Set selector

Universe:

G N}

.}

Set selector:

x
\

1)}

Universe:

\X

or {x

an even number

is

or

x
|

J?

x
0,

since

no elements

of the universe satisfy

the equation
d.

{xN\x*-

3x

Universe:

0}
{natural numbers} or {x

Set selector:

x2

Solution set:

{3}, since 3 is the

3x

G N}

only natural number that will

satisfies the equa-

satisfy the equation; though

$N

tion,
e.

{*

alphabet
Universe:
Set selector:
Solution set:
/.

{x

GN

x
|

Universe

g.

<

{a,e,i,o,w}

7}
{

natural numbers }

<

Solution set:

{1,2,3,4,5,6}

{x

x*

Solution set:
{x

x*
|

<

integers }

x2

{0}

0}

Universe:

{#

Set selector:

z2

Solution set:

0}
{

Set selector:

8 =

set

of letters

Set of letters of the English alphabet

* is a vowel

Set selector:

Universe

h.

where

*is a vowel}

x
|

E /}

<
or

of the

English

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY

SETS

17

Exercise 6
1. Describe each of the following sets by the tabulation method or the definingproperty method. Suggest another set that contains the given set as a subset.
a. The days of the week beginning with the letter T
b.
c.

d.
e.

The capitals of all the states east of the Mississippi River

The natural numbers between 4 and 7
The rational numbers between 1 and 4
The replacements for x from the set of integers that make the sentence
x

all

the relations connecting the following sets in

<

__2

true
2.

C or

Using the symbol

<2,

write

pairs:

A
B =
C =
E=
F

Given the following

sets,

R =
N=
e

F
e

in Section 1.7.)

Which

set of natural

set of

Rf
I

SB

set of irrational

=
=

set of integers

set of positive integers

numbers

set of squares of negative integers

of the following statements are true?

a.

{dogs}

c.

{people}

e.

(teachers)

g.

{animals}

{men}

numbers
numbers
rational numbers
negative real numbers

set of real

I+

i.

Example 2

determine which are proper subsets of each other; see

set of

R" =

k.

{parallelograms}

in Section 1.7.

Example 3

4.

{rectangles}

{squares}
{trapezoids}

(Hint: There are 20 such cases; see

3.

{quadrilaterals}

{robins}

d.

{hexagons}

{men}

/.

{tea drinkers)

(dogs)

h.

{women}

{teachers}

{tigers} (

6.

{women}

{animals}

;.

{cats}

(girls)

{women}

{birds}

{polygons}

{people}

{people}

(females)

{teachers}

The universe of the variable x in each of the following conditions

Which values from this universe satisfy the given condition?
integers.
6. fz + 5 = -1
a. 2x - 7 = 3x - 17
5.

g.

2x = -3
2s - 1 - 2s + 1
2x z - 5x - 3 =

i.

(3x

c.
.

6.

of

Re
a.

If

l)(z

2)(x

/.

\/3)

h.

is

- 1) = 62
3(2z
x z - 7x - 8 =
2 x =
3cc

is

the set of real numbers, describe the subset

the solution set of the given defining condition.

6.

the set of

the universe of the variable x

that

3s

d.

is

2x

+4

2(x

+ 2)

c.

d.

x*

g.

x*

;. x
m. x

ft.

k.

be the set of

that the null set

is

2)

6(s 4- 2)
z2 <
5 x = x

w.

Let

7.

e.

=
=x

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

18

(a:

letters

-3)

-2)

/.

3)

Find

{a,p,y}.

/ (2s 2
i. x
>
2

subsets of A.

all possible

(Recall

a subset of every set.)

Discuss the following

a
A, A
B, and B C C, determine whether a
A and A C 5, does it follow that a 5?
If a
B?
If a
A and A
5, does it follow that a
B?
If a
A and a 5, does it follow that A
If A
andB D, does it follow that A C D?
If a
B, and C C D, determine whether a
B, C

8.

(z

If

a.
6.
c.

d.

E
E
E
E

CB

e.

}.

There are occasions when

of a

given
set of A.

C.

NUMBER OF SUBSETS OF A

1.8

G
E
C

finite set.

The

The notation

it is

SET

necessary to study the set of all subsets

a set A is called the power

set of all subsets of

for the

power

1 illustrates

set

set of

XC

= [X

2A

For example, Table

formed from a given

the

is

2A

and thus

A}

number

of subsets that

can be

n(A)
2, or 3 elements.
A denotes the number

containing 0, 1,
symbolizes the number of elements in set A and n(2
of subsets in the power set 2 A

Table

If A
{a,6,c,(i}, then it is possible to form subsets containing one
element, two elements, three elements, four elements, and no elements.
Thus, we have the following subsets: 0, {a}, {6}, {c}, {d}, {a,fr}, {a,c},

{a,d}, {b,c}, {b,d},

we have listed

all

{c,d},

{a,fc,c},

{a,M}, {a,c,dj, jb,M}, {a,b,c,d}. In

which include the null set and the

a total of 16 subsets

four elements {a,6,c,d}.

contained four elements, the power set 2 A was made up of
2 4 or 16 subsets, each subset an element of the power set. Hence we
may write

full set of

Since

2A

{0 {o} {6},{c},{dJ
J

>

{o,6} J {o,c},{o,d},{6 J c} {6,d}

>

>

[c,d},

{a,b,c},{a,b,d},{a,c,d},{b,c,d},{a,b,c,d}}.

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY

2 A since {a,b,c}
2A
It is correct to state that { {a,6,c} }
A
A but a 2 {a,&}
a
A, but {a,b}

SETS

19

one of the elements of 2 A

Thus
2^;
A, but
2 A 1 is an element of 2 A
but A is not a subset of 2 A {A} is not an element of 2 A but is a subset
We should keep in mind the distinction between the symbols
of 2 4
and C. One symbol cannot be interchanged for the other, since
establishes a relation between an element and a set, while
establishes a
relation between one set and another.
A careful study of the following
examples should make this concept clear.
It follows that {a,b,c}

is

a set with the four members

which can be formed from
these elements are { {3} } and {3}.
{{3}} ^ {3}, since the first subset
contains the element {3} while the second subset contains the element 3.

Example

1.

Example
an element
b.

of

{2}

{2}

{2}

a.

of

{{2}

Two

3.

{2}

{2}

is

{2}, while the only

{2}

is

of the subsets

This statement

}.

is

correct, since {2}

is

}.

c.
{2}
of {{2},2}.

d.

2.

{2,4}, {3}, {0,5}, 3}

and

{2,4}, {3}, {0,5},

}.

{2},2}.

{{2},2J.

{2}, 2} contain the

This statement

is

incorrect, since the only element

element of {2} is 2.
This statement is correct, since {2}
This statement

number 2

as

is

correct,

is

an element

since both

{2}

and

an element.

set A of n elements xi, x%, x 3

x n is given and it is desired
form the subsets of 2 A a decision must be made with respect to each
element as to whether it should be included or excluded from the particular subset being formed.
Table 2 illustrates these decisions for the

When a

to

Table 2

various subsets formed from the set of elements

a, b, c.

Since there are

three elements, the formation of each subset involves three decisions.

Each element must be considered on the basis of either including or

RELATIONSFUNCTIONS

SETS

20

excluding that element from the particular subset being considered.

This means that there are two ways to make a decision with respect to

each element and a total of 2 3 or 8 ways to make decisions with respect to

As a result, there are as many subsets of A as there

making these three decisions. If this argument is extended
n
containing n elements, there are 2 ways of making all n

three elements.

all

are

ways

of

to a set

n
decisions and, as a result, 2 subsets of A.
sets including the null set and A itself.

The power

set 2^

has 2 n sub-

Exercise 7
1.

Write

all

the subsets for each of the given sets. Indicate which of these subsets
What is the total number of subsets in each case?

are proper subsets.

a.

(Ruth, Elsie!

6.

{a b,c}

c.

{A}

d.

{a,0,fa}

e.

{1 > 2 {1},{1,2},{2}}

/.

{0,{0},0,{0}}

2. The symbol n\ means n(n

2)
l)(n
For example, 3! means 3-2-1 while 8! means
.

Q= ~-

is

3-2-1, and by

definition 0!

8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1.

used to refer to the number of distinct combinations of

1.

The symbol
five distinct

o l&l

For n

things taken three at a time.

distinct things taken r at a time,

/w\

n!

~
__

-r)!

r!(n

These ideas may be used to determine either the total number of subsets which can
be formed from n distinct elements or the number of subsets containing exactly k
elements where k = 0, 1, 2,
n.
If we are given the set {1,2,3,4}, then the
.

total

number
where

of subsets

zero elements,

obtained by the summation

is

represents the

number

represents the

U+

(*\
(l )

+
4.

(*\
(2)

etc.

U+U

)~M<)~'"(

number

~^"

be formed containing

formed each con-

of subsets that

can be

Hence
4!

i^\ -

/*\

4.

of subsets that can be

represents the

(*\

of subsets that can

number

formed each containing two elements,

(n)

4!

4!

4!

4I

+ IT?! _L
+ 2!^! _L
+
+
8111
4101
,

5U!

-1+4 + 6 + 44-1

=
Thus the
iS

(o)
elusion

total

+
is

(l)

number

(2)

of subsets that

"

the expansion of (1

'

+ x) n

can be formed from a set of

"
(n)
,

16

with x

(1

+
1,

1)n

"

2 "'

distinct elements

(The basis

f r this C

by the binomial theorem.)

n"

THE VOCABULARY

Complete the following

Determine the

total

AND SYMBOLISM OF

SETS

21

table:

number of subsets that can be formed from each

of the given sets.

3. How many nonempty subsets can be formed from a finite set of n

How many proper subsets can be formed from a finite set of n elements?
of all nonempty subsets equal to the set of all proper subsets?
Why?

4.

Determine whether each of the following statements

a.

d.

3.

m.

6.

{3!

00
{5}

((3,4), {5,6}

If

c.

{{5}}

/.

5E
2E

k.

{5,6,7}

{{1,3},{2}}

{5,6,7}

true or false:

{3,4}

i.

{3,4}

Z.

{2,{8}}

{3,4,5}

(2,8,9}

{3,5,{5)}

V = {1,2,3}, find the power

T = {a,b,c,d,e}, find 2 r of T.

5a. If
b.

is

{3}

h.

e.

(3,4)

elements?
Is the set

set 2 V of V.

and V, determine whether the following statements are true

For each of the false statements construct an example which would support
your conclusion. (Sets T, 8, and V for statement a are not necessarily the same as
6.

For

all sets S, T,

or false.

T, S,

and

a.

If

b.

If

T
T

c.

If

d.

If

e.

If

1.9

V in

statement

6,

etc.)

T =

V.

C V and T C S,

VC

S.

T E

V.

8 and 8 =

T r C

V, then

then
S and S E V, then
V and T E S, then
5 and 5 E 7, then

OPERATIONS

ON

V E
!T

5.

V.

SETS

New sets can be formed from given sets of a particular universe by

combining them in a prescribed manner. The given sets are subsets of
some universal set, and the new sets formed are also subsets of the same
universe.

two subsets of a universal set 17, we have the following.

A and J3, written A Pi B, is the set of elements
which are in both A and B at the same time. Putting it another way,
A C\ B is the set of elements common to both A and B. A (~\ B is
read "A intersection 5," or "A cap B," or the "product of A and J3,"
If
a.

and

The

are

intersection of

RELATIONS

SETS

22
or the

"meet

of

Thus

and B."

r\

B =

The symbol
"x

G A"

satisfy the first

or

B" and

1 :

The union

"A

G 5}
GBj

and x

A A

is used to bring together two conditions

implies that each element of the set must
condition and the second condition simultaneously.

{1,3,5}
b.

sG

{x|

{1,2,3,4}

of

A and

n
H

{2,3,5}

{2,4,6}

=
=

{2,3}

A VJ B, is the set of elements which

and B. A VJ B is read "A union B,"
and B," or the "join of A and B." Thus

5, written

or to B, or to both
7
cup B/ or the "sum of

belong to

A" meaning "and"

and "2

Example

6A

[x

"

FUNCTIONS

AU B

The symbol "V" meaning "or" is used to bring together two conditions
and implies that each element of the set must satisfy the first condition
or the second condition, or both.
"Or" is used here in the sense of
and
is
referred
to
as
the
"inclusive
"and/or"
or"; that is, x is a member of
either A or B and can be an element of both A and B.
If the "exclusive
or," written as "7," is used, then x is a member of either A or B but not
both A and B.
Example

2:
{1,2,3,4}
{3,4,5}

U
U

{3,4}

{2,3,5}
{2,4,6}

U{

=
=
=

{1,2,3,4,5}

{2,3,4,5,6}

{3,4}

U0

{3,4}

c. The complement of
A, written A', represents the set of
elements of U, the universe, which are not elements of A. Thus

A'

Example

3.

Suppose

{x\

{x\

U=

n C, B n C,
(A n C),

17'.

{2,4,6,8,10,12,14},
find A', B', <?',

(AO', (B

H C)',

and

A =

{2,6}; then

{4,8,10}

U =

Example 4. If
and C = {6,10,14},

the

xE U&iidxg A}
x G U A x& A}

{2,4,6,8,10}

A'

all

(A

A =

U B,

U B)',

{2,4,6},

B =

{2,6,10,14},

U C, B U C, A H B,
H
(A
B) U
(A U C) H
A

(7,

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY

SETS

23

Answer:

=
-

A'
C'

{8,10,12,14}

B'

{2,4,8,12}

A
B

\J

B =

\J

C =
(7=

UC

= {2,4,6,10,14}
AC\B = {2,6}
B r\C = {6,10,14} = C
(A U BY = {8,12}
A

(A
(A
U'

AA

{4,8,12}

{2,4,6,10,14}

= B

{2,6,10,14}
{6}

= A = {2,4,6}
H CY = {2,4,8,12}

(A')'

(B

H B) U C - {2,6} U {6,10,14} - {2,6,10,14}

U C) H (A H C) = {2,4,6,10,14} n {6} = {6}
=

Exercise 8
If

1.

{John, Henry,
\J B.

H B and A

Mary, Jean} and

Find the complement of the

2a.

set of

B =

{Mary, Jean, Ruth, Elsie), find

odd natural numbers where the universe

is

the set of natural numbers.

6.

Find the complement

of the set of negative integers where the universe

This new set is referred to as the set of nonnegative integers.
not called simply the set of positive integers?

set of integers.
is it

3.

U -

Let

O B, A

A' C\
4.

B',

Let

A -

{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,81,

\J B,

n
U

and (A'

',

A'

n B,

{1,2,3,4},

A' \J B,

\J

is

the

Why

and B = {4,6,8}. Find A',

',
A' \J B (A \J )', (A r\ BY,

')'

{natural numbers}

A =
B =

{positive odd integers}

{positive even integers}

C -

(positive integers that are multiples of 5}

= {1,3,5,
= {2,4,6,

.}
.

.}

{5,10,15,

.(

Find:
a.

A C\B

b.

d.

B'

e.

A VB
A C\C

g.

U C\A

h.

A C\B C\0

c.

A'

f.

B C\C

A = {all points on the straight line L\

B = {all points on the straight line L%]
Describe A C\ B for each of the following conditions:
5.

Let

a.

LI is parallel to 1/2 but not coincident with

Li coincides with Z/2.
Li and Z/2 are two nonparallel lines.

6.
c.

it.

d.

A n B and A U B for each of the following

A and B have no elements in common.
Sets A and B are equal.
Set A is a subset of B.
Set B is a subset of A.

7.

In the diagram shown in Fig.

6.

a.
6.
c.

is

Describe

conditions:

Sets

the set of points in triangle

3,

ADF,

is

all points in rectangle ABEF,

the set of points in trapezoid ADEF,

the set of

is

L
T

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

G
FIG. 3

is

the set of points in the

Make

expressions
a.
d.
g.

C\

set of points inside the square ABCG,

by each of the following

set described

LC\M

and
is the
and shade in the

circle,

copies of this diagram

C\ T' r\

b.

LC\T

c.

TnW
M' C\ T

T C\L

f.

T'

e.

h.

Describe each of the following by using L,

i. Set of points in
triangle DEF
j. Set of points in triangle ABD

T,

C\L

W, H, U, and

':

Set of points in rectangle CEFG

L Set of points included in the region between the two
intersecting lines
ra. Set of points included in the
region bordered by the lines CG and DF
k.

AD and CG

n. Set of points included in the region

bordered by line

CG on

the left and the circle

on the right

1.10

VENN DIAGRAMS

Venn diagrams, named for

the English logician John Venn (1834-1883),

diagrammatically represent the relations of membership and inclusion
and the operations of union, intersection, and complementation.

FIG.

THE VOCABULARY

AND SYMBOLISM OF

SETS

to represent the universe U.

Subsets of U are
as subspaces of the rectangle.
considered
This
represented by
results in the type of representation shown in Fig. 4.
The elements of U
are represented by the points within the rectangle, the elements of A

rectangle

is

drawn

circles

circle, and the elements of A' by the points

within that part of the rectangle outside the region representing A.
Thus U = A \J A 1 and = A C\ A'.

by the points within the

If

we

are given two sets

common), two intersecting

and

that overlap (have some elements in

drawn within the rectangle (Fig. 5).

circles are

FIG. 5

U is represented by the regions Si, S 2 S 3 and

described in terms of sets A and B as follows:
,

>S 4

A and x g B" is in region Si and

A C\ B' = {x x A A x & B}.
b. "x
A and x G B is in region S and
AC\B. AC\B = [x\x A /\xB}.
A and x G B" is in region $3 and
x
c.
A C\B. A r\B = {x\x&A /\xB}.
d. "x
A and x ^ J3" is in region S 4 and
A'C\B' A'C\B = {x\x & A A x&B}.
a.

"x

These regions can be

can be described as set

Ar\B'.

})

can be described as set

can be described as set

can be described as set

Note that regions Si through 84 represent disjoint sets; that is, the
The set A C\ B'
intersection of any two regions yields the null set.
includes those elements in A that are not in B.
Here our concern is not
with
set

all

C\

the elements that are in B' but with a subset of

or

C\

can be designated as

A -B

1
.

Thus, the

B, where

xx

A - {1,2,5,6}, and B = {2,4,5},

=
Since B = {1,3,6} and
B
A
and
{4}.
{1,6}
Note that
B'
and
(B - A) C A
B) C
{3,4}, we can write (A
B 7* B A except when A =- B.

Example
then
A' =

1.

A - B =

If

U =

{1,2,3,4,5,6},

SETSRELATIONS

26

Example

2.

Sets,

FUNCTIONS

such as (A C\ BY,

VJ B,

AC\B,

A',

and

B',

Venn

formed through set operations may be studied by the use of the

diagram shown in Fig. 6 in the following manner.

FIG. 6

a.

(A r\ B)

common

is

the set of

Thus

all

elements not contained in

and

as

represented by the union of regions

The
tabular
and
Si.
Si, Sz,
following
arrangement could be used where
the regions are considered to be elements of each set.

b.

is

VJ

elements.

is

the set of

it

is

elements in either

all

represented by the union of regions Si,

c.

at the

C\

/S 2 ,

B is the set of all elements in both A

same time.

Thus

it

or B, or both.

and S 3

and

Thus

it

B (common elements)

constitutes region 82.

d. A' constitutes the set of all elements not in A.

sented by the union of regions Sz and S 4

Thus

it is

repre-

Thus

it is

repre-

Set

Regions
e. B' constitutes the set of all elements not in B.
sented by the union of regions Si and S 4
.

THE

Example

3.

VOCABULARY AND SYMBOLISM OF

If in

Example 2

it

S $ and S 4

designated regions Si, 2j

ings in terms of sets A and B.
B, and it follows that Si = 0.
3,

is

SETS

27

assumed that A C B, then the

on the following mean-

of Fig. 6 take

B, then every element of A

f
Since Si = A C\ B then A C\ B'

If .4

is

in
0,

and the regions Si and S 2 are identical with the one region $ 2
The
=
would
be
that
A
C\
B
A.
S
interpretation
Correspondingly, Si, 2j and
S% are identical with the two regions S 2 and S 3 and represent the set
A B. In summary, if we imply that every element of A is also an
element of B, then A C B, A
B' - 0, A = A C\ B, and
B.
.

B^JLU

A C

B, it is customary to draw the circle representing

within the circle representing B, as shown in Fig. 7.
If

entirely

"T~\

(b]
FIG.

Shading or cross-hatching

is

(c)

also used to indicate the region

under

To
following example will clarify this procedure.
illustrate the set A C\ B we use vertical shading within circle
for the
discussion.

The

and horizontal shading within circle B for the elements

of set B.
The region containing both vertical and horizontal shading
To represent A VJ B only one
represents A C\ B, as shown in Fig. 8.
elements of set

type of shading

is

necessary, as

shown

FIG. 8

in Fig. 9.

RELATIONS

SETS

28

FUNCTIONS

FIG. 9

Example
intersection

elements.
as

shown

4.

Two

sets are "disjoint or

mutually exclusive"

if

their

the null set 0; that is, the two sets have no common
= 0,
Thus, if A and B are disjoint sets relative to U, A Pi B
is

in Fig. 10.

FIG. 10

Example 5.
Venn diagram

If

A, B, and

(Fig. 11)

regions are exposed.

may

We

are subsets of a universal set U, then a

be drawn in which three circles and eight

describe these regions in terms of sets A, B,

andC:
Description

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

(A r\ B) r\
(A r\ B) r\

(A r\
(A r\

B
B

c
c

r\

r\ c'

(A* r\ B) r\

(A r\ B) r\ c'
(A

r\B )r\c
f

(A' r\ B') r\ c"

THE VOCABULARY

AND SYMBOLISM OF

FIG.

29

SETS

1 1

Note that regions Si through SB represent disjoint

section of any two regions yields the null set.

sets;

i.e.,

the inter-

B)
C,
B, (A
Example 6. Each of the sets U, A, C, A C\ B, A
with
studied
be
C\
C\
C'
C\
C\
C\
B
and
A'
may
(A
B')
(A
C,
B),
A!,
respect to Fig. 11:
Set

Regions

a.

b.

Sly S^, S$,

c.

Si, 83, 85, 87

Si, 82, $3, $4, $5,

e.

AC\B
A\JB

f.

(A VJ B) C\ C

d.

Si,

$7,

SB

84

82

Si, 82, S$, 84, 85,

Si, 8$,

85

85, SQ, 87, SB

g.

i.

A r\(Ar\i =
BC\C

j.

(A r\

h.

r\

Empty
Si,

space

S^

s,

7.
By using the relationships of set equality and set incluA VJ B,
the
following sets may be written in a sequential order:
sion,
A, 0'.
(Ar\B)r\C,(AVB)VC,BC\
B,
C),
U,0,AC\B,A\J(B\J

Example

Sequence:

This can be verified by the use of a Venn diagram such as that shown in
Fig. 11.

SETS

30

Example
illustrated

both

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

B and (A' H /?)' are identical. This is

The sets A
Venn
the
diagram shown in Fig. 12 and by Table 1. Since
by

8.

UB

and (A C\ B)' contain the same

regions,

we have demon-

strated the equality of these sets.

Individual Venn diagrams for the
sets A
B f and (A C\ By, with the pertinent regions shaded, will also

verify the equality of these sets.

THE

1.11

NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

IN SET

any set, then n(A) represents the number of elements in A.

and B are disjoint (A C\ B = 0), then the number of elements
in the union of A and B is equal to the sum of the number of elements
in A and the number of elements in B.
Consequently,
If

Hence

is

if

n(A \J B)

and

n(A)

n(B)

are not necessarily disjoint, then n(A

B) is obtained in
the following manner. First, we know that B C\ B r =
0, since B' is the
C\ B' are disjoint sets.
complement of B and as a result A C\ B and
If

Thus,
n[(A C\ B)

U (A

r\ B')}

= n(A

C\ B)

n(A C\

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY
Similarly, since

C\ A'

n[(A C\ B)

AC\B

0,

U (A' C\ B)]

and A' C\

= n(A

Pi 5)

SETS

31

are disjoint sets

+ n(A

and

C\ B)

FIG. 13

By

the use of Fig. 13,

it

(A

can

now be shown

n B) \J (A C\ B

that

= A

(A C\B)

= B

and
(A C\ B)

As a consequence,
n(A C\B)

+ n(A

n(A C\ B)

+ n(A

C\ B')

n(A)

C\ B)

n(B)

and

Adding the

left

members and the

.two equations and then subtracting

n(A C\ B)

n(A C\

n(A

right

members, respectively,

n(A C\B) from the

H B)

n(A)

results,

n(B)

of these

we

- n(A

obtain

C\

once more, Fig. 13 is examined, we find that the three sets A C\ B',
A C\ B, and A r C\ B are disjoint sets. Set A C\ B is represented by Si,
A B by 82, and A f C\ B by S 8 The number of elements in /Si, 2 and
B. Hence,
$ 3 is the same as the number of elements in A
If,

U B)

n(A
It

now

= n(A

HB

n(A

C\ B)

B)

follows that
,

n(A

U B)

n(A)

+ n(B) -

n(A

H B)

In other words, if we wish to determine the number of elements in the

B where A Pi B ^ 0, we determine the sum of the number of
set A
elements in A and the number of elements in B and from the result
subtract the number of elements in the intersection of A and B. This
subtraction is necessary because the elements in A C\ B have been

counted twice.

SETSRELATIONSFUNCTIONS

32

Example

1.

Suppose we are informed by the registrar of our school

How many

that 600 students take mathematics and 300 take physics.

different students are enrolled in the two courses?
If

is

the set of students enrolled in mathematics and

physics students, then we desire to find

n(M

U P)

= n(M) +

n(M

n(P)

U P).

the set of

But

- n(M C\

P)

C\ P) represents the number of students enrolled in both matheSince this is not given, we cannot answer the
if
we were told that 173 students are enrolled in
question.
However,

n(M

matics and physics.

300 - 173
both subjects, then n(M
P) = 600
727 different students are enrolled in the two courses.

727.

Therefore

school newspaper reports that the combined membership of the Mathematics Club and the Chemistry Club is 122 students.
What is the total membership of the Chemistry Club if 50 students are

Example

2.

The

known to be members of the Mathematics Club and 28

members of both organizations?

n(M

VJ C)
122

n(C)

The Chemistry Club has

= n(M) + n(C) - n(M

= 50 + n(C) - 28
= 100

students are

C\ C)

100 members.

Example 3. In a certain high school 60 per cent of the students purchased tickets to a dance, and 70 per cent purchased tickets to a football
game. At least how many purchased tickets to both events? Let
n(A) = 60 per cent, n(B) = 70 per cent, and n(A VJ B) = 100 per cent.

Then

=
100 =
n(A C\ B) =
n(A VJ

At

J8)

n(A)
60

+ n(B) -

+ 70 -

30

least 30 per cent of the students

Example

n(A VJ

4.

\J

For any three

n(A)

n(A C\ B}
n(A C\ B)

sets

+ n(B) +
-

n(A

purchased tickets to both events.

A, B, and
n(C)

(7,

n(A C\ B)

HO- n(B

C\ C)

A Venn

n(A C\

C\ C)

diagram may be used to illustrate this theorem. The extension

theorem to more than three sets results in formulas that are very
cumbersome.
We illustrate this formula with the following example
In the graduating class of 200 students of a certain high school, records
indicate that 80 students have taken physics, 90 have taken
biology,
of this

THE VOCABULARY

AND SYMBOLISM OF

SETS

33

55 have taken chemistry, 32 have taken both biology and physics,

23 have taken both chemistry and physics, 16 have taken both biology
and chemistry, and 8 have taken all three subjects. Are the records
accurate?

We are assuming that each of the 200 students was enrolled in

at least one of the three courses.

B =
C =
P =

set of students
set of students
set of students

If

who have taken biology

who have taken chemistry
who have taken physics

then

n(B)

n(B C\ C)

=
16

90

n(C)

55

n(P)

P) -

32
n(B Pi
n(B r\ C C\ P) =8

80

n(C C\ P)

23

Hence

n(B

U C \J P)

=
=

90

55

80

16

32

23

162

The information
was a

is inconsistent, since we were initially told that there

total of 200 students.
With the information that the records were

absolutely correct and without the assumption that all students had
taken at least one of the subjects, we could now conclude that 38 students

had not taken any

This conclusion

is

Thus n(P' C\ B' C\ C') =

Venn diagram shown in Fig. 14.

of the three courses.

illustrated in the

38.

FIG. 14

In studying problems of this type the analysis should begin with the
P C\B C\C and then extend outwardly in all directions. This
enables us to examine first those elements common to all three sets, then
those elements common to two of the sets, and finally those elements that
appear in each set that are not contained in any of the others.
set

FUNCTIONS

SETSRELATIONS

34

LAWS OF OPERATIONS

1.12

important to note that the operations of union, intersection, and

complementation possess certain specified properties regardless of the
It is

U and the designation of the nonempty subsets of

These three defined operations are applied to sets and generate other
The operations on sets
to which the same operations can be applied.

selection of the universe

U.
sets

If

A, B,

following laws or postulates.

are subsets of some universal set U, then:

by the

are governed
C,

Commutative Laws

AV

la.

B =

BV A

AC\B = Br\A

Ib.

Associative Laws
2o.

(A

U B) U C

(Ar\B)C\C

26.

= A

(B U C)

= A

Distributive

AC\(B\JC)
- (A C\

3a.

3&.

B)

Laws

\J (B C\ C)

= (A

(A C\ C)

- A

U B) C\

(A

(7)

Laws

Identity
4a.

r\ (B r\ C)

b.

AC\U = A

Complement Laws

A\J

5a.
6.

= U

A'

56.

Pi A'

- A

(A')'

These laws may be verified through the use of Venn diagrams in a

manner similar to that used in Example 8 of Section 1.10. In Chapter
5 we shall consider these postulates with respect to a mathematical
structure.

Exercise 9
1.

Let I
I+
I~

=
=
=

set of

A
B =
G =
S

set of integers
set of positive integers
set of negative integers

primes

set of positive
set of positive

even integers

odd integers

Complete

set of positive integers that are multiples of 3

the following table by filling in each blank with

C\

T =

0,

r\

given sets in the

T *
left

0,

8 C

T,

column and

8 =

one of the statements

where 8 represents any of the

represents any of the given sets in the top row.

T, or

T,

THE

2.

Let

U =
A =
B =

VOCABULARY AND SYMBOLISM OF

SETS

35

set of positive integers less than 20

set of positive even integers less than 20
set of positive

even integers

less

than 17 that are multiples of 4

Find:
a.
d.
g.

A -B
(B - AY
(A - BY

b.
e.

VJ (B

- AY

h.

B - A
(A - B)\J(B - A)
(B - AY r\ (A - BY

c.

f.

(A
(A

3. Verify each of the following postulates by the use of

the procedure suggested in Example 8, Section 1.10.
a.
c.
e.

f.

A\J B = B\J A

(A
B) U C
A Pi (B U C)
A U (B r\ C)
\J

b.

= A U (B U C)
= (A H B) U (A
- (A U B) C\ (A

d.

- BY
- B) C\

(B

- A)

Venn diagrams.

Follow

A C\B = B C\A
(A C\B}C\C = A C\(B r\C)

C\ C)

U C)

4. If A, B and C are three nonempty distinct subsets of some universe U, draw

a Venn diagram to verify that all the statements in each of the following cases are
true.
Part a is illustrated in Fig. 15.
}

a.

ACS, B

C\C ?i,

AHC

0,

C (IB

Answer:

FIG. 15

6.

AHB

c.

A r\B

&,

d.

A r\B

0,

f,
g.

$,

B r\ c
B r\ c
B r\c =

B,

0,

A r\c
A r\c =

A C B, B C C
A C\ B r\ C ?* 0, A

0,

(t

A,

&

<t

(A

U B},

(A \J B)

<

36

SETS
5.

Specify what the following sets represent for each of the

for the parts of Problem 4.

a.
C\ (B C\ C)
d.

6.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

A
A

U (B

C\ C)

6.

(A

e.

H B) U C
r\

c.

(A

Using the Venn diagram shown in Fig. 16, determine the region or combination
by each of the following:

g.

\JBY
A C\B
A' C\ B

j.

(A'

d.

U 5) A C

(B \J C)

of regions represented
a.

Venn diagrams drawn

(A

KB')'

b.

A'\JB

e.

h.

A'

k.

c.

\J B'

/.

C\B
(A' VJB)'H A'

i.
i.

UB

(A \J B)
A' C\(A
\(A' r\

nB

UB')

FIG. 16

7. For the parts of Problem

nation of regions.

6,

find those

which represent the same region or combi-

8. Homeroom A of a certain high school has 18 students taking physics, 23 students

taking biology, and 24 students taking history. Of these students 14 are in both
biology and history, 12 in physics and biology, 11 in history and physics, and 6 in all
three subjects. Each student in homeroom A is taking at least one of the three

subjects.
a.
b.
c.

d.

How
How
How
How

many
many
many
many

students are in

homeroom A?

students are taking history but not biology?

students are taking history but not biology or physics?
students are taking exactly one of the three courses?

9. In the city of Utopia there are 1000 families.

A survey indicated that 470
subscribe to Life, 420 subscribe to Digest, and 315 subscribe to Post.
Of these
subscribers 140 take both Post and Digest, 220 take both Post and Life, 110 take
both Digest and Life, and 75 take all three.
a.
b.
c.

How many
How many
How many

families do not subscribe to

families subscribe to exactly
families subscribe to exactly

any of these periodicals?

one of these periodicals?
two periodicals?

10. At a picnic attended by 50 children, 21 children

participated in the pie-eating
contest, 20 participated in the baseball toss, and 25 participated in the sack race.
Of these, seven participated in both the sack race and the baseball toss, four partici-

pated in both the pie-eating contest and the baseball toss, eight participated in the
sack race and the pie-eating contest, and three did not
participate in any of the events,

AND SYMBOLISM OF

THE VOCABULARY

How many
How many
How many

a.
b.
c.

participated in

all

SETS

37

three events?

participated in exactly one event?

were not able to participate in any of the other events after the pie-

eating contest?

The information

11.

in the following table

the result of a survey conducted in a

is

certain industry.

Per cent of employees

Classification

65
75
80
85

College graduates

Male employees
Married employees
Employees with more than 5 years service
7

a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

At least what per cent are married men?

At least what per cent are male employees and have more than 5 years' service?
At least what per cent are married and have more than 5 years' service?
At least what per cent are male college graduates?
At least what per cent are males, college graduates, and have more than 5 years'

service?
/.

At

least

what per cent are males, married, and

college graduates?

PROJECTS

Supplementary Exercises
Denoting the set of real numbers by R e the set of rational numbers by F, the
set of irrational numbers by Ri} the set of integers by /, and the set of natural numbers
1.

by N, determine whether each statement

U = R

is

true or false.

the set of real numbers.

e)

a.

NC

d.

Ri r\

e.

g.

NC

F F

h.

j.

F'

R<

k.

FD

2.

List all the subsets for the set

b.

RiCF
CN

CR

A =

{1,2,4,8,16}.

c.

ft

/.

Re

UF

R.

i.

CF
N CM =

NCI CF

Find the sum

CR.

of the elements

After examining these sums, state a generalization concerning them

and the elements 1, 2, 4, 8, 16. (Hint: Arrange sums obtained in increasing order.)
in each subset.

3.

in

set of subsets of

common.

sets of subsets of
4.

S is

g.

U
U

k.

b.

C
(A r\ B)
(A C\ B') VJ C
(A
C)
C) r\ (B
(A r\o\j (B r\

d.

i.

no two of the subsets have an element

Determine all the possible
{1,2,3}.

Using the Venn diagram shown in Fig. 17, determine the region or combination
by each of the following:

e.

if

V =

that are disjoint.

of regions represented
C
a. (A \J B)
c.

said to be disjoint

Consider the set 2 V where

(A' C\

B'Y \JA'

/.

h.
j.

B) Pi C
(A
(A C\ B) U C'
(A C\ BY r\ C
C)'
BY U (A
(A
co r\(B\j C')
(A

H
n
w
B U [(A VB)\J C}'

38

SETS

RELATIONSFUNCTIONS

FIG. 17

and B are subsets of U. Determine which of the following statements are

For each false statement construct an example of particular sets .4 and B
which shows that the statement is in general not true.
5.

^4

false.

a.
d.
g.
j.

6.

a.
d.
g.
J-

7.

A CA UB
A C\ B C A U B
B' C (A n BY
(A ^J BY Q(A r\BY

b.
e.

h.

B CA

C\

c.

(A C\ B) VJ A (A
BY C A'

/.

i.

B CB
BD A HB
A U (.4 r\ BY = U
A

C\

\J

Complete each of the following:

n
O
U

=
=
Z7 =
t/

ff

e.

.4

/i.

n =
U A' =
U =

c.

f.
i.

(0i C\ {0}

Let

&.

UU=
OA 0n {0} =

A
A

{1,2 {1},{2} {1 2}}

J

c.

/.
i.

UC

BC\C
DHC

L (D r\E')\J

(A C\ D)
8.

Draw a Venn diagram and show

that the sets in each of the following expressions

are identical:
a.
c.

d.
e.

U BY and A C\ E'
U B} U C and A U VJ C)
A n (B U C) and (A n B) U (A n C)
A^J (B C\ C) and (A U B) C\ (A VJ C)
'

(A
(A

6.

(A C\

BY

and A'

U E'

(J5

9a. Verify the following:

(1)

U'

(2) If
6.

- 0and0' -

A C

Suppose

17.

B, then B'

UB

C A'.
0.

What

conclusions do

vou draw about

sots A n.nH ft?

THE VOCABULARY
10.

Given:

U S =
D C

H
K
a. Identify

n(A\

=
=

set of the 52 cards in a

SETS

39

deck of playing cards

subset of spades
subset of diamonds

subset of clubs
subset of hearts
subset of cards that are honor cards,
kings, and aces

i.e.,

tens, jacks, queens,

each of the following sets and determine the number of elements,

in each.

5HZ

(2)

WDr\S'

(5)

(1)

AND SYMBOLISM OF

K'

(3)

D \JSVK

D r^S

OS \J D)
Represent the following statements in symbolic form:
(1) The set of cards that are not honor cards
(2) The set of cards that are neither spades nor honor cards
(3) The set of clubs or hearts that are not honor cards
(4) The set of cards that are neither hearts nor honor cards
(5) The set of hearts or diamonds that are honor cards
(6)

n#

b.

11. A recent survey of 200 students majoring in science revealed that the number
studying one or more of the subjects mathematics (M\ physics (P), or chemistry (C)
is

as follows:

Number

Subject

P
C

M and P
M"and C

PandC
M,
a.
b.

P, and

of students

100
70
46
30
28
23
18

How many students were not enrolled in any of these

How many students had mathematics as their

subjects?

only

subject?

Physics?

Chemistry?
c. How many students had mathematics and physics as
Mathematics and chemistry? Physics and chemistry?

their only subjects?

12. A recent questionnaire addressed to 353 public school teachers requested

answers to the following two questions:
a. How long have you been teaching?
b. Would you advocate a 12-month school year?
The following table summarizes the replies
:

40
Let

353 public school teachers

who answered "Yes"
set of teachers who answered "No"

set of

set of teachers

set of teachers

set of teachers
set of teachers

Find the number

a.

(1)

who have taught

who have taught
who have taught

(5)

than 2 years

less

2 to 4 years
5 to 10 years

of teachers in each of the following sets:

A \JC

(4)

A C\D
(A r\cy

(6)

(C \J

(2)

(A vjjsy r\E
(A \J J5) n C

(3)
b.

U =
A
B =*
C ~
D =
E =

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

Represent each of the following

sets

jD) C\

(A VJ

BY

by using only the symbols A

B, C, D, E,

',

and W:
(1) The set of teachers who have taught less than 5 years and who answered
"Yes"
Answer: (C \J D) C\ A
(2) The set of teachers who have taught less than 10 years and who answered "No"
(3) The set of teachers who have taught more than 10 years and who answered "Yes"
(4) The set of teachers who answered "Don't know"
(5) The set of teachers who have taught more than 10 years and who answered

r\,

"don't

know"

13.

The

Let

A =
B

set of quadrilaterals
set of squares

set of

D =
E

set of triangles
set of parallelograms

Which

following exercise pertains to plane geometric figures.

statements are true and which are false?

F =
G =
H=
/ =
J
K=
a.
d.
g.
3*

m.

of the

rhombuses

set of rectangles
set of equilateral triangles
set of isosceles triangles
set of trapezoids
set of scalene triangles
set of right triangles

B QI

b.

C C\F = B
H C\G ~G

KCJ
G ^H

BCCCECA
=
7

c.

H#

h.

GC\K ~J

k.

(H

n.

K C\H =

VJ

nD

<?)'

= /

GUHVJ^D

i.

H C\G = H
KC\G =

1.

/.

CE

In Section 1.5 it was shown that the set of natural numbers was
equivalent
even natural numbers. Not only is E <->
but E C
(E is a proper
subset of N). Richard Dedekind (1831-1916) used this
property to define an infinite
14.

to the set of

set.

A set
a.

is

Show

an

infinite set

that the set

if

B -

there exists a proper subset of

(1,4,9,16,25,

tfIs

B C N?
I.

Is

Show

that the set

D -

D C JV?
c.

1-1

Show

that the set

T -

{1,2,3,4,5,6,

{5,10,15,20,

.}

(1,2,3,4,5,

(10,20,30,40,

is

that is equivalent to
equivalent to the set

.} is

W.

.)

equivalent to the set

.}

.}

is

an

infinite set

by placing

correspondence with one of its proper subsets.

d. Formulate a definition for a finite set in terms
of a proper subset.

it

in

2
Numbers and Conditions

Real

INTRODUCTION

2.1

Such concepts as "equations and inequalities/' "absolute value," and

"properties of a number system" are of major concern in modern mathematics and may be discussed through the language of sets.
Consequently, the basic objectives of this chapter are:
a. To investigate the number systems familiar to us from arithmetic

and algebra, noting

in particular that the

real-number system

number systems
To examine the use of conditions when expressed

is

an

extension of various other

b.

as equations or

inequalities in the description of specific sets

c. To reemphasize and extend certain important concepts of
in the environment of the real-number system
d.

To

illustrate

Chapter

procedure and format for proofs of theorems which

result as logical consequences of the postulates of the real-number

2.2

system

CONCEPT OF A NUMBER SYSTEM

Familiarity with our surroundings is largely a matter of degree.

Special characteristics and features possessed by people or objects often
go by unnoticed. For example, we work, study, and spend countless

hours in various buildings without a complete realization of their many

distinct properties.
Each building has been created according to a plan
where specific materials were used for its construction and where the
design was evolved to meet certain utilitarian and artistic objectives.
The characteristics possessed by different types of structures tend to
classify

them

and so on.
on within them

as school buildings, homes, office buildings,

Regardless of this classification, activities are carried

without any special concern for their distinct features.

accustomed to a particular structure that

taken for granted.
41

many

We

become

so

of its subtle features are

SETS

42

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

In a similar manner we use numbers in everyday activities without

observing too closely what is really known about them. When calcula-

on these numbers, advantage is taken of the specific

Everyone seems to be aware of the
properties possessed by them.
property that the sum of two integers is an integer or that the property
4 3 yields the same result as 3 4. In order to have a better understanding of such properties it is necessary to examine more closely the set of
tions are performed

natural numbers, the set of integers, the set of rational numbers, and the
Each of these sets of numbers, together with the
set of real numbers.
operations of addition and multiplication and certain assigned properties,

forms a "number system." A number system consists of a set of objects

(elements) combinable under two binary operations, called addition and
multiplication, where:
a.
b.
c.

d.

Addition and multiplication are closed.

Addition and multiplication are commutative.
Addition and multiplication are associative.
Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition.

important to note that the binary operations (those involving two

elements) need not be defined as addition and multiplication familiar to
It is

us from arithmetic and, further, that the objects need not be restricted
Such situations will be examined in a later chapter. For

to numbers.

the present, the interpretation of objects and operations will be made in

terms of those familiar number systems from arithmetic and algebra,
extensions of which finally lead to the real-number system.

2.3

NATURAL NUMBERS

We recall that our earliest experiences with numbers involved those

used specifically for counting, namely, the natural numbers or the positive
integers, 1, 2, 3, 4, ....
Progressively, we learned to perform the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
attention is now centered upon the two binary operations of addition

If

and

multiplication with respect to natural numbers, the following laws or

postulates hold.
If a, 6,

...

c,

Closure Laws

N-l:

If

N-2;

If

comand
(+)
multiplica-

are elements of the set of natural numbers, N,

binable under the binary operations of addition,

tion (), then:

EN and

b E N, then a + b EN.
E N and b E N, then ab E N,

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

REAL

43

Commutative Laws
N-3:
N-4:

If
If

E N and b
a
N and b

N, then a + b =
#, then afr = 6a

plied

by

a.

means a multi-

(at or a

6).

Associative Laws

N-5:
AM5:

If
If

a
a

G #, 6 G
tf, 6

N, and c
AT, and c

#, then
then

JV,

If

(b

c)a

EN, and c N,
+ ca from 2V-4.

N,

6)

(afc)c

(6

c).

o(6c).

then a (6

c)

a&

ac

or

ba

Law

Identity

There exists in N a unique element "unity/' designated as 1

and called the identity element for multiplication, such that

]V-8:

a.

Illustrating these laws,

N-l and #-2:

N-3 and N-4:

tf-6:

Since 6

5)

AT,

5)

Since 5

N, then 6

5)

G AT, and 3
+ (5 + 3) or

AT,

+
G

(2

5 or 8

and

JV

6 and

8.

7-6.

N, then

and 7

Also (6
Since 3
3

N-&:

and 5
AT".

6N

Since 6
(6

N-7:

5 or 15

6-7 =
N-5 and

we have:

Since 3 <E
3

Law

Distributive

N-7:

(a

2
3

G
2

(5

3) or

^, and

N, then 5-1

11

30

5 or 3

N, then
3

+
=

15.

N, then
7

15.

5.

graphical representation (though incomplete) of the set of natural

numbers

is

shown

in Fig. 18.

FIG. 18

The operations of subtraction and division are defined by means of

Subtraction is defined through the equaaddition and multiplication.
tion a
b = d, which implies that if a, 6
N, then the subtraction of

from a

We

is

if

there exists a natural

possible
speak of d as the difference a

6.

number

d such that a

Similarly, division

b
is

d.

defined

RELATIONS

SETS

44

FUNCTIONS

which implies that the division of a by b is

number q such that a = bq. Here q is
possible
called the quotient a/6, which is also written a 4- 6 or a 1/6.
3 = d is possible if there exists some
For example, the subtraction 8
d G N such that 8 = 3 + d. Similarly, the division f is possible if
In both cases, the operations can
there exists some q such that 8 = 2q.
be
d
and
since
be performed,
replaced by the natural numbers
q may
through the equation a/b
if

q,

there exists a natural

and 4, respectively. As a consequence of the definition, subtraction is

referred to as the inverse operation of addition, while division is referred
5

to as the inverse operation of multiplication.

2.4

INTEGERS

state that addition and multiplication are always

and b
in
of
natural
the
set
numbers; that is, if a
N, then
possible
similar situation exists only in a restricted
a
b
and ab
N.
sense for the operation of subtraction; or, in other words, the set of

Laws N-l and N-2

+ GN

natural numbers

The

testing of

is

a few

not closed in general with respect to subtraction.

cases, such as 3
9, points out
5, 7
7, and 4

To remedy

that no natural numbers exist which satisfy these differences.

this situation the set of natural

numbers

expanded

is

so as to gain the

property of closure with respect to subtraction. This requires the

introduction of the negative integers and zero, which then, along with the
b = d.
positive integers, supply closure for all situations arising from a
The union of the set of natural numbers or positive integers and zero
together with the set of negative integers
We may write
/ or I~
integers.

NC

of negative integers

and I the

set of

now

the newly formed set of

where
/~ represents the set
C /,
Laws
N-l through N-8,
integers.
is

...
7, represent corresponding
with
properties possessed by integers
respect to the operations of addition
and multiplication. Hence, a number system called the "system of
integers" has been formed.

redesignated J-l to J-8 with a,6,c,

The system of integers possesses the following additional properties

not present in the system of natural numbers:
Identity
1-9:

Law

There exists in I a unique element zero (0), called the identity

= + a = a.
element for addition, such that a +
Inverse Element

7-10:

For every a in /, there exists a unique element (

that a + (a) = (a) + a = 0. Here ( a)
additive inverse of

a.

a) of /,
is

called

such
the

REAL NUMBERS

AND CONDITIONS

Law

for Subtraction

Closure
7-11

If

G I and b G

7,

then a

45

G 7.

As

in the case with natural numbers, the operation of subtraction for

integers is interpreted in terms of the operation of addition in the following

manner:
Definition of Subtraction

7-12:

If

G 7 and & G

7,

then a

(-b).

with the rules of arithmetic (such as rules of signs) is

assumed for operating with integers, the following examples illustrate
If familiarity

properties 7-1 through 7-12.

Closure Laws: 7-1 and 7-2

7 and (
Since (-3)

+ 5) 6

then (-3)

I,

(+5)

7 and

(-3)(+5)G7.
Commutative Laws: 7-3 and 7-4
Since (-4) G7and(-2) G 7, then (-4) + (-2) = (-2)
and(-4)(-2) = (~2)(-4).
Associative Laws 7-5 and 7-6
Since (-3) <E 7, (-2) G 7, and ( + 5) G 7, then
[(-3) + (-2)] + (+5) = (-3) + [(-2) + (+5)]
and[(-3)(-2)](+5) = (-3)[(-2)( + 5)].
Distributive Law: 7-7
Since (-5) G 7, (+2) G 7, and (-4) G I, then
(-5)[(+2) + (-4)] = (-5X+2) + (-5)(-4)
or(-5)(-2) = (10) + (+20).

(-4)

Identity Laws: 7-8 and 7-9

7 and (+7)
Since (-8)

(+7)

/,

then (-8X1)

= -8 and

+7.

Inverse Element: 7-10

Since

(-3)

7,

then (+3)

7 and (-3)

G7

and (-5)

7,

Closure Law: 7-11

Since (-6)

then (-6)

(+3)

0.

(-5) = (-1) and

(-De/.
Definition of Subtraction: 7-12

- (+4)
(-9) G 7 and (+4) G 7, then (-9)
(+4) = (-9)
(-9) + (-4) = -13. Hence (-9)
Since

is

- -13

and

(-4).

graphical representation of the set of integers (though incomplete)

shown in Fig. 19.

-4-3-2-101234
FIG. 19

46

RELATIONS

SETS

FUNCTIONS

RATIONAL NUMBERS

2.5

Even though
zero

number system has thus

the

and negative

far been

expanded

integers, the operation of division

is still

to include

not always

If q

possible.

then no integer q exists for which

>

+ 3) =

$(

8.

H~3

further extension of the system of integers

is

now

necessary, but this

must be accomplished without creating any inconsistencies that relate to

Laws 7-1 through 7-12.
To accomplish this, we introduce the concept of a rational number,
which is a number that can be expressed as the quotient p/q of two
Accordingly, the rational-number
integers p and q, where q is not zero.
system

is

an extension

of the

For example, 3

be written in the form a/1.

Thus, 7

The

system of integers, since every integer a

f,

5
>

and

may
=

$.

C F where F refers

to the set of rational numbers.

from everyday arithmetic govern the operations

following rules

with rational numbers:

CL

1.

if

and only

Example: f

if

f since

_ +c
=
2
+
'b
~b~
b
Example: f + f =
a

"d

'

be

3-8 = 4*6

ac

_
=

bd

Example: f
a
c
_ ad
'

ad

-f

iHr

b^d^fc

Example:
a
'

~cb

_
=

-J-

fj-

a
b
.

Example:

5-8
= -8
7
5-7

Each of these rules excludes zero denominators. It should be noted that

a, b, and c may be thought of as being integers, but the rules apply equally
well when a,6,c G FFor rational numbers the operation of division indicated by

REAL

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

47

and b ^ 0, is defined in terms of the operation of multithe case when b = 0, let q

For
plication.
a/0 where a ^ 0. In this
instance there exists no rational-number replacement for q which yields a
= for all q G F. For a = it follows that
true statement, since g
=
=
is
and
true
for all q&F.
In the first case no rational
g
q
number exists for g, while in the second no unique rational number exists
where

a,b

GF

In

all other cases of division, such as q

-^, q is replaceable by a
rational
number.
Hence
a
are excluded
(where
unique
0) and
a/0
from consideration, since no precise meaning can be attached to them.
It can now be shown that rational numbers satisfy Laws /-I through

for

q.

1-12 of the system of integers.

If, in 1-1 through 7-2, / is replaced
everywhere by F and the term "integer" by "rational number," F-l
through F-12 are obtained, which, together with Laws F-13 and -F-14,
form the laws of the system of rational numbers.
jF-13:

F and a ^ 0, there exists an element I/a such

that a(l/a) = (I/a) a = 1.
I/a is called the multiplicative
inverse or reciprocal of a and may be written a"" 1
For every a

GF

Example: Since 3
such that 3(|)
5-,
f
f-14:

there exists an element of

(-!)(-*) =
a G F and

If

2.6

REAL

namely,

-P

and I

1-

G F and b ^ 0, then a/& G F.

G f and 5 G F, then f G F.

Example: Since 2
|

GF

then
(
f)
Similarly,
to
the
also
satisfies
(which
F)
requirement that
belongs
since

1.

F, then

f/-f

==

|,

NUMBERS AND THE COORDINATE

which

is

Similarly,

if

an element in F.

LINE

Already two extensions of number systems serving special purposes

have been made. The first extension of natural numbers to integers
made subtraction always possible, while the second extension from
integers to rational numbers made division always possible (zero excluded)
The results obtained by these extensions are viewed in another way by
= 5, where a,& G / always
saying that a solution to the equation x + a
exists in the system of integers and that the solutions to both ax = b
(with a ^ 0) and x + a = b, where a,b G F, always exist in the system
These equations or statements are referred to as
of rational numbers.
=
first-degree equations in the one variable x of the form ax + b
is
set
solution
the
In
case
this
b/a}
(with a T 0), where a,6 G F.
.

with the rational number

b/a as the single element. Since the only
this
in
type of first-degree equation in x are those of
operations involved
addition and multiplication, we refer to it as an algebraic equation.
Algebraic equations of the second degree in one variable x, with

48

SETS

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

coefficients restricted to the set of rational

numbers, are typified by the

+c=

Q (with a ^ 0) and may or may not have solution

For example, the elements
sets containing rational numbers as elements.
1
= are rational
of the solution set {,
||} for the equation x

form ax*

bx

However, the elements of the solution sets for the equations

In order to deter2 =
are not rational numbers.
and x 2
2
2
=
5 = 0, a further
re
2
and
mine the respective solution sets for #
is
made.
of the
Numbers
rational
numbers
extension of the system of
numbers
rational
since
others
are
not
and
form \/2 TT, log 5,
they
many
cannot be expressed as exact quotients p/q of two integers p and q
These numbers are called irrational numbers and provide the
(q 9*0).
source which assures us that every positive rational number will have a
square root, a cube root, a logarithm, a sine, a cosine, and so on. Irrational numbers can be approximated through the use of rational numbers.
For example, the rational number 3.1416 or firwf has long been used as
an approximation for ?r; similarly, 1.4142 has been used for \/2. Various
tables, such as those for logarithms, square roots, and cube roots, are
other instances where rational numbers are used as approximations for
It should be noted that not all entries in tables
irrational numbers.
require rational approximations; for example, log 1000 and sin 30 are
rational numbers, namely, 3 and -|, respectively.
If the union of the set
of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers is formed, the set of

numbers.
5

x*

numbers, designated as R e is obtained.

Real numbers may be represented geometrically as points on a straight
line where a 1-1 correspondence is established between these points and
the real numbers. A point is selected on this line and designated as its
"
"zero point.
Another point is then selected and designated as "one."
With a scale now established and a point associated with zero, negative
real numbers are associated with points to the left of zero and positive real
numbers with points to the right of zero. The real number associated
with each point is called its coordinate; and the line which now represents
all real

a geometrical picture of R e is referred to as a coordinate line, a coordinate

axis, or the real-number line.

No

difficulty is experienced when associating points on the coordinate

with either integers or rational numbers. For example, the point
associated with
2 be sub1 and
f requires that the unit between

line

divided into four equal parts, and the first subdivision point to the left of
1 is associated with
The rational numbers themselves will not
f.
exhaust all the points on the real-number line. The points which are

unaccounted for correspond to those real numbers that are irrational.

what is meant by such a point, the real number \/2 is
located by constructing an isosceles right triangle on the coordinate line
where one of its two equal legs coincides with the segment from to 1, and
the vertex of the right angle coincides with the point corresponding

still

To

illustrate

REAL
to

as

shown in

and a

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

49

By the Pythagorean theorem, a = ! 2 -)-l 2 = 2

circle is now drawn using the line segment a as its
2

Fig. 20.
If a

\/2.

intersect the coordinate line at the point JL,

associated with the irrational number -\/2.

radius,

it will

which

then

is

FIG. 20

partial geometric picture of the set of real

numbers

number line" is shown in Fig. 21. This line exhibits

of real numbers used in elementary mathematics.
sin

or "the real-

the different types

26

e =

2.71828.

cos 170

-4

7T

-2

-3

.5.
^

S2
log

150

FIG. 21

Real numbers

may

be represented in terms of infinite (non terminating)

the use of
Integers are described in such a form through
In
17 = 17.0000
and
6.000000
6
for
example,
zeros;
rational numbers, which include integers, are expressible in decimal

decimals.

fact,

form by carrying out the indicated division between numerator and

denominator. These decimal equivalents are of two types: either they

= 0.875 - 0.8750000
supposedly terminate, such as
as
they will continue forever, repeating a block of digits such

will

0.428571428571

or

the decimal equivalent is one of the type that terminates, which means
is
it has a string of zeros at the right, the corresponding real number
is
decimal
nonterminating
If
the
number.
equivalent
definitely a rational
If

of repeating a

but possesses the property

%

-FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

50

block of

digits,

such as

0.428571428571

then the corresponding real number is again a rational number. Irrational numbers may also be represented as infinite decimals, where no
In
1.4142136
block of digits ever repeats, such as \/2
summary, all real numbers can be represented by infinite decimals.
.

Example

The determination

1.

Let p/q

number

is

and multiply through by 10 n

0.232323

form p/q

of the equivalent rational

for the corresponding decimal representation 0.232323

as follows.

obtained

where n

Since in
2
a block of two digits is repetitive, we multiply by 10
0.232323
=
=
0.232323
and p/q
23.2323
Thus, 100 p/q
from
Subtracting p/q from 100 p/q and, correspondingly, 0.2323
=
=
we obtain 99 p/q
23.2323
|f
23, from which p/q
Hence, ft = 0.232323

represents the

of digits in the

block that

is

repetitive.

2.7

PROPERTIES OF THE

REAL-NUMBER SYSTEM

Table 1 summarizes the properties of the different number systems

"Yes" indicates that the number system
discussed in this chapter.
The letter S
satisfies the property, while "No" indicates the opposite.
acts as a placeholder for N,

/,

F,

and

Table

R
1

e,

and

a,6,c,

...

S.

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

REAL

Any mathematical

structure satisfying
"field of rational

Thus we have the

field.

all

51

these properties

numbers" and the

is

called a

"field of real

numbers/' since all the laws for a field are satisfied in these two systems.
In Chapter 5 the concept of a field is discussed in more detail. An
intuitive acceptance of these properties for a specific 8 may be realized
by replacing a, b, and c with the numbers of arithmetic in statements
1 to 13 and checking the results obtained.

The laws
form

of

or postulates of a number system are usually expressed in the

sentences where many different mathematical symbols are

employed. Frequently, these sentences appear as equations or inequalities which communicate concisely and completely the properties of a
mathematical system. They enable the mathematical system to exhibit
a certain form or structure that distinguishes it from other systems.

A basic objective in this chapter is to expose various properties of the

"real-number system" without entering into any detailed presentation of
the development of the real-number system. The aim is to become aware
justify some of the basic rules of algebra
this more effectively, the laws of the
are repeated for emphasis.

of significant techniques

real-number system
If a,

b, c,

and to

To accomplish

and arithmetic.
.

are real numbers that are combinable under the binary

(+) and multiplication (), then:

operations of addition

Closure Laws
:

If

e-2:

If

Re-l

R
R

a
a

and
and

Re, then a

e,

then ab

e.

R*.

Commutative Laws

R
#

If

e-4:

If

e-3

R and
R and
e

Re,

e,

then a + b =
then ab = ba.

a.

Associative Laws

R -5:
R e-6:
e

-7:

If

If

If

a
a

6 Re, b

f,

e,

R and c R then (a + b) + c = a +
R and c R then (o6)c = a(6c).
e,

6)

e,

6,

Distributive

Law

e,

and

Identity

e,

then a (6

c)

ab

+ c).

ac.

Laws

a unique element unity

called the

e -S:

There

e-9

= 1 a = a.
identity element for multiplication, such that a 1
There exists in R e a unique element zero (0), called the identity

exists in

(1),
-

(b

element for addition, such that a

a.

52

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

Inverse Elements

For every a in R<,, there exists a unique element ( a) of R

such that a + ( a) = ( a) + a = 0.
For every a in jR e except 0, there exists a unique element

R -lQ:
e

jffie-ll:

I/a of

such that a(l/a)

e,

Definitions of Inverse

Subtraction:

Division:

&
6

-r-

=
=

a/6

1.

Operations

6)

(l/a)a

a(l/6) where &

When equality is expressed between real numbers, it is employed as

an equivalence relation possessing the properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. These properties and those essential to the
operations of addition and multiplication follow.
Equality Properties

G Re, then a = a.
G Re, b G Re, and

E-l, reflexive property:

For a

E-2, symmetric property:

If

&

E-3, transitive property:

If

&

GR
c,

a G
then a

E-4, addition property:

If

E-5, multiplication property

b,

then

a.
e,

jR e , 6

a G #e,
then ac =
If

Re, c

then a

#*, c

G Re,

G Re,

and a

G ^e,

and a

&,

and

c.

b,

c.

Re, c

6,

be.

E-l through E-3 will be discussed in more detail in

Properties
Section 3.5.

familiar rule in elementary algebra states, "If equals are added to

The expression "equals" is a concise way
equals, the sums are equal."

numbers" and should be interpreted accordingly. In

=
b
a
and c = d, then a
This rule is now
c = 6
d.
symbols,
with
the
aid
the
of
laws
that
the
real-number
proved
govern
system.

of saying "equal

if

Example

If a,b c,d
}

G Re and

if

and

d,

then a

Proof:

A uthority

Statement
1.

2.
3.

a
a
c

+c=6+c

+b=d+b
6 + c = 6 + d
a + c = 6 + c and & + c = & + d
a + e = 6 + d

1.

Given

2.

Step

3.

Given

and E-4

4. c

4.

Step 3 and E-4

5.

5.

6.

Steps 2 and 5

7.

Step 6 and E-3

6.

7.

e-3

+c=b+

d.

REAL NUMBERS

AND CONDITIONS

53

The proof of the rule which states "If equals are multiplied by equals,
the products are equal" is obtained in an analogous manner.
Mathematical sentences of the types ab = 5a, a
c = c
a, and

a(b

c)

ab

whenever

ac yield true statements

a,

and

b,

are

Such sentences or conditions are referred to

replaced by
as "identities" or "identical equations."
Identities have already been
encountered in sets such as A = {x G Re x 2
1 = (x + l)(x
1)}.
numbers.

real

1
The condition z 2
(x + 1) (x
1) is true
ments for x. For example, if x is replaced by

while (x

i)(x

1)

= (-3 +

Mathematical sentences

l)(-3

1)

2x

of the types

of all
3,

real-number replacethen

= (-2)(-4) =
3

and x 2

8.

2x

yield valid statements only when x is replaced by a finite number of

elements chosen from the set of real numbers. Thus, the solution set of

2x

solution set of x 2

{4}; the

is

2x

is

{3,

!}.

and 2x
3 = 5
are referred to as conditional equations.
Mathematical statements of
identity assert general truths about all numbers in a system of numbers
and provide working rules which can be applied freely with any of the
numbers in that system of numbers. Mathematical statements of
condition impose restrictions on the variables involved and permit only
the use of certain specified numbers in the system of numbers to which
Mathematical sentences

of the types x

2x

the statements apply.

Additional identities, usually called theorems, may be created from
These theorems extend techniques of
the basic list of laws for R e
.

operation with real numbers so as to facilitate manipulative procedures.

The following represent a few such theorems and are derivable from the
original laws that govern real
If a,6,c,d

T-l

T-2:
T-3:

GR

=
If a =
ab =
If

T-4:

If

T-5:

If

ab

If

T-7:

-a=

T-9:

T-10:
T-ll:

T-12:

numbers.

then:

and c = d, then a + c = b +
b and c = d, then ac = bd.
or b = 0.
if and only if a =
=
=
-b.
b
0, then a
b

+
+b=c+

T-6:

T-8:

et

cb,

6,

then a

then a

(-<*)(-&)

c.

(where

(-l)(a)
-(-a) = a

= <&
=
-ab
(-a) (6)
- c) = ab - ac
a(6
= a (where a ^
(a- )"

0)

6^0).

d.

54

T-13:

(a

+
-

+
-

b)(a

SETS

RELATIONS

b)

"

=
=

+
-

;)

FUNCTIONS

2ab

2ab + b
a
6)
+ 6) a - 6
- a - 6
(a
6)(a + ab + b
- a + b
ab + b
(a + b)(a
= a + b + c + 2ab +
(a + b + c)
=
a
+ 3a b + 3a6 + 6
+
b)
(a

T-14:

(a

T-15:

(a

T-16:
T-17:

6) (a

6) (a

T-18:

T-19:

The method

2ac

theorems

is

illustrated in the

2bc

of proof of certain selected

following examples.
2.

Example

Theorem

4; If

+b=

0,

then a

6.

Proof:

Statement

Authority

4.

+6=
+ (-6) - + (-6)
(a +
a + [b + (-b}] =
+ (-6)
= + (~b)
a +

5.

1.

2.
3.

ft)

-6

Example

3.

Given
E-4

3.

4.

RrlQ

5.

#e-9

e -5

Theorems 9 and 10 are customarily introduced

The

tary algebra as "rules of signs."

Theorem

2.

1.

9:

(-<0(-6)

proofs of these

in elementheorems follow:

ab

Proof:

Consider the two expressions

a) (6)

a)

6)

and

a) (6)

+ ab.

Authority

(-a)(-&)

(-o)(6)

(-a)(fc)

- -a(-6 +
- -a(0)
-

+ ab

- 6(~a +
= 6(0)
=

(-a)(-6)

R -7
e

lk-10

T-3

Rrf
/Ze-10

T-3

and
(-a) (6)
(-a) (6) + ab.
(-a)(6)

Since (-a) (-6)

a)

6)

andbyT-5, (-a)(-b) =

ab.

(-a) (6)
Hence by

+ ab,

then by E-3,

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

REAL

Theorem

10:

55

= ~ab

(-a) (6)

Proof:

Consider the expression

a)(b)

ab.

Authority

(-a)(6)

+ ab =

(-a

(0)6

Theorem 4

-f a)6

7?,-7

,-10

T-3

states that

if

(-a) (6)
then by T-4, (-a) (6)

0,

then a

a&

Since

6.

= -a6.

FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS

2.8

The list of theorems in the previous section includes many identities

that are referred to as "type products/' These were used in the factorization of polynomials in algebra and provided a means of recognizing
The

certain basic patterns for purposes of factoring.

a *~
is

aa

52

(a

&)

fe

identity

frequently referred to as the "difference of two squares"; similarly,

* 53 = ( a
6 2 ) as the "sum of two cubes";
a&
fc)( a

+
+ 6) =
2

(a

a2

2a&

62

and many others.

as the "perfect square trinomial'
2 =
2
of
6
The proof
the identity a
6) appears below.
(a
6) (a
;

Authority

Proof:

(a-6)(a

6)

- 6)a + (a - 6)6
- 6) + 6(a - 6)
a(a
a& + ba - 6
a
a
a& 4- 06 - 6
a + (-06 + 06) - 6
= a -6

,-7

(a

*
=
=

R*-4
fi c-7

B^4
2

Re-5

E.-9

e-10, E,~5,

customary to speak of a "polynomial in the variable x" as an

n~ l
n
+ a_2Z n~ 2 +
GO, where
expression of the form a nx + a n -ix
the exponents are nonnegative integers and the coefficients a nj a n -i,
It

is

'

'

are specific elements chosen from

4
According to this definition, 3x

some designated
2x*

4x,

|z

such as JB C F or /.
- 1, and 5 are
3x, 2x

set

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

56

polynomials in the variable x of degree

coefficients chosen from R e or one of

4, 3, 1,

and

subsets.

its

0,

respectively, with
of the

The degree

is determined by the largest exponent of x, namely, n, if

Nonzero constants such as 5 and 6 are referred to as constant
= 5x. The constant zero itself is
polynomials of zero degree, since 5
We
called the zero polynomial and has no degree associated with it.

polynomial
a n 7*

0.

be concerned primarily with nonconstant polynomials.

customary to speak of a polynomial in the variables x, y, 2,
... as either a single term or the algebraic sum of terms of the form
where b is called the coefficient of the term and is a
bx m y n z p
chosen from some designated set such as R e F, J,
element
specific
shall

It is also

and where each

of the exponents

m,n,p,...

is

polynomial.

The

2
2xyz
7, 2x
3,
y, x,
Expressions of the type 5x
z z
5
for
fulfill
z
the
4x
2z w
being such a
requirements
y
1,

or zero.

3x*y

either a positive integer

factorization of a polynomial

from which the

For example, x 2

is

dependent upon the universe

be chosen.

coefficients involved in the factors are to

is

factorable into (x

+ 2) (x

2)

if

the coefficients

appearing in the factors are chosen from the set of integers.

the coefficients are restricted to the set of natural numbers,
not reducible.

If

If, however,
4 is
then x*

the factorization of a given polynomial requires the

new polynomials whose coefficients are not elements of the

designated universe, then we say that the original polynomial is "not

introduction of

In this instance the original polynomial is considered as its

The polynomial x 2
4 is not reducible if the
coefficients are restricted to the set of real numbers, but

reducible."

best factored form.

z2

(x

2f)(x

2i)

the coefficients are permitted to be elements in the set of complex

numbers. When only natural numbers or integers are available for the
if

+ +

then the polynomial x 2

x
-J is not .reducible, but it is
2
to
be
Table
seen
rational
numbers
are permitted.
when
+
(x
-I)
readily
n.r.
"not
where
means
offers
additional
1,
examples.
reducible,"
coefficients,

Table

REAL

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

57

be noted that a polynomial may be factored in more than one

and
still
satisfy the requirements relative to the choice of coefficients.
way
In row e of Table 1, other factored forms could also have been stated such
as ^x(2x
1), which would have been more serviceable in a problem
It should

like

(l^

problem

1) for simplification

%x)/(2x

purposes.

and type

will usually indicate the direction

The context

of factorization

of a

most

exponents are permitted to be chosen from the set of

if it is stipulated that all coefficients be real
4 has factored forms such as
numbers, the algebraic expression x
If the

desirable.

rational

(z*

2.9

numbers and

2) (a*

2) or (a*

4*)(z*

+ 4*z* + 4)

and many

others.

SOLUTION SETS

In finding the solution set of a first-degree or linear equation in one

&=
(a 5* 0), the laws and theorems governing R e when
variable, ax
in
a condition or equation expressible as x = c.
These
applied result
simpler conditions of the form x = c determine the solution set of the

original equation, namely, {c}, or

Example
as follows

The

1.

b/a}.

solution set of 3x

1,

where x

GR

ej

is

obtained

Authority

3x
3x
3z

-5 +

Re-W

i(3s) = *(8)
X = 2

R<rll

E-5

5
The solution set of 3x
The original equation 3z

that

Given
E-4

+5

is,

{a;

3z

Re

= 1 yields the same solution set as x = 2

= {x G R x = 2} = {2}. Equations
1}

same

resulting in the

1 is {2}.

solution set are called equivalent equations.

The

solution sets of second-degree equations or quadratic equations in

one variable are obtained in a similar manner. From the Quadratic
2
bx
c =
R<), two first-degree
(with a ^ 0, a 6,c
equation ax
equations in one variable can be obtained from which the desired solution
set is readily determined.
However, it is noted that if the variable

may

Re, the solution set of the quadratic equation in many instances

be the null set. For example, the solution set of the quadratic

equation x*
1
set of x 2

the variable x

Re
\/2} if x
but
is
x & Re
is the null set
numbers.
the set of complex
is

{\/2,

if

is

However, the solution

{t,

i] if

The

the universe of

solution set of a

58

3
bx
e =
quadratic equation ax
a
that
which
states
product ab
2.7),
its factors, a or 6, is zero.

Example

The

2.

(3s

If

4x

1)(3

then 3s

- 4^+

3z 2

0,

where x

R*,

may

=
-

1)

x=
1

0,

replaced by 1, then 3z
2
Consequently, the solution set of 3x
It
that
follows
{|,1}.

{xER*\

if a: is

Further,

replaced by

is

4z

3z 2

depends upon Theorem 3 (Section

zero if and only if at least one of

is

solution set of 3x*

be determined as follows

3s

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

0}

4x

2,

= {sefl.|s

-f, and (0)(-|) =

1 = 0, and 2*0 =
= 0, where x G -Re,

=ors=

1}

0.
0.
is

{*,!}

Exercise 10

Which

la.

>A
-

- V?,

\/3,

Which

<i

If

If

&+ 2, 3
a;

1, a?*

/>

4,

d.

m. 7

-f 2,

numbers?

VH

i,

Integers?

-s

re

2
,

-x, 3

G
*.

y
o

2
2s, 2x

E#

GR,

/.
*

k.^-^F

x, 2x,

x,

\/4,

*,

/
^V -27,

~3
-

f.

x2

always represent integers.

of the following statements are true:

b. Q
5
c.

F
-

\/9, \/"-9> 3 \/4,

\/3 - \/2, V'^3 - \/2.

E/

^.4-46^

%N
- G
4

Y-E

I 4

G#

Using real numbers, show by a suitable counterexample that the following state-

ments are
a.

\/A,

determine which of the expressions in part

Determine which

3.

Irrational

N, which of the following expressions are always natural numbers?

2.

-^

\/2

V2

a.

j.

-v/9,

numbers?

of the following are real

c.

iV,

numbers?

Vi2, - Vie,

f, 3.14159, 0.2171828.

V4
6.

of the following are rational

true:

Subtraction

is

not commutative.

REAL NUMBERS
6.

Subtraction

c.

Division

d.

Division

e.

4.

is

is

59

not associative.

not commutative.

is not associative.
Addition will not distribute over multiplication.

Determine the additive inverse and the multiplicative inverse

(it is understood that x G Re)'.

following
a. 2

0.
j.

AND CONDITIONS

VI

m. x

6.

-3

c.

i.

-3|

/.

-TT

h.

k.

- \/3

n.

3x

-I

2
-

o.

1,

'

5.

2
>

x
X

x+<2

each of the

for

7^

* -2

Determine whether closure

exists for

each of the specified sets with respect to the

indicated operations.

Indicate clearly the laws or theorems

6. Factor each of the following polynomials.
used as your authority. Assume that the coefficients are elements of R e
.

Example:
3z

2x*

a.
c.

4
x*

=
*
-

a*

2x* 4- %x

(05

5x

- 5(*
+ l)(2x - 5)

2x(x -f 1)

5
-r-

6 - y - 2/ z
l 25
30x
g. 9s
J t. 50a
325 s
k. 64x - y
4 - (z
m. x 1 - 4z

/.

fl

x3

h. 1
;.

5x

4y)

10

r,

Oa;*

3x

16

+5

16a*s*
8t/

- (y - 2)
- 4s/) s - 3( -

+
** + 8
x4

2
4- 10c

27x* 4-

n. (x

p.

86 3

d. c

e.

2x

Re-7

#-7
6.

3x

Since
1)

3x 2

60

SETS
7.

type

Complete the following

RELATIONS

table.

If

FUNCTIONS

a polynomial

of coefficients specified, write n.r.

is

not reducible because of the

display the factors.

If it is factorable,

8.

Find the rational form p/q corresponding to each of the following:

a.

d.

0.565656
2.363636

g.

2.1636363

9.

Since

all real

b.

0.33333

c.

e.

1.37575

/.

h.

0.693693

numbers may be represented as

0.56785678
0.3272727

infinite decimals, represent

each of

the following in this manner:

a.

b.

V3

i.

e.

h.

3-1

/.

m.

V3

n.

P.

TT

3.

A
10.

<.

-3A

o.

- \/3

r.

V2

-3\/2
2

A/3

7=

V2 +3

By

use of laws

#-! through

72 C -12

and theorems T-l through T-10, prove each

GR

of the following identities, assuming that a,b,c

a. If a = 6, then ac
be.
b. (a
2
c. (a
& 2 ) - a3
63
d. 0(6
6)(a H- ab

^ -12,

Using only laws J? e -l through e

* c.
e. If 6 + a = c
a, then 6
=
= c (where a
/. If ba
ca, then 6

e.

6)

c)

a2
-a&

prove the following:

?^ 0).

2ab -f 6 2
ac

REAL
11.

Find the solution

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

set for

61

each of the following equations with respect

to

the

designated universe:

2.10

CONCEPT OF ORDER

In Section 2.6 we agreed to associate points to the right of zero on the

real-number line with positive numbers and those to the left of zero with
negative numbers. To indicate that a real number r is positive, we
and say "r is greater than zero/ while if r is a negative real
write r >
and say "r is less than zero." Further, to
write r <
we
number,
7

introduce the concept of "less than" between pairs of real numbers, the
following definition is made.
real number "&" is less than a real

there exists

some

positive real

number "a," written

number y such that a = b + y.

<

a,

if

a implies the sentence a > 6 that is, if 6 is less than

b.
We note that if b < a, the point on the realthan
greater
a,
number line associated with b lies to the left of the point associated with
For example, since 3 + 2 = 5, then 3 < 5. On the real-number line
a.
the point associated with 3 lies to the left of the point associated with 5.

The sentence
then a

<

is

Similarly,

-5 <

6,

since 11

Sentences such as "a

>

(-5)
6" and "a

6.

<

6" are read "a

is

greater than or

than or equal to b." Sym=

the "exclusive or" (V)
b
>
where
b
V
a
a
>
b
a
implies
bolically
Sentences employing
indicates that one or the other is true but not both.
the symbols > < < or > are referred to as inequalities.
equal to 6" and, correspondingly, "a

Example

1.

is less

The symbols

for inequality are frequently utilized in the

which then serves to define

writing of a condition or a defining property

SETS

62

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

a set.
For each inequality a universe must be specified as the source
from which elements are to be selected for testing in the defining condi-

The

tion.
a.

following examples serve to illustrate these ideas.

x < 4}, then 4 = {1,2,3}.
{x

A If B =

If

EN

<

N\x

{x

<4},thenJ3 =

{1,2,3,4}.

a valid statement according to the meaning of "<."

x is a prime less than 10}, then A = {2,3,5,7}. The
6. If A = {a;
elements of A are designated by black circles on the real-number line in

Note that 4

is

Fig. 22.

0123456 789

10

FIG. 22

R e x < 3 A x > 2}. Here each

c. Consider
the set A = {x
element of A must be less than 3 and at the same time greater than
2.
2 < x < 3. In order to
This defining condition may also be written
\

represent set A graphically, open circles are used at 2 and 3 to indicate

their exclusion from the set of elements.
The heavy line used to join

two circles represents the set of elements

Thus the graph of A is shown in Fig. 23.

these

satisfying both conditions.

2345

-5-4-3-2-101
FIG. 23

= {x
x
x > 3
e
-2}. Each element
to
2.
or
than
or
3
than
less
equal
(Notice that no
greater
elements here satisfy both conditions simultaneously.) For graphical
d.

Consider the set

in set

purposes

we use a

inclusion

and an open circle at

B is shown in Fig. 24.

graph of

An

<

is

black

circle

on the real-number

illustration of interest here

G -

{x

line

at 3 to indicate

2 to indicate exclusion.

is

e
\

Thus, the

a set of the type

> -1 V x <

3)

G contains elements which

the "both" condition; i.e.,
there exist certain elements which are greater than - 1 at the same time

which should be compared with

set B.

Set

satisfy the "either-or" condition as well as

REAL NUMBERS

they are

less

illustrated

than

by

3.

The

the diagrams

x>-i

AND CONDITIONS

63

set of elements satisfying each condition is

It is noted that the set
in Fig. 25.

shown

15

-3

-2

-I
FIG.

25

can be replaced by the one set {x 6 J? e }, which is graphically the entire

real-number line, since G represents the union of the two sets of points.

ORDER PROPERTIESSOLUTION OF INEQUALITIES

2J1

The manipulative procedures used in the solution of inequalities are

there
very much the same as those used with equations. However,
differand
To indicate some of the similarities
are certain exceptions.
2 has the same
that the inequality 3 >
made
is
the
agreement
ences,
-4, while 3 > -2 has a "sense" opposite to that of
6 < 4. The sense of an inequality is preserved when the same real
number is added to both members of an inequality or when both members
However, the
are multiplied or divided by a positive real number.
an
of
members
if
both
inequality are
sense of the inequality is reversed
ideas are now
These
number.
multiplied or divided by a negative real
"sense" as 6

>

used to summarize the order properties of real numbers.

If a,b,c

0-1

G Re,

then:

For any two real numbers a and b one and only one of the
lowing

is

true:

a
0-2:

If

0-3

If

0-4:

If

0-5:

If

Example

1.

<
<
<
<

fol-

<

>

<

b to illustrate the proof of

and 6 < c, then a < c.

c < b + c.
b, then a +
b and c > 0, then ac < be.
b and c < 0, then ac > be.
b

We

use the definition of a

and 6 < c, then a < c,

0-2: If a <
= b and b -f y = c,
If
a
b and b < c, then by definition a + x
<
Proof:
where x and y are positive real numbers. By Theorem T-l of Section 2,7,
b

64
(a

+ 2) +

+ y)

(b

<

Accordingly, a

c,

since (x

c,

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

from which

y)

is

it

follows that a

(x

y)

c.

a positive real number.

Example 2. Many theorems are logical consequences of the definition

and the order properties. To illustrate, the proofs of two such

of order

theorems are included.

c < b
a. If a < b and c < d, then a
Proof: If a < b and c < d, then a + y
and z are positive real numbers. Hence

+ d.

(a

and

+z

where y

d,

+ z) = (a + c) + (y + z) = b + d
+ z) is a positive real number, a + c < b +

y)

(c

Consequently, since (y
b. If ab > 0, then a >

and

>

<

or a

and

<

d.

0.

Proof:

Case

Neither a nor

can be zero, since then ab

0,

which

is

contrary

to our hypothesis.
Case 2: If either a or b is positive, say a > 0, and if 6 < 0, then ab <
(by O-5), which is contrary to hypothesis. Thus it follows that
if either a or b is positive, the other must also be positive.

Case 3

a or

If either

& is negative,

say a

<

and

0,

if

>

<

then ab

0,

(by 0-5), which is again contrary to hypothesis. Thus it follows

that if either a or & is negative, then the other must also be
negative.

The theorem
left

as

an

<

"If ab

0,

then a

>

and

<

<

or a

and

>

0"

is

exercise.

Example 3. The following examples illustrate the use of the order

properties as applied to the solution of inequalities.
a. To describe more concisely the defining condition of the set
2 >
3x
2x
{.3.G Re
4}, the aforementioned properties are
applied to the condition

-33 -

> -2s -

>
>
< 2

2x

3x
x

3z

To

GR

(a linear inequality).

Adding 2 to both' members

Adding 2x to both members
Multiplying both members by

1)

G Re

{x

{x

2x

Hence

6.

>

cc

Bx

rewritten as x 2

This statement

-3x -

more

state

<

> -2x -

concisely

the

4}

{x

GR

true

4
if

<

0,

which

is

condition

defining

factored (x

one of the factors

<

2
4}, the quadratic inequality x

3x
is

is

of

3x
4)

2}

<
(re

set

as

4 can be

1)

<

0.

negative and the other

REAL

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

65

Thus

positive.

.r

3.r

z-4>OA+l<0

<

z~4<OAz+l>0

or

>

<

<

or

>

a;

condition x > 4 A x <

I has the null set as its solution
x cannot be greater than 4 and at the same time less than
1.
The second compound condition has the set {x
1}
Re\ % < 4 A x >
as its solution set, since x can be less than 4 and at the same time greater

The compound

set, since

than

It follows that

1.

[x<ER

\x*

which yields the second

as

shown

<4} =

Bx

0U

{xR

\x

<4 A

Graphically, the solution set

set.

> -1}
represented

is

in Fig, 26.

-5-4-3-2-10

2345

FIG. 26

c.

{x

To

GR

state

x2

more concisely the defining condition

3x

>

2
4}, the inequality can be rewritten x

of

82

set

>

as
0,

Since the product of the two

which is factored (x
4) (x + 1) > 0.
numbers (x
4) and (x + 1) is greater than zero, either both factors are
Thus
positive or both are negative.

or
or

The compound

conditions

replaceable, respectively,

&-

z>4Ao;>

by x

>

>

4}

Graphically, the solution set

is

{x

Re

3z

4 and x

{x

and

<

GR

1.

e
|

>

z<4Az<-~lare
Hence
4

< -1}

represented as shown in Fig. 27.

-5-4-3-2-1012345
FIG.

27

Here

66
1

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

and 4 are excluded, because neither choice would

since 4

B =

then

is

not greater than

It is

4.

noted that

satisfy

&r

>

4,

A - [xE R*\x* - 3a: - 4> 0}

- 3z - 4 < 0},
Re x ~ Zx - 4 - 0}, and C = {x G fi,
B O C = R which is represented graphically by the real2

,r

if

a;

e,

number line.
d. To state more
{x
2x*

concisely the defining condition of a set such as

2x + I > 0}, we first observe that the equation
1 does not lend itself conveniently to factorization.
Hence,
other than factorization is employed for the study of
1 > 0.
The method of completing squares is here used to

+
G Re
+ 2x +
2x 2

a method
2x* + 2x

advantage and

illustrated as follows

2z 2
2z 2

The

left

member

the inequality

is

{x

(x

+ i)

true for

Re

is

all

2x*

+
+

2x
2x

>

> -

nonnegative for
R e i.e.,
x

all real

values of

x.

Hence,

2x

>

0}

{x

It is interesting to note that the inequality 2# 2

for all x
R e 2x*
1 < 0}
2x
#*; i.e., {x

+
=

R*\

2x

<

is

false

0.

In summary, the quadratic inequality can be studied through the

general rules of inequalities as applied to real numbers assisted by
factorization, the method of completing squares, or the quadratic formula.

2.12

CONCEPT OF ABSOLUTE VALUE

A convenient method for expressing the distance of a point from zero

on the real-number line, without regard to direction, is the use of the
concept of absolute value. The absolute value of x, where x G ^, is
written \x and defined as follows:
,

1X1
\

if

~x

if

The absolute value of 3, written |3|,

2
Similarly, |-3 + 5| = |2| - 2, |-3| =
[-3|

|-5|

>
<

x
x

is

3;
2

(3)

and

-2 = -(
*

9,

and

2)

2.

AND CONDITIONS

REAL NUMBERS

Note that the absolute value of a real number

= if x = 0.
if x ^ 0, and
number: \x\ >
\x\

67

never a negative real

is

Example 1. On the real-number line the distance between the points

7 is 4.
This result could be obtained from either |3
and
3
7| or |7
3|,
=
3
since |3
Thus, if we examine any two points a and b
7|
|7
on the real-number line, then the distance between them, without
.

regard to direction,

given by either

is

\a

6|

Example 2. A study of the set G

numbers greater than or equal to

Case

>

1: If

0,

-4

>

|aj

then

|a|

-3

-2

Two

2.

a|.

|6

>

Re |a|
{a
2} reveals that
2, or less than or equal to
2,
distinct cases arise:

real

satisfy the inequality

or

>

a and a

2 (Fig. 28).

-f

FIG. 28

Case

2: If

<

0,

-4

then

-3

|a|

= -a and -a >

-2

< -2

2 or a

(Fig. 29).

234

FIG. 29

Since

G =

the totality of elements satisfying the condition |a| > 2, then

Set G is represented graphically in
{a (E J?

is

a>2Va<~2}.

Fig. 30.

-4-3-2-10
If

new

set

{a

G#

FIG.

30

<

2}

|a|

is

denned, then

it

may

be inter-

is represented by the interval

preted graphically by use of Fig. 30. Set
The two conditions arising
2 to 2 with end points excluded.
from
from |a| < 2, namely, a < 2 and a >
2, make it possible to describe
= {a
the designated interval by either
Re a < 2 A a >
2} or

H = \aGRe\ -2 <a
In general,
x < c A x >

The

if

alternative

c is

a positive real number, then

c or

way

statement

<

<

>

c, \x[

c is

namely,

>cV#<

<
c

<

\x\

<

c is equivalent to

equivalent to x

of writing the statement x

of inequality symbols,

for the

<2}.

c, is

<

> c V x < c.
> cin terms

not ap $vail&ble procedure

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

68

sets of these defining conditions

In terms of set operations, the solution

assume the following forms
:

<

c\

{x<ERe\\X\>

C}

{x

Re

x\

e R x < c} n {x e R. x >
= {xeR \X> C}V {xERe\X <
=

{x

-cj

-c}

6 > 0, are of frequent

a| < &, where
Inequalities of the type \x
to
the
occurrence in mathematics, and, according
present discussion,
a < b. If a is added to each
b < x
to
a\ < b is equivalent
\x

For example,
+
~-3<z-2<3or-l<o;<5. However,

term, then a
written

<

<

is

illustrated further in the following examples.

a.

No

{aR

real

the condition

will satisfy

number

<

|a|

because the

2,

greater than

is

if

0.

Thus,

0.

6.

T = [a&Re |a-2| =

If

2|

then a

3,

by considering the two

Case

2 must

< -2},

a]

number

absolute value of any real

>

3|

\x

be

may

use of the concept of absolute value in defining condi-

The

3.

Example
tions

<

2|

\x

-3>2Vz-3<-2orz>5Va;<:l.

be written

tf

b.

1: If

Case 2:

(a

>

2)

is

3}.

either 5 or

0,

then

|a

These

1.

from

cases arising

|a

2|

results are obtainable

2|.

2 and a

Thus

3.

5.

If (a

<

2)

0,

then

\a

= -(a -

2|

and -(a

2)

2)

=3.

Thus a = -1.

The graphical

interpretation of

T =

-5-4-3-2-1

1,5} is

shown

in Fig. 31.

.3

It

is

FIG. 31

suggested as an exercise that the solution set for the condition

= 3.
be compared with that of |a
2|
c.

By

D - {zG R

e
\

\x

1|

<

|2

a\

5}.

use of the definition of absolute value,

D = {xER*\x <Q
which

hx>

-4}

or

D =

{x

translated graphically as shown in Fig. 32.

exercise to describe
F and r\ F if F = {x
#*
is

-6-5-4-3-2-10
FIG. 32

12

-4 <

<

an

It is left as
.c

>

1
1

3456

6}

REAL

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

69

INTERVAL NOTATION

2.13

[a,&], where a < b and a,Z> G Re, is introduced to mean the

which includes the end points a and b and all the real numbers
between a and 6 on the real-number line. This notation provides an

The symbol

interval

<

inequality a

Thus,

[x

numbers denned by the

of designating the subset of real

way

alternative

<

GR

b.

[a>,b]\

is

mean

accepted to

the set of

real

all

numbers, including end points, represented by the interval on the realnumber line shown in Fig. 33. Since we have occasion frequently to

01234

FIG. 33

refer to sets of this kind, they will be

[a,b]

[a,&[

]a,6]

]a,6[

=
=
=
=

G Re
{x G Re

{x

{x

G Re

{a;

Re

G
x G

x
|

denoted in the following manner:

Closed interval from a to &

K&]}

Half-open interval from a to

including a but excluding b
Half-open interval from a to
including b but excluding a

[a,b[}

G ]a,b[}

]a,b]}

Open

interval from a to

6,

b,

6,

excluding both a and b

A =

B =

5. The set
[-7,8], then ^4
defines the set of nonnegative real numbers, while ]
,0[ defines
The set ] QO <x> [ describes the set of
the set of negative real numbers.

For example,

if

]-2,5[ and

>

[0,

real

numbers

in relation to a line extending

Example 1.
employed with
a.

[3,6]

The operations

of

from

intersection

H [-2,4]

3 6
'

and union

may

be

[3,4].

the dotted lines represents the intersection

to

interval notation.

We analyze this graphically as shown in Fig.

interval in

<*>

34.

set,

The

interval between

since both sets

have

common.

^ ^ ^

-4

-3

-2-101
HG. 34

5^56

this

SETS

70

RELATIONS

As another example, ]-5,2[

Since union implies that a new
6.

elements in

shown

[1,4[

35

Exercise

a.
d.

]-5,4[.

in Fig. 35.

FIG.

1.

formed which contains either the

or those in both, we have the result

set is

5,2[ or those in [1,4[

FUNCTIONS

Which

1 1

of the following statements are true?

-3 >0
-3 < -5

b.
6.

-5 > -7

>

|-3|

c.

|-2|

/.

V5
-I-

2.

>

<

2.236

h.

-2.33

k.

-5.3851
|-8|

<

>f

|-5| -f

_^

0.

< - V 29

i.

r^~-

<

|6|

>

-0.35

64

/.

> -8

|-5| -f |-3|

Arrange the following numbers in terms of their absolute values (smallest to

largest):

_,,

3,

Evaluate the following:

a.

\7

c.

[~10|.|-3|

f.

|-3+8|-|7|

^.

-|-4| 2

. V2,

-3|

-h

|-4 3 - |~4| 3
1

-3|

6.

|6

d.
/.

|-8|
|-12|

h.

-|-4

4. Insert an appropriate symbol selected from

following pairs of numbers:
a. 3, 4
b. 0, 5

|-7|

^.

I7|,

-I -3|,

m.

\a[

-h

J3|

|a

+ 6|

A.

*.

A/4, 2

n,

|a|

"

+
2

|~5-h4|

|-4|
|3|

-f 12|-

>,
c.

i.

-V/3,

|6|,

-J

o, 5, 2,

|a6|

|-4|-i

<" between

each of the

-6, 2

Vn, -

Z.

|-5|, |-8|

o,

|-8|

2
,

|(-8)

\/13
2
|

REAL

NUMBERS AND CONDITIONS

71

5. By use of interval notation, describe each of the following

each set graphically. Assume in all cases that x E Re*
5x - 7 > 8(
a. {x
6.
[x
\x\ < 4]
I

c.

{x

{x

<7.

{x

6.

By

e.

d.

{x

/.

{x

A.

{*

x2

2x

xz

5x

<

|s|

+5 >
+6>

3 or

it

graphically.

U [-7,1]

b.

[0,3]

d.

[6,9]

n]7,10]

e.

]-oo,-8[VJ[-5,0[

/.

0.

]1,5]

VJ

h.

]-3, -2] VJ]-2,5[

i.

j.

[-4,3]H[2,5[

7.

d.

Discuss the validity of each of the following statements

6. 4
c.
-6
]-5,6[
[-5,2]
[0,4]
e. ]-oo,0] C 1-00,01
]-,0] C]-o,o[

8.

Plot each of the following on a real-number

a.

{x

(x

e.

{re

g.

{x

[1,3]

{x

m. {x

fl.

9.

a.
c.

8}

n ]-8,l]
n [1,3[
n ]3,8j

[-3,5[
1-3,0]
[-5,3]

c.

2x

+3

\x\

>

\x

<

{*

If

{x
(a;

|a;|

<

~2

A ~
|

a;
|

1)

<

(x

1)

0}

(0,1,2,3,4}, tabulate

E^
E^

and 3x =

and 3s

(a;) |*|

{x

in all cases that

=2}
< -2}

|*|

/.

{x\x>5V

h.

{x

I.

n.

+ 2)(aj -

(x

6.

Assume

line.

d.

[0,

< -2}

2x]

7* 15}

3}

a prime less than 20

5x

5}

9}
5a?

is

a;

3ic

3J
\\

<

3z

o.

0}

use of interval notation, find the set defined by each of the following and

U [3,11]

k.

0}

<

|ar|

a. [2,4]

c.

Represent

- 4x + 3 < 0}
\x\ > -2}
W > 3 and (a) < 5}

xz

represent

a.

sets.

4}

< 4}
- 3 -3 <

\x\x~
{x

x2

p.

\x

r.

i*

|*

each of the following

x
6. {x

,27i,

.)

sets:

EA A

d.

2,4,6,

< 4}
- 9 > 0)
+ 2| < 51

\x\

{x

>

3z

4}

3s

-h

0}

2x

>

0}

{x

EA

g.

{x

E A.

10,

Describe more concisely the defining condition of each of the following sets,
Assume in all cases that x E R^
its solution set graphically.
- 3 > 12}
4z - 5)
2x z - x - 4 > 2s 2
6. {x
{x 3x

e.

|z
x2

2a?

2s

Of

/.

x*

{x

01

and interpret

-x -4
+
6x + 5 < 0)
Qx + 9 < 0)
^^ U
+
'

a.

g.

{x

8) < -3(*
-2(*
2ic 2 - 5x - 3 > 0(
x
4x + 3 > 0}

t.

{x

Qx z

c.

{x

e.

|s

k.

{x

x2
|

4:X

2x

0}

<

0}

-2)}

d.

{.

/.

{*'

h.

{x

i-

{*

3J

r>

"t~ <"

>^_ f\

RELATIONS

SETS

72
11.

Consider the sets (assume a

+b =

0)

>

81

[x\ax

FUNCTIONS

0):

5
&4 S5 =
S6

0}
0)

as 2

iaj

ax 2

{a;

(z

as 2

+
+
+

bx
to
6x

+c =
+ c>
+c <

0}

0}
0}

a. Graph each of the solution sets &, S 2 S 3 &, 5s, and $ 6 if given that x
and the designated values of a, 6, and c as they appear in the tables.
,

6. In each case compare Si

$2 VJ 3 with the real-number line. Can a general
conclusion be stated for any choice of a and 6? What can correspondingly be said
about 84
S 5 VJ 6 ?

Graph each

12.

of the following sets

on a real-number line.

Assume

in all cases that

xER..
a.

[x\

c.

{x

e.

<x <3)

-1

~5<x<3}
G o[anda; G ]-

a;

(a;

[0,

b.

{x\0

d.

{x

a;
|

Problem 12 by using interval

Problem 12 in the form used
Can the defining conditions in part d be written in the same form as

notation.

in parts a to

[~2,5[}

,0[}

Express the defining conditions in parts a to

Rewrite the defining conditions of part

13.

<x < 5)
E [-5,3[ or x G

c.

c of

e in

that of part a?

GR

x
x2

14. If
a.

{x

c.

{a;

d.

{x

e,

graph the following:

{x x G [-1,2]}

< 4} H
-2 < x <
x > 4} Pi
2

3} r\ {x
{x

x2
|

<

-5 <

s
x

16}

g.

C\ B
A C\B
(C C\D}C\B

j.

(A

a.

d.

2x

<

0},

U B)

C\ (C

U D')

U [-2,1]

2|

<

<

HC

e.

B'

h.

D'

C\D
C\A

8}

C =

-1},

graph the following:

b.

1.7}

>!}

<

1}
e.

15. If

and

<

c.

A'

f.

A\J D

i.

A' C\

{x\x*

<

2},

3
Ordered

Pairs,

and

Cartesian Product,
Relations

INTRODUCTION

3.1

The

understand and classify mathematical concepts with

some general frame of reference is of utmost importance for
mathematical maturity. The majority of ideas in elementary mathematics fall into broad areas, such as sets, numbers, conditions, and relations.
In turn, these notions have an effect upon one another as they
become interpreted and interwoven in the light of various applications.
This chapter introduces a new type of mathematical object called an
ordered pair from which emanates two basic ideas, namely, a cartesian
product and a relation. Ordered pairs and the cartesian product provide
ability to

respect to

the frame of reference for a systematic examination of defining conditions

and relations. This environment provides added meaning for the
concepts of equations and inequalities, since the communication of these
ideas

becomes more precise through the vocabulary and symbolism

of

set theory.

3.2

ORDERED PAIRS

A pair of objects, one of which is designated as the first component and

If we
the other as the second component, is called an ordered pair.
write the numbers 2 and 3 in parentheses (2,3), designating 2 as the first
component and 3 as the second component, we have an ordered pair.
The pair of objects (socks, shoes) needs to be ordered; since in the process'
In general, (a,b) is referred
of dressing one puts on socks before shoes.
to as an ordered pair where the arrangement within the parentheses
specifies that a is to be taken as the first component and 6 the second
component. It is noted, that the components of an ordered pair need
not be different; that is, (3,3), (5,5), and (a,a) are valid pairs.
73

SETS

74

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

A new kind of element called an "ordered pair" has been developed, and
which follows, many interpretations will be attached to
For example, the concept of an
this element and its components.
the
basic
in
ordered pair is used
development and extension of number
The
ordered
mathematics.
pair (a,6) is frequently used as a
systems in
number
rational
the
for
a/6 or the complex number
representation
a _j_ 5^ Thus, the set of rational numbers or the set of complex numbers
can be defined as the set of all ordered pairs (a,b), where in the first case
and hi the second case a,b E Re. Here the ordered
I and
ab
to a parpair (a, 6) is used and a meaning attached which is pertinent
of
a
numbers.
or
ticular objective, that of extending
system
developing
it
becomes
ordered
of
an
For each distinct interpretation
pair,
necessary
to define operations, to state laws or postulates which guide these opera-

in the material

6^0

and to give meaning to the equality of ordered pairs.

For purposes which will become apparent, the equality of ordered
pairs is defined as follows: Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d), where
= (c,d) if and only if a = c and b = d.
(a,6)
a,b,c,d G Re, are equal
= b.
=
We note that (a,6)
(6,a) if and only if a
tions,

3.3

CARTESIAN-PRODUCT SET

The construction of new sets from a given set was illustrated through
subset construction and power-set construction in Sections 1.7 and 1.8.
A third kind called "cartesian-set construction" is now introduced, for
which the basic elements are ordered pairs. Suppose the set A = {2,3,4}
considered. It is now possible to form nine ordered pairs by using the
elements of A. For example, if the element 2 is associated with each and
every element of A then the ordered pairs (2,2), (2,3), and (2,4) are
obtained. The following scheme enables us to perform all the pairings
in a systematic fashion:
is

2 -+(2,2)

2-*

(2,3)

/
3-3->
\

S
2->3->
\

4-(2,4)

(3,2)

(3,3)

2->(4,2)

/
4-3->
\

4-(3,4)

(4,3)

4->(4,4)

In this manner, nine ordered pairs are formed where all the components of
the ordered pairs are elements of A. This totality of ordered
pairs is
called the "cartesian set of A" and designated A X A.
Note that the
elements of A are single numbers, while the elements of A X A are
ordered pairs. By use of the tabulation method,

XA

{(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(4,2),(4,3),(4,4)}

Hence, the cartesian set of

is

the set

A XA

of ordered pairs (a,b)

ORDERED

GA

where a

and

PAIRS,

A.

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,
If

is

a unit set

A XA If

is

taining

finite set

n 2 ordered

A X A is
A XA

(a,a)

containing n elements, then

When
pairs of elements.

AND RELATIONS

A =

75

then

{a}

A X A is a finite set conA is an infinite set, then

an infinite set.
can be interpreted graphically
by drawing two perpendicular lines with
also

(2,4)

(3,4)

(4,4)

(2,3)

(3,3)

(4,3)

(2,2)

(3,2)

(4,2)

assigned scales so as to associate points

on each line with the elements of A.

A =

{2,3,4}, the

graph

shown

in Fig. 36.

The

For the example

of

A XA

is

as

point in the plane associated with the

ordered pair (2,3) is located at the intersection of the vertical line through 2 and

the horizontal line through

the other elements of A

3.

Similarly,

XA are associated

234

with points of the plane, yielding what

HG 36
called a "nine-point lattice/' the graph
of A X A.
If I = set of integers, then I X I contains an infinite number of
ordered pairs of integers. As a result, / X / cannot be represented
completely through either a tabulation procedure or a graph. However,
the incomplete lattice of I X I (Fig. 37) indicates how the ordered pairs
-

is

INCOMPLETE GRAPH OF 7x/

FIG.

37

SETS

76

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

appear graphically and also indicates that a 1-1 correspondence exists

I
between the lattice points and the set of ordered pairs (a,V) where a

and 6 G I.
Thus far the

discussion has been confined to a single set of elements in

the formation of a cartesian-product set. However, this same procedure may be extended to involve the elements of any two sets A and B.

A = {2,4,6}
denoted A X B, is

B =

then the cartesianthe set of all ordered pairs whose first

product set,
components are chosen from A and whose second components are
chosen from B. The scheme for the formation of all the possible ordered

Example

1.

If

and

{3,5},

pairs yields

3-*

3-*

(2,3)

3->(6,3)

(4,3)

6^

4^

2^

5 -+(4,5)

5 -+(2,5)

5->(6,5)

A X B = {(2,3),{2,5),(4,3),(4 5),(6,3),(6,5)}. If it is desired to form

B X A then the first components of the ordered pairs are chosen from B
and the second components from A. The formation B X A yields
?

2->(3,2)

2-*

(5,2)

3^4^(3,4)

5^ 4-+

(5,4)

/
\

6 -+(5,6)

6 -+(3,6)

B XA =

{(3,2),(3,4),(3,6),(5,2),(5,4),(5,6)f.

since the elements of

A X B may

Here

A XB *B X

A,

from those

of

in general be different

B XA.
In summary, A X B = { (z,y) x
A and y B}. The cartesian
set A X A is a special case of the cartesian product A X B when A = B.
However, A X B ^ B X A when A ^ B.
If in Example 1 the number of ordered pairs on A X B and B X A is
denoted by n(A X B) and n(B X A), respectively, then
\

n(A

B)

= n(B X A) =

A contains three elements and B contains two elements, from

which follows n(A) n(E) = 3*2 = 6. In general, if A and B are
finite sets, A with n(A) elements and B with n(B) elements, then A X B
contains n(A X B) elements and n(A X B} = n(A) n(B).
Here
A X B and B X A are not equal, but they are equivalent, since a 1-1
correspondence can be established between the elements of these two
Accordingly,

cartesian products.

ORDERED

Example

A X C =

2.

If

PAIRS,

A =

and C

{1,2,3},

77

then

4;n(C)

= 3;andn(A X

C)

n(A) -n(C)

12.

{(1,1), (1,2), (1,3),(1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3),

(3,4)};n(C)

Note

{1,2,3,4}

AND RELATIONS

{(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(4,1),(4,2),

(4,3)};n(A)

C X A =

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

=3;n(A) = 4;andn(C X 4) =n(C)-n(A) =

in Fig. 38 that the horizontal line

that set from which the

the figure indicate that

of points in the plane.

first

components

A X C and C X A

Graph of

A*C

is

12.

associated in each case with

The graphs 'in

do not represent the same set
are selected.

Graph of

C*A

FIG. 38

It was stated earlier that all real numbers may be represented geometrically on a coordinate line where a 1-1 correspondence can be established between the set of points on the line and the set of real numbers.

usually drawn in either a horizontal or a vertical position.

coordinate lines are introduced in a plane so that they are
perpendicular with their zero points coinciding, there is formed what is

This line

If

is

now two

Each point
referred to as a cartesian (rectangular) coordinate system.
in the plane can now be associated with an ordered pair of real numbers

where the first component x is the measure of the directed distance

of P from the vertical coordinate line, while the second component y is
the measure of the directed distance of P from the horizontal coordinate
(x,y)

line.

The components

of the ordered pair (x,y) are called the coordinates

is the x coordinate (abscissa) and the second

Since x and y are commonly
coordinate
(ordinate)
component is the y
used to designate the coordinates of a point P, the two perpendicular
lines are referred to as the x axis (horizontal line) and the y axis (vertical

of

P; the

first

component

line),

and

their intersection point (0,0)

is

called the origin.

The

entire

then described as the xy plane and is a graphical interpretation

plane
of the totality of all ordered pairs (x,y) arising from the cartesian product
is

Re

B}.

78

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

now be

1-1 correspondence can

established between the set of points

of the plane and the set of ordered pairs of real numbers by associating
each point in the plane with an ordered pair of real numbers and, conversely, associating each ordered pair of real numbers with a point in the

plane.

The concept of cartesian product can be extended to more than two sets.
For example, the cartesian-product set A X B X C can be defined as the
set of all ordered triples (a,6,c) where a E A, b
C.
If
B, and c
A ** {1,2}, B = {3,4}, and C = {2,3,5}, then

A X BXC =

{(1,3,2),(1,3,5),(1,3,3),(1,4,2),(1,4,3),(1,4,5),(2,3,2),

(2,3,3),(2,3,5),(2,4,2),(2,4,3),(2,4,5)}

Schematically,

The

set

A XB X C

R XR X
e

which, in turn,

could be obtained as follows:

Re defines the set of all ordered triples of real numbers

be associated with the points of a three-dimensional

may

space,

Exercise 12
1. If

=*

{1,2,3,4,5},

A -

{3,4,5},

to describe each of the following sets

a.

B =

(1,2,3,4), use the tabulation

A XB
e.UXU

A XA

b.

d^XA
g.

(AXA)U(BX B)

j.

(UXA)C\(UXB)

2.

Let

and

h.

(A

B) \J (B

A)

be a set with n elements and B a set with

in each of the following sets?

c.

B XB

f.

(AXA)C\(BXB)

i.

(A

B)

elements.

ments are contained

XC

<*

e.

3.

jn

Given

^ X /+.

d.

B XB
B XB XB

/.

(( x>y )

&

B XC
{(*,y)

EC A y EC A

N - {natural
5ow i? J+ X

a?

method

y]

numbers}, 1+

N re}ate4 to

ff

(B

X A)

How many

ele-

\xBAy<BAx7*y}

(positive integers),
+
/ ?

C\

list

10 ordered pair?

ORDERED

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

PAIRS,

AND RELATIONS

7<?

RELATIONS

3.4

Frequently statements of the type "John is married to Sue," "7 is less

than 9," "Peg is the sister of Bob/' and "Texas is larger than Ohio" are
heard in everyday conversation. Each of these sentences involves what
is intuitively understood to be a relationship, and expressions of the type
"is married to/' "is equal to," "is the father of," "is a multiple of,"
"is a member of," and "is included in" are classified as connectives that

TJiejword "relation" implies a correspondence or an

associatioja^^^o^ob^e^s (people, numbers, ideas, etc.) ac0rdingltQ-SQme^
property possessed by them. Suppose we consider the sentence

yield relations.

x was the father of y

The ordered pair (David, Solomon) will satisfy the sentence if x is

replaced by David and y is replaced by Solomon. However, the ordered
David) does not satisfy the sentence. Similarly, the
ordered pairs (3,4), (2,5), and (6,8) satisfy the sentence x is less than y,
If a sentence is given in the form
while (4,3), (5,2), and (3,1) do not.
pair (Solomon,

y, with the blank to be filled by some connective expresthen some universe must be designated from which ordered pairs
are to be selected for testing in the sentence.
In general, a gartition^of

sion,
^wo

J5^5L2^SS4jPlff5JJ^rod-

the set of those pr%der^d,^orjw^bLich

which
do not. The question
*
,^,v,.MH>'W^*--wi**
the original "connective expression"
From a matheor "the set of ordered pairs satisfying the sentence."
matical standpoint the meaning of a relation is more precise if it is

and the

the sentence
satisfy
..,
.^^.^t^wA-L^,,., _.

arises as to

set of those
*-,..

ii|M<_,

whether the relation

-.

-i

>rf

is

Thus if R represents a relation, a set

and (x,y) satisfies the connective property, we write
This is sometimes represented as xRy.

defined to be a set of ordered pairs.

of ordered pairs,
(#,2/)

R-

Example 1. Consider the set U = {1,2,3} and

= (x,y)
pairs from U X U which are elements of R

select those ordered

x is greater than y
Here if the connective expression "is greater than" is replaced by the
U and
mathematical symbol ">," then R = {(x,y) x > y}, where x
between
a
resemblance
of
then
If
in
used
U.
is
R,
place
(x,y)
xRy
y
the two sentences xRy and x > y is evident. Accordingly, it is agreed
that the symbols "R" and ">" are interchangeable. Hence, the set
x > y} may be named and symbolized by either R or >
Thus,
(x,y)
{

R -

{(x,y)

\x>y}

can be written either

or

> =
> -

(x,y)

x
|

is

greater than y }

{(2,1),(3,1),(3,2)}

SETS

80
It follows that (2,1)

ER

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

or (2,1)

6 >

is

The use of ">" as a name for

more informative as to how the

the tabulated set {(2,1), (3,1), (3,2)}

was actually formed. However,
%
(x,y)
x >
appears within the braces

relation
y,

condition, such as

when a

>

y}^

is

more convenient

>

the relation by some letter, such as R, rather than by

>
R or xRy is used in preference to (x,y)
notation (x,y)
R or x$y.
element (x,y) does not belong to R, we write (x,y)

to

name

The

If

an

&

= "is the brother^o^

Consequently, expressions of the type ">," ," ,"
This makes
relations.
to
"C"
referred
be
as
and
wi]l
"i^anelement of,"
and the set
connective
the
both
of
expression
^consideration
possibie~the
as one entity, the relation, where it is imperative that
of ordered
pairs

whenever connective expressions are involved, they are meaningful only

If the ordered pairs are
if
associated with some specified universe.
extracted from a universe U X U in the formation of a particular relation
R the phraseology "a relation R on a set U" is used to describe it.
}

Example

If

2.

the connective "is a factor of" on

R is formed, namely, R =
G U X Z7. A tabulation for

considered, the relation

of
{

y}

where

(x,y)

(2,2),(2,4),(2,6),(3,3),(3,6),(4,4),(5,5),(6,6)

RC UX

It

U =
(x,y)

this

{2,3,4,5,6} is

is

a factor

relation

is

should be observed that

U.

To

further clarify the

included.

Example

From the

}.

3.

set

Let

A =

meaning

{2,3}

of a relation, the following

and

A X B it is possible to

are listed in Table

B =

is

Then

construct 16 different subsets, which

1.

Table

Four elements

{1,2}.

example

Three elements

Two

elements

One element No element

1(2,1)}
{(2,2)1
1(3,1)}
1(3,2))

{(2,2),(3,2)J

If one of these subsets is considered, say {(2,1), (3,1), (3,2)}, and is

designated by Ri, then Ri is being described by the tabulation method.
To specify RI by the defining-property method requires a set description

such as \(x y) some defining condition about x and y} or {(x,y) Pxy},

where P^ represents the defining condition in x and y. Thus Ri may
t

ORDERED

PAIRS,

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

AND RELATIONS

81

be written in the following manner: { (x,y) x > y}, where x

A, y
B,
PW is replaced by x > y. If x and y are replaced in the statement
x > y by the corresponding components of each of the ordered pairs
belonging to Ri, a true statement is obtained. For example, the ordered
pair (3,2) yields the true statement 3 > 2 when x is replaced by 3 and y by

and

2.

Though there exist other subsets of A

B, such as R 2 = (2, 1), (3,2) }

RI is the subset which contains

each of whose ordered pairs satisfy x > y,

the largest number of ordered pairs from

A X B that satisfies the given

Hence, if the solution set of x > y with respect to A X B is
Other defining condirequired, RI must be chosen in preference to -R 2
tions may be utilized which generate the same solution set RI from A X B.
condition.

{(x,y) \y < x}, or {(x,y)

y ^ x}, or {(x 9 y) y < x
1}
the
solution
set
as
with
B.
R\
designated
respect to A
yields
There are many ways of describing the subsets of A X B by the defin-

For example,

ing-property method.
may be described as

The

Even though a

tively.

subsets

{(x,y)

\y

# 2

{(2,1), (3,2)}

1}

specific subset of

and

{(x,y)

and R%
\

A X B may

{(2,2)}

x}, respechave different

descriptions, the graphical interpretation depends upon the ordered pairs

exposed in a corresponding tabulation. The graphs of
B, RI, and
Rz appear in Fig. 39.

A X

Graph of

A*B

Graph of
FIG.

Graph of

/Pt

3
/?2

39

Each of the subsets listed in Table 1 is a relation, a set of ordered pairs,

chosen from the cartesian product A X B. Accordingly, we refer to a
Thus
subset of ordered pairs as a "relation in a cartesian-product set."
Further, the universal set
Bi, B 2 and #3 are relations in A X B.
A X B and the empty set are also considered relations in A X J5, since
A X B. These special sets are commonly
A X B A X B and
referred to by their familiar names, the universe and the null set.
,

If R is a relation in A X B, then the set of first components of all the

"
ordered pairs of R constitutes the 'domain of definition of R" or domain
called
the
The set of second components is
of R" and is written as D*.
For
R*.
example,
"range of values of R" or "range of R" and written as
= {3,0,2,8}, while
if R - {(3,4),(0,6),(2,1),(8,7),(3,3)}> then domain D*
We note that D* A and E* B.
range R* = {4,6,1,7,3}.
'

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

82

set of ordered pairs is a relation.

Any

may come from

These pairs

various environments such as mathematical tables, charts, graphs, word

For example, a table of logdescriptions, and symbolic statements.
the
of
a
arithms yields pairs
type (x, log #), while pairs such as (time,

temperature) can be obtained from an hourly-temperature graph.

3.5

EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

A relation R on a set U is called an "equivalence relation" if it possesses

the three significant properties of reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity.
Given that R is a relation on a set U, then:

R or aRa. For
each a in U, (a,a)
be the brother of Joe, but Tom is not the brother of
Tom. Hence, the relation "is the brother of" is not reflexive, since
(Tom, Tom) does not belong to the relation. The relation "is as tall as"
a.

R is

example,

said

to be "reflexive" if for

Tom may

is reflexive,

since

we know that "Tom is as tall as Tom."

"="

then the relation

It follows that

(2,2), (3,3), (4,4).

A XA

from

extracts

"="

is

If

A =

1,2,3,4 }

the ordered pairs (1,1),

a reflexive relation.

-R.
R, then (6, a)
symmetric if whenever (a,6)
This represents a reversible property in that aRb implies bRa. The
If "Tom is married to
relation "is married to" is a symmetric relation.

6.

is said to be

married to Tom." Hence both

(Tom, Jean) and (Jean, Tom) belong to the relation. Other symmetric
relations are "is not married to," "is as old as," "is the cousin of," "is
equal to," "is parallel to," and "is similar to." Examples of relations that
are not symmetric are "is less than," "is the father of," "is an element
Jean," then

of,"
c.

and

follows that "Jean

it

is

contained in."

"is

is said to be transitive if

whenever

(a,6)

G R and

(6,c)

G R,

then

it

follows that (a,c)

than"; while

the father of" and "is in love with" are not transitive

This, expressed in the other notation, states that

if aRb and bRc, then aRc.
Examples of transitive relations are "is equal
a
"is
factor
"is
a
to,"
of,"
multiple of," "is greater than," and "is less
"is

-R.

relations.

such as "G," "C," "C," and " = "

are used with sets; and "<,"
," ">," "</' and ">" are used with
numbers. Certain of these relations are now examined so as to determine
whether they are equivalence relations.

Throughout

this text, relations

Example

Consider the relation

"=

Symmetric:

A
If A

Transitive:

If

Reflexive:

If

is

and

"

"
is

set,
JS

then

= " with respect

A =

are sets and

A, 5, and

A =
Hence

' *

are sets

A =
and

B = A.
=
A B and B =

B, then
if

True
True
C, then

True

C.

an equivalence

to sets.

A.

relation.

ORDERED

Example

The

2.

three properties.
If A
Reflexive:

PAIRS,

AND RELATIONS

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

relation

"" with respect

83

not possess

to sets does

all

Symmetric:

If

Transitive:

If

is

"C"

then

A C

are sets

A, B, and

A C
Hence

set,

and

A.

False

A C

and

and

are sets

B C A. False
A C B and B C.C, then

B, then

if

C.

True

not an equivalence relation, since

is

it

possesses only the

transitive property.

Example

Let the relation "is the mother of" be considered on the

3.

set of all people.

Reflexive:

a "is the mother of"

Symmetric:

If

"is

False

a.

the mother of"

then 6

&,

"is

the mother of"

a.

False
Transitive:

a "is the mother of"

If

fc,

a "is the mother of"

Hence

this relation does not possess

Example

and

b "is the

mother of"

any

c,

then

False

c.

of the three properties.

Let the relation "==," congruence, be considered on

4.

all

triangles in euclidean plane geometry.

^ A.
A & B, then B ^ A.
If A ^ B and B ^ C, then A ^ C.

Reflexive:

Symmetric:

If

Transitive:

The

relation "=="

Example

an equivalence

Let the relation

5.

in the set {a
Reflexive:

is

a
|

True
True
True

relation.

">"

be considered on

all

numbers

Re}.

True, since a = a
Symmetric: If a > 6, then b > a. This statement is true for the
case a = b, but false in all other instances.
True
If a > b and b > c, then a > c.
Transitive:
The relation " > " is not an equivalence relation, since it lacks the property

of

>

a.

symmetry.
Exercise 13
1.

Given

{2,3,4,5,6}, describe

each of the following relations on U by both

Determine the domain D* and

the tabulation and the defining-property method.

the range 72* for each of these relations.

equal to"
a multiple of"

a.

"is

c.

"is

e.

"is greater

g.

"is

2.

Graph each

6.

"is a faetor of"

than"

d.

"is less

than"

/.

"is

not equal to"

h.

"is 2 greater

of the relations in

Problem

1.

equal to or greater than"

than"

-RELATIONS

SETS

84

Which

3.

FUNCTIONS

of the following arc equivalence relations?

Universe

Relation
a.

"is

the brother of"

b.

"is

the same weight as"

People
People
Countries

"is

/.

peace with"
the husband of"
"is parallel to"
"is perpendicular to"

People
Lines in plane geometry
Lines in plane geometry

g.

"has the same area as"

h.

"is afraid of"

Polygons
People
People

"is at

c.

d.
e.

"has the same color hair as"

"is an element of"
"is the supplement of"

i.
.;".

k.

Sets

Angles in plane geometry

Real numbers

<

I.

m.

from"

Sets

equivalent to"

Sets

"is disjoint

n.

"is

Let

4.

{1,2,3,4,5,6}

and

B = {1,2,3,4}. Graph each of the following relaA X B. Determine D* and R* for each of these

tions in the cartesian-product set

relations.

equal to"
a divisor of"

a.

"is

c.

"is

e.

"is three

5.

In Table

describe as

times

less

3"

twice"

b.

"is

d.

"is 3 less

/.

than"
"forms a proper fraction with"

1,

many

and 0, examine the remaining subsets

Section 3.4, omitting
of these as possible by defining conditions.

and

For each of the following, give an example of a relation that possesses the

6.

stated properties

d.

and transitive
and symmetric, but not transitive
Not reflexive, not symmetric, and not transitive
Not reflexive and not symmetric, but transitive

e.

Reflexive, not symmetric, but transitive

o.

Reflexive, symmetric,

Reflexive

6.
c.

COMPLEMENTARY RELATIONS

3.6

It was previously stated that if a set A is a subset of some universe J7,

there exists another set called the complement of A, written A', where

contains those elements of

not in A.

Similarly, a relation

in a

cartesian-product set U X U (or a relation R on U) has a complement

R f in U X U. This set R' contains as elements those ordered pairs of
U not in R. Hence it follows that R'\J R = U X U. Since R'

UX

is

a subset of ordered pairs,

relation" of R.

complementary

Thus,

"is

relations.

is

referred to as the

the father of" and

"is

"

complementary

not the father of" are

ORDERED

Example

UX U=
The graphs

U=

If

1.

PAIRS,

{1,2,3}

and

R =

AND RELATIONS

(x,y)

?7,

{(l,l),(l,2),a,3),(2,l),(2,2),r2,3)

UX

of

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

<

x],

85

then

r3.n.f3.2Vr3^t

#, and #' appear in Fig. 40.

FIG. 40

Example

Additional examples of complementary relations are:

2.

Relation

Complementary relation
"is not equal to"
"is not parallel to"
"is a multiple of"
"is the mother of"
"is not greater than"

"is equal to"

a,

"is parallel to"

not a multiple of"

not the mother of"

c.

"is

d.

"is

e.

"is greater

In summary,

R =

if

(x,y)

UX
3.7

C7

is

J7

In words,

is

(x,y)

UX

U, then
relathe
complementary
}
(z,2/)
the set containing those ordered pairs (x,y) of

a relation in cartesian-product set

tion to R.

than"

Z7

$5

is

not in R.

INVERSE RELATIONS

special type of relation that has extensive use is the "inverse relation."
This concept is illustrated in the following examples.

R = {(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)} in
=
the set U X Z7, where U
{1,2,3,4} is given, then the domain of R is
If now the components of all the
the
of
R
is
{2,3,4}.
range
{1,2,3} and
the
set {(2,1), (3,1), (4,1), (3,2), (4,2),
ordered pairs of R are interchanged,
Example

(4,3)

is

1.

obtained.

relation" of R.
{1,2,3}.

If the relation

It is

This set

is

The domain

designated as
of

R"

is

R~ and is
l

{2,3,4}

called the "inverse

and the range

of

R~

is

observed that, as a result of the process of interchanging

SETS

86

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

l
the components of the ordered pairs, the domain of R is the range of R~
1
R"
of
and the range of R is the domain
dots and those of
Graphically, if the points of R are designated by open
1
in
Note that
shown
results
the
Fig. 41.
R- by black dots, we obtain
.

2
FIG. 41

each point in the graph of R has a corresponding point in the graph of

1
Le., if we consider each of the points of R with respect to the diagonal
l
For example,
line, there exists a point of R~ that is in balance with it.
there exists a correspondence between the points at (1,2) and (2,1),
between (2,3) and (3,2), etc. If the diagonal line is considered to be a
1
mirror, each point in R has a reflection or image in R" and vice versa.
For example, the image of (4,3) is (3,4).
jffi*-

The relations R and R~ l

property method.

Here

of

Example

R =

{(x y) \y
}

can be described by the defining-

>

x}

and^" =
1

>

\x

{(x y)
}

y}.

The condition x > y, defining R~ l is obtained from the condition y > x,

If a relation is represented
defining R, by interchanging the variables.
some
the
by
defining condition,
corresponding condition defining the
inverse relation is obtained by replacing x for y and y for x.
This
mirror
of
the
and
creates
correprocess yields
images
original points
}

spondingly a set of ordered pairs which

Example
then

R' 1 =

Example

2.

If

{fay)
3.

If

R =
y =

is

{fay) x = y
l
x
2} and S~

the "inverse relation."

2}

and S
{fay)

x
\

=
=

{fay)

2
7/

}.

U = {- 6, - 5, - 4, - 3, -2, -1,0, 1,2,3,4,5,6} and

x 2 },

ORDERED
then fi"
dots for

R~ l

(x,y)

their respective

-5

-4 -3

AND RELATIONS

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

PAIRS,

-2

If

we

use black dots for

graphs are as

shown

in Fig. 42.

87

and open

The

points

-1

FIG. 42

of one graph are mirror images for those of the other with respect to the
diagonal line. For example, Qi is the mirror image of PI and Q 2 is the
mirror image of P 2
The graphs of R and R~ l represent isolated points
.

and not continuous

Example

curves, since

UX U

?*

R X
e

Additional examples of relations and their inverses are:

4.

Inverse

Relation
a.

"is the wife of"

6.

"is greater

c.

"is

d.
e.

h.

"is

than"

a factor of"
the student of"

"is three

Re-

times"

"is the

husband of"

"is less

than"

"is

a multiple of"
teacher of"

"is the

"is one-third of"

"is one-fifth of"

"is five

"is 2 less than"

"is 2 more than one-third of"

"is 2

times"

more than"

"is 6 less

than three times"

In summary, two relations R and R~ l on a cartesian-product set

R" 1
are inverses of each other if when (x,y)
R, then (y,x)
and if when (y,x) G: R, then (x,y)

UX U

88

RELATIONS

SETS

FUNCTIONS

It is possible for a relation to be its own inverse.

the set of real numbers, then the relations RI =

and

{(x,y)

x2

For example,
{(x,y)

are their

25}

if

x\,

own

These relations possess the property of symmetry and, when

graphed, exhibit this characteristic with respect to a diagonal line used
as a mirror line.
inverses.

Exercise 14

If

1.

.R" 1

and

=
=
=
=

complement

g.

R
R
R
R

2.

For each

a.
c.
e,

{(x,y)

[(x y)
t

3.

?/

\(x,y}

\y

{(#,?/)

a;

Jf2

(1) Describe

(2)

1,0,1,2,3}, tabulate
R'.
Specify the

2,

its

3z

=
2

2
i/

in

b.

2x]

3}

<*.

1}

Problem

R~ l by

and graph each relation R, its inverse

domain and range for R, R~ and R'.

f.

R =
# R =

{(x,y)
|O,2/)
\(x,y}

>

2/

x2
\

2}

2}

-f

y2

a;

2y}.

5}

R =

Complete the following

xy

3}

the defining-property method.

1
{(x,y)
y = 2x}, then R'

Example. If R
Determine whether

{(a;,?/)

jK" 1 .

table:

4a. Is the inverse of a complement of a relation identical to the

complement of
the inverse of the relation? Develop a suitable
example and illustrate your con-

clusion graphically.
6. Since the cartesian
product
A?
complement of A

A X A

c.

Since the empty set

is

a relation,

is

a relation, what

what

is its

is its

inverse?

What is the

inverse?

What

is

the complement

of 0?
5. The operations of union and intersection on the
relations Ri and #2 and on their
complements and inverses produce new relations such as Ri ^J R 2 Ri
R z (Ri VJ R z y,
and (Ri C\ R^Y.
,

ORDERED

U =

If

Example.

{(z j2/)

fli

flr

VJ

2 )'

ft.,-

a?
|

89

l(l,l),(l,2),(l,3),(2,l),(2,2),(2,3),(3,l),

# =

and

y)

AND RELATIONS

{(3,^)

a;
|

^ 3}.

Hence,

UX

(R,C\R,y (fii

UX U -

then

(1,2,3),

Let Ri

(3,2),(3,3)}.

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

PAIRS,

{(1,1)

=
=

Ri r\

Let *7 = -1,0,1}. Graph RI

a. #1 = {(x,y)
y = x]
Rs = {(x,y) y < -re}
= {(a?,y) x + y == 2}
c.
^2 = {(x,y) y = x 2 + 1}
= {(a;,j/) ja;y > 0}
c.
^2 = l(*,l/) U 4- y < 0}
{

\J

R 2 for each of the following:

- {(a?,y)
= y - 1}
R = {(x,y)
+ y -1}
Ri = {(aj,y) y = {(a;,y) x + y > 0}
/e

R 2 and RI

r\

Ri

b.

a?

or

d.

a:

For each

6.

R2y =
If U =

r\

2i

7.

b.

Problem

show that (R t

5,

W #2)'

R[ r\ R^ and

Bi

(1,2,3),

((x )2/)

a;
|

j/},

fi a

{(x,y)

x
|

+y *

3),

and

show that the following statements are true:

Ri \J (R 2 C\ Ri) = (R t U 2 )
(^ jK 3 )
1
1
1
1
R'r 1 r\ (Rr l
/2s- ) = (^i-i n ^s^ ) u (^r n Ea- )

(ic,2/)

a.

of the parts of

R[

^ 4-

2/

>: 3),

PROJECTS

Supplementary Exercises
1.

2.7),
a.
b.
c.

d.

the use of the definition of a <

prove each of the following:
If a < b and c > 0, then ac < &c.
If a < b and c < 0, then ac > be.
If ab > 0, then either a >
and 6
and 6
If ab < 0, then either a >

By

&

and the properties

>
<

or a
or a

<
<

and
and

6
6

of real

<
>

numbers (Section

0.
0.

2. If abc > 0, where a,b,c

#, then it follows that either all three factors are
greater than zero or exactly one of the factors is greater than zero, while the other two
are less than zero.

Example.
as

G =

If
2

{x

#3

E R*

4,

(x

where

l)(x

2)(o?

5)

>

0},

then

(?

can be expressed

Case

1:

={aj|x-l>OAx-f2>OAa;~5>OJ

(? 1

{x

>

= {x\x>
Case

3:

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

90

5}

Ax < ~2 Ax

<5}

={x\x-l<OAx + 2>QAx-5<0}

{x

\x

<

> -2 A

<5)

<?={z|z>5}W0U(z|a;E

Hence

which, interpreted graphically,

is

shown

]~2,1[) \J

in Fig. 43.

12345

-5-4-3-2-10

FIG. 43

Use the procedure

of the

example

to interpret graphically each of the following

sets:
a.

b.

J =

c.

AT

d.

E Re
{x E R<
{s G JR.
= {* E #

is

5)(z

v2

To say

3.

square

- 2) > 0)
(s
2)(
4)(z 4- 2) < 0}
- 2)(x -f 1) < OJ
(a + 5)(x
- 3) 2 > 0}
(a + 2)(a?
x(x

{x

that
equal to 2.

is

irrational

The method

means that no

of proof

is

rational

number
and is

attributed to Euclid

exists

whose

referred to as

"reductio ad

absurdum" or "indirect proof." Either \/2 is rational or it is irrational.

of proof assumes that \/2 is rational, and, as a consequence, various
contradictions arise which eventually disprove this fact.

The method
If

\/2 is rational, then there exists a rational number of the form p/q (where p,q

q y* 0) whose square is 2.
to lowest terms; that is, p

Comments

Proof:
z

(!)

(7>/<z)

(2)

(3) Since

*= 2.

2g

(1) Basic assumption.

(2) Definition of division

2
.

p 1 = 2q z then p 2 must be an
,

even integer.

p 2 is even, then p must be even.

Thus, p is divisible by 2 and p takes
the form 2fc, where k E I2
2
we replace p by 2k.
(5) In p = 2?
2
2
Thus, (2k)*
2g and 4fc - 2q\
(4) If

E I,

understood that the rational number p/q is reduced

and q have no integral divisors other than unity. Hence,
It is

and laws

of

exponents from algebra.

(3) q* is

an integer and 2q 2

is

an even

integer.

2 is an even integer, then x* is an

even integer and the converse is

(4) If

also true.
(5) Substitution.

ORDERED
2

PAIRS,

2q\ then 2k*

g*.
2
2fc
then q z must be an
even integer. Hence, q is also an even

(6) If 4fc
z
(7) Since q

AND RELATIONS

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,
(6)
(7)

and is divisible by 2.
The initial assumption that p/q was in

91

Dividing through by 2.
Argument analogous to steps 3 and

4.

integer
(8)

lowest terms

4 and
a
(9)

7,

(8) Contradiction.

contradictory to steps
which show that p and q have

common

is

divisor 2.

The initial assumption is incorrect,

and the conclusion is that no rational
number exists whose square is 2.

a.
6.

Prove that no rational number

Prove that no rational number

(9)

Hence the square root of 2, desigis an irrational number.

nated as

v2

whose square is 3.
whose cube is 3.

exists
exists

4, If a red die and a white die are to be rolled, where the possible outcomes are
designated as the ordered pairs (x,y) with x representing the number on the red die and
y the number on the white die, describe each of the subsets in parts a to e by the
tabulation method and by the defining-property method.

If

Example,

we

let

U -

then the set of

{1,2,3,4,5,6},

all

possible outcomes can be

expressed as the cartesian product

UXU=

The subset

Si,

{(1 ) 1),(1,2),(1,3) J (1,4) ) (1,5),(1,6),(2 I 1),(2,2),(2,3),

where the dots on the two dice add

&
The subset

St,

Si,

where the dots on the two dice add

=
=

S<,

b.
c.

d.

The
The
The
The

second
e.

sum
sum
sum

given

by

=
=

is

given

by

{(5,6),(6,5)}

{(*,)

*+-!!}

{(1,1))
{(x,y)

x
|

=
=
- l(x,y)|s+y{

to 2,

is

given by

2)

where the dots on the two dice add

S*

a.

to 11,

where the dots on the two dice add

S,

The subset

is

f(l,6),(2,5),(3,4),(4,3),(5,2),(6,l)|

S*

The subset

to 7,

to 13, is

given

by

13}

on the two dice is 3, 5, 8, 9, or 12.

on the two dice is either 7 or 11.
of the dots on the two dice is 2, 3, or 12.
number of dots on the first die is three greater than the number on the
of the dots
of the dots

die.

The number

of dots

on the

first

die

is

twice the

number on the second

die.

When

5.

set

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

92

a nickel, a dime, and a quarter are tossed simultaneously, the universal

will contain eight elements that correspond to all the possible

UX UX U

outcomes.
a. Tabulate the elements of U X 17 X U.
b. Let A = set of elements corresponding to the nickel falling tails
B set of elements in which the three coins match
C = set of elements in which the number of heads exceeds the number of

tails

Tabulate:

(I)

(2)

WC

(3)A\JB

(5)UC

A'
(D A* r\c
(4)

(6)J3'nC
(9)(4uc)'

(8).un)nc"

Hint: Representing nickels, dimes, and quarters with U, d, and

using a subscript h or t to represent heads or tails, we have

UXUX
6.

each

Let A - {1,2,3,4},
of the following:

5 -

g.

h.

j.

(BXC)C\(AXD)

k.

(B

7.
a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

/.

13,4,5},

A XB
A XC
B XD

d.

b.
e.

(4,5,6,7),

and
c.

i.

X D)

C\

(B

A)

D =

{3,4}.

Tabulate

B XB
C X D
A XB X D

Let A, B, C, and D be the sets described in Problem 6.

A X B X D equal to B X A X Dl Is n(A X B X D)

Is

= n(B X A X D)?

A X B X D equal to B X D X A?
Is A X B X B equal to B X B X A?
Is A X A X A equal to D X D X D?
Is D X D X D a subset of A X A X A?
Is A X B X D a subset of A X C X D?
Is

b.

and

f.BXC

8. If A B, and C are the sets described in Problem

statements are true:

a.

respectively,

17

AX A
BXA
A XD

a.

q,

A X
A X

(B \J C)
(B Pi C)

X B)
X B)

(A
(A

VJ

(A

n (A

X
X

6,

show that the following

C)
C)

The cartesian set A X A has 16 ordered pairs. If two of these members are
and (4,2), find the remaining 14 members. Tabulate the elements of set A.
b. The cartesian set A X A X A has 27 ordered
triples, and one of its elements is
Find the remaining 26 elements.
(0,1,2).
9a.

(3,1)

10.

rational

number

defined to be a

number

of the form p/q, where p,q

/
obtained from the ordered pair (p q).
For example, the rational numbers f and --| can be represented as the ordered pairs
(3,4) and ( -5,8), respectively.
Equality and the operations of addition and multiplication for rational numbers when expressed as ordered pairs of
integers are now

and q

0.

Another

is

definition for

p/q

is

defined.
If (0,6)
a, (a,b)
& (a,&)
c.

(a,c)

G F,
=

(c,d)

(c f d) if

+ (c,d)

G F,

and only
(ad

+ 6c,

0,

if

and d

ad

&<*),

be,

0,

then;

ORDERED

CARTESIAN PRODUCT,

PAIRS,

AND RELATIONS

Example.

The ordered

a.

p/q

= I and
I

pairs (3,4)
8 * 6 4.

+ (3,5)

b.

(7,8)

c.

(5,6) -(3,10)

and

3-84-6.

(6,8) are equal, since

- (35 + 24, 40)

- (59,40)
= (15,60)
- (1,4) since (15,60) =

93

In the form

(1,4)

If rational numbers are interpreted as ordered pairs of integers, whose properties

are accepted, then the laws for the system of rational numbers (Section 2.5) can
be expressed as follows.
I and b d -f * 0, then:
If (a,6),(c,d),(e,/)
F, where a,6,c,d,e,/

Closure
F-l:

(a,&)

(c,d)

Example.
F-2:

(a,&)

(c,d)

Example.

(ad

(3,4)

(ae,bd)

(3,4)

bd]

be,

(2,3)

(9

+ be,

Id}

E F.

12) = (17,12),
F.

8,

(oc,&d)

(15,44),

and

and

(5,11)

Laws

and (ad

(15,44)

and

(17,12)

E F.

E F.

Commutative Laws
F-3:

(a,&)

(c,d)

(c,d)

+ (a,&).

Verification:
(0,6)
(c,d)

+ (c,d) + (a,6) =
=

(ad
(c6

+ 6c,
+ da,

(ad 4-

&d)

be,

Authority
Definition of addition

db]

Definition of addition

bd)

Addition and multiplication of integers are

commutative

Hence
F-4:

(c,d)

(a,6)

(a,&)

(c,d)
(c,d)

(c,d)

+ (a,&).

(0,6).

Laws

Associative

F-5:

[(a,&)

F-6:

[(o,&)

(c,d)]

(c,d)]

(e,/)

(c,/)

(a

= (0,6)
Distributive

F-7:

(a,b)

[(c,d) 4- (e,/)]

Verification:
[(c,d) -f (*,/)]

(o,&)

M)

(a,6)

(c/

acf

=
=
[(c,d)

F-9:

There
There

exists
exists

Authority
Definition of addition
distributive law for

de, d/)

and

integers
Definition of multiplication

ade, bdf)

+ (ae,6/)

(acf

(,/)]

Definition of multiphcation
Definition of addition

+ a ^ 66^)
+ ade, bdf)

(aftf

ej

(a,&)

Identity

F~8:

(e,/).

(o,b)

(ac,6d)

(a,Z)

-1-

Hence

Law

(c,d)

Definition of equality

(a,6)

(e,/).

Laws

a unique element (1,1) in F, such that

a unique element (0,1) in F, such that

(a,&)

(a,&)

(1,1)

- (a,b).
+ (0,1)-Jai^).

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

$4

Inverse Elements

For every element (a,6) of

such that (0,6) + (-,&) -

F-10:

Verification:
(a,6) -f

(~a,6)

(06

there exists a unique element

(0,6)

Additive inverse for integers

(0,1)

Definition of equality

(5,o),

such that

(5,o)

(o,5)

Authority
Definition of multiplication

(a6,6a)

(b,a)

=*

Hence

The

interpretation of

(abt ab)

Commutative property

(1,1)

Definition of equality

(6,a)

(a,6)

there exists a unique element

(0,1),

(1,1).

Verification:
(a,b)

of F,

Authority
Definition of addition

ab, b)

Hence (0,6) + (-o,5) - (0,1).

For every element (a, 6) of F except

F-13:

(a, 6)

(0,1).

of integers

(1,1).

Laws F-ll and F-12

is left

as an exercise.

Properties of Equality

E-l:
E-2:
E-3:
E-4:
E-5:

(o,5)

If (o,5)
If (a,5)

If (o,5)
If (o,5)

(o,5).

fed),

fed)

then fed) - (0,6).

and fed) - (e,f), then

then
fed), then
fed),

(o,5)

-f-

(a,6)

fe/)

fe/)

(0,6)

fed)

fed)

-f-

fe/).

fe/).

fe/).

We

leave the verification of these laws and properties of rational numbers as an

Each law should be tested with particular ordered pairs, so as to gain an
intuitive acceptance for the property.
It is not necessarily advocated that rational
exercise.

numbers be used in the form of ordered pairs for computation. This concept has
been introduced to provide a deeper insight into the structuring of numbers, for
example, the extension made possible by considering rational numbers as ordered
pairs of integers.
11.

In a manner similar to that discussed in Problem

10,

the system of integers

may be obtained as an extension of the system of natural numbers. Every integer

may be expressed as an ordered pair of natural numbers through the following scheme.
The integer 3 may be expressed as the difference of two natural numbers such as
2 or 7
5
4.
5 or 7
7.
Similarly,
may be represented as the difference 5
Thus

an integer x

defined to be the difference a

6, where a and 6 are natural

be represented by the ordered pair (a, 6). Many ordered
pairs of natural numbers may be utilized to represent a particular integer.
For
example, the integer -5 can be represented by the ordered pairs (1,6), (4,9), (2,7),

if

numbers, then x

and many
fed)

is

others.

defined to

is

may

Equality between two ordered pairs of natural numbers

that a -f d
6 -f c.
Hence (2,8) = (5,11), since 2

mean

84-5, and (1,5) - (3,7), since 1+7=5-1-3.

The operations of addition and multiplication
(o,5) 4-

fed)

(o,5)

fed)

are defined as follows

- (o+c, 6+d)
= (ac + 6d, od +

be)

(a,6)

11

=
-

ORDERED
Each
of

CARTESIAN PRODUCT, AND RELATIONS

PAIRS,

95

of the laws for the system of integers may be stated in terms of the concept
These laws can be verified by use of the definitions for equality,
pair.

an ordered

and multiplication of ordered pairs of natural numbers.

Write and verify the laws for the system of integers using the ordered-pair
A few suggestions that may be helpful are:
notation.
(1) The identity element for addition is (1,1).
addition,
a.

Verification:
(a,6)

(2)
(3)

The
The

+ (1,1) -

(a

1,

1)

Definition of equality

(a,6)

identity element for multiplication

additive inverse of (a,&) is (6,a).

Verification:
(a,6)

Authority
Definition of addition

(b,a)

(a

+ b,

+ 6)

is

(a

-j- 1,

a).

Authority
Definition of addition and

commutative

law for natural numbers

=*
b.

(1,1)

positive integer

be written

(c,

+ d),

may be

where

a,

Definition of equality
expressed as (a -f 6, a), while a negative integer may
To prove that the
6, c, and d are natural numbers.

product of two negative integers is a positive integer, it is necessary to show that the
is an integer of the
Ti) and (k, k -f
product of two integers of the form (g, g
N. This is left as an exercise.
form (m
n, m) where g,h,k,l,m,n
c. Prove that the product of a negative integer and a positive integer is a negative

integer.

4
Relations

and Functions

INTRODUCTION

4.1

An important

consequence of the language of sets has been the evolvement of a more precise meaning for the concepts of "relation" and
"function." These notions must not be confused with their everyday

meanings but are to be accepted only in accord with their mathematical

definitions.

The

successful student in mathematics needs manipulative skill in

formal courses such as algebra, trigonometry, analytics, and the like,

but the mere attainment of such proficiency without understanding is
certainly undesirable.

mathematics

is

A greater appreciation for the unity of elementary

provided by the fundamental ideas of relation and

function.

4.2

SUBSETS OF R e

XR

In previous sections, subsets of R e were described by means of equations

For example, [x
R e x > 3} was interpreted
inequalities.
geometrically as a part of a one-dimensional space, the real-number line.
In general, a set such as {x
R e P z }, where P x represents the defining

and

condition involving the variable

x,

contains real numbers as elements

where each real number corresponds to one and only one

real-number line.
R e A y R e },
Accordingly, for R e X R e = {(x,y) x
is
established
between
the
set
of
ordered pairs
spondence
R e X Re and the set of points in a plane. It follows that

point on the
a 1-1 corre-

belonging to

the graphical
In the same manner as

R e is the entire plane.

interpretation of R e
subsets of
e were studied through the use of
equations and inequalities,
similar media may be used to describe subsets of
R e These
e
subsets of ordered pairs are known by another name, relations, and

R X

correspond to subspaces of the xy plane.

96

Hence, relations in

Re X R

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

take the form

P xy

6R AyGR A

(x,y)

P^}

or

97

Re

(x,i/)

P*y

Re

the defining condition involving the variables

and ?/. The
which
follow
further
to
the
of
give
examples
emphasis
ways
describing
As is customary, relations will be designated by
relations in R e X R e

where

is

capital letters,

Re

and when no universe

is specified, it is

understood to be

Re.

Example!. Thegraphof5 =

{(x,y)

Q
]

00
,

[and?/ G]

<*>,>[}

the entire xy plane as indicated in Fig. 44.

is

Example

1 illustrates

Example

2.

S =

Line

another

of Fig.

3,

R X
e

R<,.

45 can be described as

(0,0),(l,l) ;

If relation

A =
its

of defining the set

the infinitude of points on line

= |(-3 -3)
Example

way

is

(V2

V2),(1.7,1.7)X4 4)
7

.}

described as

{(x,y

graph is represented in Fig. 46.

noted that there is a distinct difference between

It is

and

A =
B =

\(x,y)

{x

fi e

XR

and x

2}

2}

FIG.

{(2,3),(2,-l),(2,0),
{2}

44

.}

98

SETS

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

Line L

H.-Oj

r<-4-4)

-4

FIG. 45

FIG.

46

RELATIONS

The tabulation

AND FUNCTIONS

99

exposes only the single real number 2, while the

exposes an infinitude of ordered pairs of real numbers.
B
is
set
interpreted graphically in a one-dimensional space (realThus,
number line), while set A is interpreted graphically in a two-dimensional
of set

tabulation of set

space (xy plane).

Example

4.

The

C=

relation

{(a?,y)|a?

4 and

yE[-2,4]}

is

graphed in Fig. 47.

Note that the defining condition x

4 can be written x

4.

y=4

y x=4

y-2

FIG.

Example

5a.

The

X=
=
6.

The

c.

set of points OIL the

axis can be described as

the infinitude of points on the x axis

l(x,y)

set of points

Y =
-

47

ERe XR*\y =

0}

on the y axis can be described as

the infinitude of points on the y axis

{(a?,!/)

XR

\x

0}

The upper portion of the y axis, excluding the origin, can be

described

as

Y+ =
=

the infinitude of points on the upper part of the y axis

{(x,y)

e Re X

Re

x
|

>

0}

SETS

100

Example

The

6.

graphed in Fig. 48 and

A =

x
[-2,4] and y
shaded
the
portion.
represented by

relation
is

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

{(x,y)

[0,3]} is

<*^

-5

FIG. 48

Example 7. The following examples illustrate relations which are

= 25}, where a; and
subsets of other relations.
x*
If A = {(x,y)
y*
y represent the coordinates of the points on the circle, then the graphs of
\

relations B, C, D,
a.

B=

{(x,y)

and E, which are subsets of A, appear

(x,y)

GA

and y =

0}

J-5,0)

-5
FIG. 49

in Figs.

49 to

52.

RELATIONS

6.

101

C=
=

c.

AND FUNCTIONS

D=
=

the set of

{(x,y)

all

points on the circle on and above the x axis

\(x,y)EA A x >

the set of

all

0}
points on the circle to the right of the y axis,

excluding (0,5) and (0,-5)

(0,5)

(0.-5)

-6

FIG, 51

d.

E =
=

the

FUNCTIONS

= - A/25 - a;
y
the circle below the x
on
points
and (-5,0)

{(x,y)

(x,y)

GA

/\

set of all

(5,0)

4.3

RELATIONS

SETS

02

INEQUALITIES IN

TWO

axis, including

VARIABLES

Defining conditions which involve two variables x and y with the con"=
= 7, <*x
py > 7,
," "<," and ">" as implied in ax
Qy
and ax
<
R
of
relations
interest.
e
<E
7
(where
) produce
py
special
#,,7
A line L is determined by the defining condition ax Py = 7- This

nectives

xy plane into three distinct sets of points. Each ordered

pair (x y) corresponding to a point in the plane is an element belonging
to one of three sets or relations, either Si,
or $ 3 where
2

line divides the

t

81

$2

#3

=
=
=

+ @y 7}
+ f3y 7}
ax + Py
(x,y)
7}
condition x + 2y = 4

{(x,y)
{

(z,y)

ax

otx

=
>
<

For example, the defining

produces the line so
labeled in Fig. 53.
This in turn divides the plane into the three regions
corresponding to the relations
Si

+ 2y = 4}
x + 2y > 4}
x + 2y < 4}

{(x y) \x
t

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

103

For convenience, the corresponding subspaces of the plane are desigThe defining conditions that describe
nated as regions Si, $2, and S 3
S 2 and S 3 are given by the inequalities x
2y > 4 and x
2y < 4,
.

respectively.

ffte

-6

FIG.

53

can be used effectively as

from another. In this
one
testing pairs that distinguish these regions
the
and
consequent substitution
example, the use of the ordered pair (0,0)
4
to
> 4, which is a false
leads
in
x
of zero for x and zero f or y
2y >

The ordered

pairs (0,0), (0,1),

and

(1,0)

on
Accordingly, it will be found that all other points (x,y)
false
to
continue
in
as
yield
the same side of the line
region 83
(0,0)
includes
statements when substituted in x
2y > 4. Since region
described
is
the
that
it
follows
2
by
region
only those points on the line,
statement.

&

the defining condition x

In more
Step

1.

2y

>

4.

may be summarized as follows:

= y suggested by either of the
< y.

general terms, this procedure

fry
Study the line ax

+
+

&y
py > 7 or ax
Step 2. Represent sets Si, 5 2 and S* graphically.
associated
Step 3. The testing procedure should exclude those points
ax
from
obtained
line
on
the
py = 7.
that
are
with (0,0), (1,0), or (0,1)
There is always at least one such point that is not on this line.

inequalities

ax

SETS

104

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

on the line
Step 4. Substitute the x and y of any one of the points not
a
in
true
results
If
substitution
the
in the given inequality.
statement,
all other points on the same side of the line as the testing point will
continue to yield true statements and belong to the same set.
Step 5. The judgments made in Step 4 will uniquely distinguish

S z and S

graphically and will properly associate

= 7, ax
fty > 7, and ax
fty
defining conditions ax
Si,

Example

1.

The

them with

$y

<

the

y.

lined region of Fig. 54 represents the relation

-7

FIG.

54

In the event that the defining condition is given as x + y > 3, a dotted

heavy line labeled x
y = 3. This indicates that the
on
the
line
are
excluded.
points
line replaces the

2
Example 2. The graph of the set or relation {(x,y) x 2
y = 25},
where x (E Re and y E Re, partitions the plane into the three regions
These regions or subspaces are shown in Fig. 55, where
Si, S 2 and S*.
Si represents the points on the circle, 83 those within the circle, and S 2
\

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

FIG.

those outside the

given in Table

1.

circle.

The

105

55

set description of each of these regions is

Note that Si

U S U S, =
z

Table

R XR
e

e.

To determine
as in

Example
1.

the specific region corresponding to a given relation, such

2, it is convenient to use the following procedure
:

Represent the three sets

&, S 2 and 83

graphically.

Step
Step 2. Test representative points from each of the regions in the
S 3 If
denning condition of the given relation. For example, (0,0)
in x 2 + y 2 < 25, the true statement
x and y are each replaced by
< 25 is obtained. All other points of region 83 possess coordinates
2
whose replacement in x 2
y < 25 continue to yield true statements.
In the event that the chosen point had resulted in a false statement, then
In
all other points of this same region would continue to do likewise.
,

Example

2,

any point

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

106

either

on or outside the

circle

has coordinates whose

2
z
Accordingly,
y < 25 produces a false statement.
replacement in x
the proper association of a relation with a definite region may be accomcondition in terms of the
plished by testing the validity of the defining
coordinates of a few points belonging to this region.

The parabola defined by the equation y

divides the plane into three distinct regions TI, T^ and
Example

Fig. 56.

3.

=
T

Sj

xz

Set descriptions for these regions are given in Table

FIG.

2x

as

shown

3
in

2.

56

Table 2

Example

4.

The

ellipse

given

9s 2

by the
25y

defining condition

225

W^

divides the plane into the three distinct regions TFi,

and TF 3 , as
Table 3 gives set descriptions for these regions.

in Fig. 57.

shown

RELATIONS

Example

5.

The hyperbola

AND FUNCTIONS

defined

107

2
by the equation 9x

25?/

225

partitions the plane into the three distinct regions Fi, V%, and Vz, as
shown in Fig. 58. Set descriptions for these regions are given in Table 4.

-9

-5
RG. 58

Irk

SETS

108

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

Tabled

4.4

RELATIONS INVOLVING

COMPOUND CONDITIONS

" "
In relations, defining conditions may be connected by symbols V and
"A," read as "disjunction" and "conjunction" symbols. These symbols
are used in the "calculus of propositions" to join statements together,
not sets. Previous discussion of these symbols referred to conditions
where just one variable was involved, but here their use is extended to

The symbol "V"

defining conditions involving at least two variables.
means "inclusive or," which implies "this or that or both"; while the
symbol "A" means "and," which implies "this and that at the same
Occasionally, the symbol "V" is employed to mean "exclusive
"this or that but not both."
The examples which
follow illustrate the use of these connectives.

time."

or," which implies

Example

1.

The

set or relation

G=

Graph of set

FIG.

59

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

R e X R e which satisfy
totality of all ordered pairs (x,y)
= 4 or both. When translated graphically,
?/
y - 5 or 2x
represented by all the points on the two lines labeled with their

means the
either x

is

109

shown

respective defining conditions, as

Example

The

2.

in Fig. 59.

set or relation

|z

\(x,y)

2/

= 5A2o;-2/ =

4}

includes only those ordered pairs that correspond graphically to the points
which are common to both lines, namely, the point of intersection. The
= {(3,2)} is graphically represented by the point labeled
relation

(3,2) in Fig. 60.

(3,2)

-4

-5
Graph

of set

FIG. 60

In an algebra

Example

text,

G =

{(x,y)

|z

2/

= 5V2z-?/ =

might have been stated as follows. Graph x + y

with respect to the same set of rectangular axes.
2

Example

= 5/\2x-y =

{(x,y)

\2x

+
is

and 2x

4}

might

have

Solve simultaneously

been stated as follows.

This

4}

y = 4)
y = 5)

usually referred to as an "independent linear system."

G and could have been described

It is important to observe that sets

as follows:

{(x,y)

(fey)

2x
|

2o?
|

y
^/

=
=

4}
4}

U {(x,y)
n {(*,y)

x
\

+y+y=

5}

5}

no

SETS

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

FIG. 61

FIG,

62

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

Example

3.

If

what is
which is two

{(x,y)

x
\

2y

111

2x

an "inconsistent

this results in

referred to as

graph of
Here

distinct lines that are parallel, as

4y

linear

-4}, then
system/ the

shown

in Fig. 61.

x
2y = 4 A 2x
y = -4} = 0; that is, no
ordered pairs exist that simultaneously satisfy both defining conditions.

Example

{(x,y)

4.

If

fey)

a?
|

-y-

3}

and

=
then

(fey)

A C\B = B

A C\B A or
B as shown in Fig.

that of

62.

\2x-2y =

6}

since the graph of

Since x

5.

The

coincides with

3 implies 2x
2y
the solution set of x

have equivalent defining conditions; that is,

is identical to that of 2x
2y = 6. Such a system
a "dependent linear system."

Example

is

Compare with Example

{fey)

|*>4 Ay>

3}

6.

-8

jr=4

FIG. 63

6,

we

referred to as

lined region of Fig. 63 represents the relation

B =

SETS

112

Example

6.

The

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

the relation
lined regions of Fig. 64 represent
3

FIG. 65

I*

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

{(x,y)
y > x
3} andJ5 = {(x,y) \x
y > 4},
represented by the cross-hatched region shown in Fig. 65.
following set descriptions correspond to the indicated regions of Fig.

Example?.
then

The

A =

113

C\

If

is

65:

F =
G =
The

regions C, D, E, F, and

+ y<4/\y>x +

\x

{(x,y)

inclusion of the

S]

line in the description of

boundary

G is largely a matter of choice.

any

of the

In the absence

of

information to the contrary we have included the boundary line in sets

E and F. If directions had been given to describe disjoint sets, then we
could have included the boundary line in either E or F but not both or
could have considered each of the three sets E, F, and the boundary line
separately.

and
A' = {(x,y} y < x
3}
leave as an exercise the description
and graphical interpretation of the following: A \J B, B A' \J B'
A' 1 , B B- 1 and A C\ A~ l
A' C\B',A\J A', A
A', B~\ A
If

A =

A" =

{(x,y)

{(x,y)

>

>

3}.

3},

then

We

',

Example

8.

If

E=

graphical interpretation

is

{(x,y)

<

given in Fig. 66.

x*

The

< 25}, then its

E is represented

relation

lined area, since the coordinates of every point in this region

simultaneously satisfy both the linear and the quadratic inequality.

by the

1U

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

example because it illustrates the use of

linear and quadratic
relations where the defining conditions involve both
variables.
Further, it provides a
equations and inequalities in two
mathematical environment in which artistic talents can be employed.
Here we graph each of the indicated sets of rows a through I (in Table 1)
on one set of axes, color each of the regions according to the given direcT. C. Hits" (Fig. 67). The verification of this
tions, and obtain "Mr.

Example

9.

figure is left as

Let

U
A
5
C

We include

an

this

exercise.

= R. X R.
= {(x,y)\9x* +
144}
= i(x,y)\v>4x*-l}
= {(x,y) \y < 1)

W<

{(x,y)

(x

2)

+ (y -

4y

2)

>

(x

J
\(x,y)

M
N

3*

16

< 0}

{(x,y)\y>x*-4\
{(x >y

)\2y<x*-7\

.{(x,y)

{(x,y)

(x
(x

+
-

2)2
2)*

+ 4(y + 4( Table

3)
3)

A
A

y
y

>
>

3}
3}

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

115

Exercise 15

The universe used throughout this exercise

1. Graph each of the following sets:
a.

{(z,2/)|s

e.

l(x,y)

g.

{(x,y)

x
I

+
-

2/

2y
0)

9}

4}

is

R X Rf
e

b.

3z

d.

6*

/-

A.

5y
9y

=
-

15)
12}

of the following:

Graph each

2.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

116

{fey)

6c.

3s

{(a?,y)

6)

<0}

<3|
jy43* > 6}
3*

t.

{fey)

k.

{fey)J2y

3.

Graph each

a.

>

2y

(fey) |*

fir.

{fey)

=
=
=

s -h y

Z>.

{fey)

c.

{(3,y)

{fey)

e.

{fey)

/.

{fey)

0.

{fey) |2

x
|

3
3
z

3s

V
A
V
A
V

2z

4y
4y
+y
4V =

5
5

2x
2z

Graph each
{fey) |x

c.

{fey)

e.

{fey)

/.

ffey)

g.

tfey)

*.

{(a,y)

{fey)

j-

{fey)

k.

(fey)

/.
{fey)
m. {fey)
.

o.

{fey)

{fey)

r-

(fey)

r.

{fey)

{fey)

{fey)

2:

>

4}

2:

+ 3y <

4{

3}
3}

6}
6}

153

0}

-10}

5x

-1-4

6.

{fey)

{(,y)

14

- -3}

d.

[0,2]}

{fey)|y E[0,7]}

f*4-3>l} r\{(x,y}\y<Q\
>
2x
y < 2 and
<

>

&+

5} Pi {(3,y)

\x~~y<3Axl

1}

{fey)

<

5}

4 4y < 36 A y > A x > 0}

3x
2y > 9}
2y < 6} Pi {fey) 3x
2* +y > 2} C
x + y > 9 A x* 4 9# 2 > 36}
+ y < 64 A x 2 -f- > 16}
9s -h 16y
144 A y = a;}
9^ + 16y < 144} Pi (fey) y < 3}
2

9a; 2

t/

0}

{(

a;

3y

of the following:

<

4x

9z 2 4-

Let

2?/

+ i/>3}
G [-3,5] and y E

9a; 2

5.

/i.

11}

=
=
=

a;

4}

11}

0}

8}

'

{fey)|y

0}

15}

a.

4 2y
4 2y
4 2y
4

2s

4.

33

-y + 7

tfey)

fc.

<

of the following:

{fey)

{fe2/)

2y

/.

J.

a?
|

d-

16i/
162/

2
2

A =

{fey)

{fey)|y

^ -

{fey)

2a;

<
<

- y < 4}
144 A x z - y*
144} P\ {fey)

> 0}
>0|
-

>

01

>
|

4}

32

<

4}

2y
[0,

<

4}

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

Graph each

of the following sets:

a.

b.

d.

e.

g.

6.

a.

117

B
A

C\

h. [(A n B) Pi C] r\D
C\B)r\C
=
=
If A
{(x,y} x -f y
36}, graph each of the
B = {(s,2/) (z,7/) G -4 and x > 0}
C = {(z,y) (ic,2/) E 4, > 0, and y > 0}
D f(,2/) (a;,?/) G -4 and y = 0}
E = {(a?,y) E^|x<OA2/<0}

c.

f.

A \JB

(A

following subsets:

6.

a;

c.

d.

7.

Let

A =
.B =
C =

D
Graph each

>
<

{(rc,2/)

\(x,y}

f(o;,2/)

{(a;,y)

0}

x
a;

0}

y
2

>
2

2/

3}

<

9}

of the following sets:

a.

C'

6.

D'

c.

d.

C' \J D'

e.

B r\C

f.

g.

(A r\ B)

h.

[(A r\

4.5

nc

B) r\

C] r\

i.

B C\ C'
Cr\D
(A r\B] r\c

RELATIONS INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUE

The concept of absolute value affords many opportunities for creating

relations which, in turn, describe particular subspaces of the xy plane.
To illustrate such situations, the following examples are included.

= {(x,y) \x\
1.
The graph of
y
3} is represented
This follows since the defining condition \x\ + y = 3 becomes
xifx>Oor3 y = x if x < 0. Accordingly,

Example

in Fig. 68.
=
3
7/

{(x,y)

+ y = 3/\x>0}\J

-5
FIG. 68

{(x,y)

x-y=-3/\x<0}

1 1

SETS

Example

2.

The graph

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

of

,y)

appears in Fig.

\x-y>-Z/\x<0}

69.

s
,

-6

FIG.

69

FIG.

70

RELATIONS

Example

Qi

{(x,y)

The graph

of

Q =

If

3.

{(x,y)

>

y
2}

\x

2)},

and Q 2 =

then

119

Q =

Q, \J

Q 2 where
,

{(s,

appears in Fig. 70.

M
Example
M = M U M U M U Af
If

4.

(x y)

AND FUNCTIONS

\x\

4,

\y\

4},

then (as shown in Fig. 71)

where

{(x,y)
(x,y)

-x +

Ax<OA2/>0}

Exercise 16

The universe throughout

1.

Graph each

this exercise is

e.

of the following:
b.

a.
c.

R XR

\y\

I*

{(x,y)

-M

=4}

f.

13

= 5}
- 3| - x\ =

2}
7}

6}
|a?

m.
2.

a?

(x,y)

Graph each

N>

g.

{(,y)

|3

{(a?,y)

|a;

-f

\x

2|

6.

1}

a?|

>
>

y}

2|

|y

|2/|

<

4(

-a?|
e.

y\

of the following:

d.

1J

1|

<

{(x,y)\

2}

>3 -

<4}
2}

3.

a.

Graph each
{(x,y)

c.

{(x,y)

a.

4.6

of the following:

<2) Pi {(x,y) \y\ < 3}

> \x\ y > \x\ + x] Pi \(x,y] y
~
3 A |3z -2/1=5}
|2s +

{(x,y)

b.

4.

x}

i/|

of the following:

Graph each
{(x,y)

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

20

\x*

5x

6.

6|}

{(x,y)

\W -

x
\

6y|

>

0}

CONCEPT OF A FUNCTION
mathematics

in

most important unifying idea

is

that of a function.

the advent of a greater appreciation for the use of the language of

now is possible to refine the notions of a function and make its
it
sets,
meaning more precise. The concept of a function is basically concerned
with a domain D*, a range #*, and specific instructions that assign to each

With

element of the domain D* a corresponding element of the range B* so

form ordered pairs. This means that functions are of w necess]tj
sets of ordered
By convention, the empty set is not considered a

as to

gajrs.

fTncSonlmt

their subsets are the nuclei

relation

Cartesian products and

referred to as the void relation.

is

is

from which functions

a function

it

if

satisfies

arise.

one important requirement,

that of being single-valued; a relation is single- vali^Jf^when

namely,
"
two ordered pairs are contained mth_egual Jirsfc components, then
their second components must also be equal.
It_is noted that, the
mathematical idea of a function is not destroyed for, any relation
which possesses two or more ordered pairs with,u^qual&stjco^pc>nents,

even though

their second

components are equal.

relation, but not every relation is

Every function

is

a function.

may

Sets of elements, whether these be ordered pairs or otherwise,

be

R, RI,
designated by capital letters such a,s A, B,
be convenient when discussing functions to represent sets of ordered pairs
but even in these
/i, / 2
by lowercase letters such as/, g, h,
.

not be mandatory.
of
of a set
ordered pairs of the form

instances it will

It will

A description of

a function in terms

A functionJwith
(x,y) is now given.
domain D* and range R* ia nonempty set wJ^re for^ej^^x ^f)f there .i^
one and only one y G R* which combines with $ to foffll^cwho^ the (x,yys
belonging to f.
function so defined

traditional mathematics.

is

referred to as a single-valued function in

insists that ifa set )f

The modern version

ordered pairs satisfies^the property^ of l^eing^mjgle^ro^^

then will it be consideredfaTun^tion. The unspecified element

and the unspecified element

^~1B*

xj^ D*

are called the_jindependent,,and

dependent variables of the function/, .respectively. If R* contains only

one element, then/ is called a constant function. If I)* C R ej f is called

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

121

O-^

f a real variable.
JLi^caJIfidL a revalued JuncIn the material which follows, examples illustrate how functions

tion.

are joined together to form relations and how relations are separated to
form functions. These procedures necessitate a clear understanding of
the difference between a relation and a function.

Example

1.

Let

A=
5=
C-

Relations

A and B

satisfy the

requirement of being single-valued and as a

Relation C is not a function, since the
and (1,3) have equal first components but unequal

consequence are functions.

ordered pairs (1,1)
second components.

PHRASEOLOGY AND LANGUAGE OF FUNCTIONS

4.7

The expression "function of" is not to be confused with the mathematical meaning of "function." As already described, a function is a set
of ordered pairs satisfying a special property.
However, the jphrase $ is a
"f unction of" x will imply that ordered pairs
(&,y) can be formed possessOne of the meSuxls used to define
ing the property of single-valuednesg.

a function

is

range values

to give its domain D* and rules for obtaining, corresponding

It is customary Jj3_express the rules oj^defimng conditions

form

of formulas or equations.^ In certain other instances, 'direcbe given in word sentences which are not expressible in terms of
equations and formulas. In all cases, some means must exist whereby

in the

tions

the

may

naming

of a value in the

domain

of a function gives rise to the

naming

of^a corresponding value in the range.

For example, the statement "Function

j(x)

= A/25

9z 2

"

is

an

abbreviation for the statement 'The function / defined by the equation

f(x)

A/25
/

9xV

In set notation

= to) \xeRef\yE

There are a number

it is

Re S\y

written as

f(x)

= A/25 - 9z 2

important ideas that should be emphasized here.

used in an ambiguous fashion to symsometimes
f(x)
The symboljX^l
bolize a function and also the value of the function.
is not the function, since / is the function.
/ re P r Qg?rtg

The notation

of

is

..^

EE-

^^Pl/fe),"^^ 6 ^11^^ 011

^s

an

or ".funetionjLfiL^"

Thus, /(I)

25

4 means the value of the function/ at

1 is 4.

Similarly, /(O)
/(O) are second

*\/25

FUNCTIONS

-RELATIONS

SETS

22

-0 =

and so

5,

These values /(I) and

on.

- (1,4) and
(!,/(!))
components
the
function
to
ordered
These
/ and
pairs belong
(0,5).
(0,/(0))
not to a function f(x). This ambiguous usage of /(re) has become so
embedded in mathematical literature that it seems impossible to eliminate
such as f(x), g(x), and so on have to be
it, and, as a consequence, symbols
of the ordered pairs

read

The statement "The function

carefully.

/(re)

doubt that the function/ is desired, that

= \/25 - 9# 2 Accordingly, /
for
which
f(x)
pairs
is the functional or range value of / at x.
Ambiguity appears when a set is described as

leaves

little

f(x)

{(x,y)

\xER

9z 2

"

is,

the set of ordered

is

the function; f(x)

= V25 -

/\yR Ay = f(x)

= A/25 -

9z 2 }

because the "/(re)" of the left side does not represent the set of ordered
The left side should be represented by / and
pairs on the right side.
not /(re), and thus ambiguity would be avoided. At best, if f(x) appears
as indicated, it

must be regarded
This

creating the right side.

such as {(x,y) y = f(x)
/(*)

or 9z

on the

9rr

what
3x

is

understood when expressions

2} are written as

= 9s*-3z

{(x,y)\f(x)

2}

2
3x
Here 9z 2 - 3x
2}.
side suggests the rule from which the corresponding function is

3x

left

as a label or a suggestive expression for

is

{(x,y)

/(re)

9z

x
created and is distinguishable from 2x } \/9
rules that create other functions.
The description

/=
makes a

{(*,/(*)) |/(s)

{(x,y)

9s*

between the usage

clear distinction

In the set
conditions x

\xR

-3s +
of /

etc.,

which suggest

2}

and

f(x).

/\y:R j\y= f(x} = V25 e

9x 2

the

G Re and y G Re restrict x and y to the set of real numbers,

while

the

set

(x,y)

interpreted the same

R A

way

or

complex numbers with x

might

= A/25

9# 2

either

permit y to be chosen

G Re*

could

from the

be

set of

However, the first interpretation is

both descriptions unless otherwise specified.
For this example, the domain D* and the range J?* are the intervals

what

is

usually meant

[~iMH and

in

[-5,5], respectively.

Example 1. Consider the following phraseology:

Graph y = 1.
b. Graph x = 2.
2
c. Graph x
+ y 2 = 16.
d. Graphs 2 + y* = -16.
a.

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

c.

may be
A = (x,y)
B = {(z,2/)
C = (X,T/)

d.

E =

These
a.

x
a:

pairs

a;

{(x,y)

In each case

it is

R Ay - 1
- 2 A y
R
G #e A y He A
6 R. A y G fi A

x <E

6.

a.

restated as

123

+
+

z2
x*

not the equation which

2
7/

y*

= 16}
- -16}

graphed, but the set of ordered

is

which the equation produces.

Set

so on.

consists of ordered pairs, such as (0,1), (1,1), (2,1), (3,1),

of this set is a line one unit above the x axis

The graph

parallel to

shown

as

it,

Even though

in Fig. 72.

J-2,1)

all

ordered pairs of set

(5,1)

(1,1)

FIG.

and
and

72

have identical second components, their corresponding first compoHence, A is an example of a constant function with
domain ] oo oo and range 1
Because of the nature of the graph, the expressions "line y = 1" and

nents are different.

[

"graph of the equation y = 1" are used interchangeably. The line

constitutes all the points associated with the ordered pairs belonging to
A, while y = 1 is an equation and nothing more. The function was
created because the equation y = 1 provided enough information to
supply the ordered pairs of A. The line is labeled y = 1, but in this
sense the equation is a name that identifies the line and distinguishes
The set description
all other graphs of ordered pairs.

it

from

{(x,y)

being more
the label y
6.

awkward

to write

\xERe A

</=

on the graph,

is

1}

replaced for convenience

What has been said in part a could in the main

The ordered

by

1.

pairs belonging to

be repeated for set B.

are (2,1), (2,3), (2,0), (2,A/2),

....

SETS

124

Here

is

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

The graph

a relation but not a function.

units to the right of the y axis

The domain

of

is

{2},

and

parallel to

and the range

of

is

it,

of set

as

is

shown

a line two

in Fig. 73.

]>,*>[.

(2,2)

-3
(2.-1)

-4

FIG. 73

C contains ordered pairs such as (1,V15), (1, V 15), (0,4),

.... The ordered pairs contained in C bar it from being a
function.
The graphical representation of C is a circle with radius of four
c.

(0,

units

Set

4),

and center at

(0,0).

The expression
2

interchangeably with {(x,y) x

2
Fig. 74 and labeled x*
y = 16.
are represented by the interval [
\

Note that the

= \/16

"circle x 2

7/

\/16

16"

is

used

16}.

4,4].

original equation suggests other equations

x 2 and y
equations, namely,
y

The graph is shown in

Both the domain and the range of C
2

xz

The

which include

sets suggested

It
represent functions, and their graphs appear in Fig. 75.
that the relation C is the union of the functions Ci and C 2 C
The domain of C is the union of the "domain of Ci" and the
,

is

by these

apparent
Ci VJ C 2

"domain

of

= [-4,4]. The range of C is the union of the

CY' or [-4,4]
[-4,4]
= [-4,4].
of
and
the
CV'
"range
"range of CY' or [0,4]
[-4,0]

RELATIONS

(-4,0)

AND FUNCTIONS

125

(-4,0)

|(4,0)

-5

-5
Set

Set

Domain of

Range

of

Cz

Domain of Ci =[-4,4]

[-4,4

Ra.nge of

^=[0,4]
FIG.

75

C2 = [-4

o]

SETS

126

This illustrates

how a

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

relation can be separated into the union of two

both functions. This idea is important

relations, which
for many situations that arise in

in this case are

mathematical environments such as

are
functions
where
calculus
necessary.
x 2 + y 2 = -16} represents the empty set 0,
d. The set E = {(x,y)
Both
since the sum of the squares of two real numbers is never negative.
the domain and the range of E are represented by the empty set.
By
convention, set E is the void relation and not a function.
\

Example

Consider the set represented by

2.

The open

Zx

A
A

x
x

G
E

[0,lf
[1,4]

1)

in Fig. 76

This example illustrates that

indicates that (1,
l)
?/.
conditions are sometimes necessary to define a function.

compound

This set

is

a function.

circle at

point

(1,

-4

*_r

Setf

*
i

FIG.

76

In many physical environments the term function is used to describe a

formula that applies to a particular situation. This is illustrated in the
examples that follow.
In the word statement "Express the radius of a circle as
area/' the phrase "function of implies that ordered pairs
of numbers can be created where the first and second components are

Example

3.

a function of

its

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

127

associated with area and radius, respectively.

It is implicitly understood
that the circle is to have a realistic environment, and thus the area and

must be represented by positive real numbers. The use of neganumbers has no significant meaning here, but zero area and zero
In this example, the domain D* is either
radius might be included.
radius

tive real

]0,flo[or[0,oo[.
If

and r are associated with the area and radius of a circle, respecz
then a well-known formula from geometry states that A
irr

tively,

V A/TT.

or that r

indicating a

It is

now

possible to

domain and applying a

form the desired function by

Accordingly, for this example,

a set of ordered pairs ( A,r) can be created that satisfies the requirements of
being a mathematical function. In set notation the problem "Express
rule.

the radius of a circle as a function of

{(A,r)

Since
is

E]0,oo[

E ]0,

<*>[

is

A A =

Trr

its

or

area" can be stated as

\A 6]0,oo[ A r=

l(A,r)

implicitly understood, the

form {(A,r)

The range 72* of this function is ]0,

preferable.
If the problem had been phrased, "Express the area
<*>

r
|

^~

= \/A/w}

[.

of a circle as a

o [ A A = Trr 2
}
]0,
radius," then the function { (r,A) r
would be implied, where r and A are considered to be the domain and

function of

its

range variables, respectively.

Example

4.

Let the radius and height of a right circular cylinder

If h is constant, the
r and h linear units, respectively.
S is a "function of" r. From geometry,

be represented by
total surface area

S =

/(r)

2irrA

27TT

square units, which suggests the creation of the function

/

{(TVS)

S=
|

/(r)

27rrA

2irr*}

the right circular cylinder is given the fixed volume of 100 cubic units,
that is, r 2 A = 100, then / can be restated as
If

Both the range and the domain

interval

]0,

of this function are represented

>

[.

Exercise 17
1.

Which

a.

{(3,1)/4,1)(5,1),(-1,1)}.

b.

{(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(5,5)[

c.

{(0,l),(0,2),(l 3),(2,4)}

d.

{(1,4)}

e.

of the following sets are functions?

by the

SETS

28

U - R X A,

2. If

which of the following are functions?

a.

3.

What

a.

VT^"

-\/4x

by each

functions are suggested

d.
g.

&

-5

e.

V*x -9

What

a.

Domain:

D* =

Rule:

(1)

functions do

we

of the following expressions?

&

4- 9

4.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

2z

/.

obtain in each of the following?

{4,1,2,0}.

Choose an element in the domain.

and subtract 3.

(2) Square
b.

Re - ]-<*>, [.
chosen by
(1) Multiply the element
(2) Add 3 to the result in step (1).

D* =

Domain:
Rule:

(3)

Tabulate at least
c.

Domain:

D*

Rule:

(1)

Cube the
five

3-).

result in step (2).

ordered pairs.

R ~
e

*>[

For aU numbers of

in the interval

- 1,4[,

double the number

chosen.

For all numbers in R. in the interval [7,10], divide the number

chosen by 2 and to the result add 6.
not in the intervals described in
(3) For all other numbers chosen
steps (1) and (2), subtract 4.
Tabulate at least four ordered pairs in each of the intervals described.
D* = ]0, [, which represent numbers describing the edge of a cube.
d. Domain:
(2)

Rule:

Form

values
e.

(1)

Choose a number in D*.

(2)

Cube

it.

the function and

R*>

describe

the

The telephone numbers

Domain:

geometrical

significance

of all the people listed

of

the range

on page 200 of your

local telephone directory.

For each listed telephone number, associate the corresponding name.

Rule:
Will this always be a function, or is it possible for the same telephone number to
be assigned to two distinct names on the same page? (Do not tabulate the ordered
pairs.)

x represents the domain variable and is chosen from the number interval
words the rule of the function described by each of the following:

5. If
]0,

[,

state in

3a?

1
b.

a.

+4

xz

c.

V4 -

+4

d.

6.

a.
6.
c.

d.

What

is meant by each of the

The function y = 3x 2
The function /(x) - 2x + Zx
1
The function 2x
The conatant function 2
2

7. If

functions
a.
c.

following?

f
h

XR

R.

e)

state the

{(x,y)

{(x f h(x))

h(x)

domain and the range

of each of

the following

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

Describe both verbally and graphically what

8.

The line 3x - 2y = 7
The ellipse 4x 2 + 9y 2
36
The parabola x 2 = 4?/
The hyperbola xy = 10
The point (2,8)

a.
6.
c.

d.
e.

9.

a.

How would
= f(x /)

}2

you
2x

'

meant by each

of the following:

label the graphs of each of the following sets?

c.

is

129

b.

4}

Ax E

{(x,0(x))

g(x)

x2

4- 4}

[-2,4

Discuss and represent each of the following statements as a symbolic expression

10.

in set notation:
a.
6.
c.

d.

The volume of a sphere as a function of the radius.

The radius of a sphere as a function of the volume.
The volume of a parallelepiped as a function of the width

w,

if

the length

is

twice the depth and the depth is 4 inches less than the width.
The volume of a gas as a function of the pressure p.

The area of an equilateral triangle as a function of the length of a side s.

The simple interest on $100 at 5 per cent as a function of the time t.
g. The surface area of a sphere as a function of its radius.
h. The radius of a sphere as a function of its surface area.
i. If A = (3 + a;)/(3 - x) and B = (3 - x)/(3 -f x) determine the expression
A 2 + 24 -f # 2 as a function of x.
j. A sphere of radius r is concentric with a sphere 2r.
Express the volume of the
e.

f.

spherical shell as a function of

r.

As an application to physical situations,

Problems 11 to 18.

set

up the appropriate functions

for

11.
strip of nickel 200 inches long and 16 inches wide is to be made into a rain
gutter by turning up the edges to form a trough with a rectangular cross section.
If the bent-up edge is x inches, express the volume of the trough as a function of x.
12. A gardener wishes to fence a rectangular garden along a straight river requiring
no fence. He has enough wire to build a fence 200 yards long. If the side bordering
on the river is represented by the variable x, express the area of the garden as a

function of

x.

car A traveling west at the rate of 25 mph is 20 miles directly south

Express the distance between the
traveling north at the rate of 30 mph.
two cars as a function of the time t, where t is the number of hours after 12 o'clock.
Using the result obtained, find the distance between the cars at 3 P.M. and at 5:15 P.M.
13.

At noon a

of a car

Norman window

surmounted by a semicircle) has a perimeter

not the diameter of the semicircle is represented
by x, express the area of the window as a function of x.
15. If the sum of two numbers is 200, and one of the numbers is represented by x,
express (a) their product as a function of x, (6) the sum of their squares as a function
of x, and (c) the sum of their reciprocals as a function of x.
16. If an open-top tomato can holds 108 cubic inches, and if x represents the
number of inches in the radius of the top, express the area of the surface of the can
14. If

of 100 inches,

and if the

side

(a rectangle

which

is

as a function of x.
17.

square,

wire 100 feet long is cut in two parts; one part is bent into the sides of a
If the perimeter of the square
into the circumference of a circle.

and the other

SETSRELATIONSFUNCTIONS

130
represented by
function of p.

is

18.

p, express

the

sum

of the areas of

both the square and the

circle as

corner of a square sheet of cardboard 20 inches on a side, a square

The edges of the sheet are then turned up to make a box.

From each

of side x inches is cut.

Express the volume V of the box as a function of x.

19. If /(n) is the number of prime numbers less than or equal to any positive integer
n, determine /(5),/( 50), /(73), and/(79).

THE OPERATIONS OF UNION

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

4.8

AND INTERSECTION AS

APPLIED

TO

the hyperbola, and the parabola afford effective

illustrations for the use of set operations as applied to relations and

The

the

circle,

ellipse,

functions.

Example
at the point

1.

standard form for the equation

and radius r is given by

(A, ft)

(x

Let
a.

(x

S =

6.

x*

(x,y)

A)

(y

its

+ y* - 4x - lOy
+ y* 4# IQy

(y
radius is

The graph

5)

49.

with center

- ky = r
- 20 = 0}.

The equation x 2
2)

and

of a circle

can be restated as

20

Hence, the center of the circle

is

at (2,5)

7.

of

S is labeled in

2
Fig. 77 as x

y*

4x

- Wy

(9,5)

20

0.

RELATIONS
c.

Solving for y in terms of

=
-

+ V49 + \/45 -

(x

x*

2)

x,

AND FUNCTIONS

we

131

find

and

4x

= 5 - V49 = 5- V45 -

(x

2)

Then

+
=
and S

Si VJ

fif 2

- V45 -

The graphs of
The graphs
ingly.
d.

/Si

and S 2 appear in Fig. 78 and are labeled accordand $ 2 represent sets of ordered pairs which

of Si

(9,5)

FIG.

78

Hence, these relations are

possess the property of being single-valued.
set
S.
is
the
functions and their union
original
e. The domains of $, Si, and Sz are each equal to the interval [5,9].

the interval [2,12]; the ranges of Si and 2 are the

The range of S is the union of
intervals [5,12] and [-2,5], respectively.
= [-2,12]. Note that
and
the ranges of Si
[-2,5]
&, namely [5,12]

The range

of

is

SiC\S* =

{(-5,5),(9,5)}.

A standard form for

the defining condition of an x ellipse

6
the semimajor and semiminor axes,
a
at
and
with the center
(h,k) and

Example

2.

respectively,

is

given by

(x

Let

S =

a.
(re

l)

a and

/9

+ (y +

5)

of

9^/

+
/4

equal to 3 and

The graph

b.

4x 2
The equation 4z 2
{(x,y)

is

(y

Sx

9?/

1.

+
80;

The

(x

9(h/

193

ellipse

193

has

0}.

its

can be restated as

center at (l,-5) with

2, respectively.

illustrated in Fig. 79.

Solving for y in terms of

QOy

FIG.

c.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

132

I)

x,

we

79

find

and

= -5 = -5 -

V9 | V8 f

This results in the sets

y= -5+
|

where

5 = 5

U5

2.

= -5 - |

V8 -

a;

2x}

(x

x2

I)

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

133

d. The graphs of Si and S 2 appear in Fig. 80.

The graphs of Si and
$2 represent sets of ordered pairs which are functions.

-2

2
y =-5- -|V8-;r -i-2*

(4 ,-5)

Graph

of 5,

FIG. 80

e. The domains of S, Si, and $ 2 are each equal to the interval [2,4].
The range of S is the union of the ranges of Si and $2, namely,

Note that S 1 C\S 2 = {(-2,-5),(4,-5)}.

Example

A standard form for

3.

center at (h,k)
respectively,

is

and a and
given

the equation of an x hyperbola with

the semitransverse and semiconjugate axes,

by

(y-W

-j

2
Z>

- 92 = 0).
24z
64y
24x
a.
+ 64?/ 92 = can be restated as
16y +
2
=
This
1.
hyperbola has its center at
2) /4
( x + 3)2/16
(y
a semiconjugate axis of 2.
4
and
of
axis
(
3,2) and a semitransverse
S =

Let

{(x,y)

167/

b.

The graph

c.

Solving for y in terms of x,

=
=

of

+ i A/Co; +
+ i Vz +
2

illustrated in Fig. 81.

we find

is

3)

The equation 4z 2

6z

- 16
-7

and

=
=

2
2

V(x +

3)

6z

| Va;

- 16
- 7

SETS

134

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

This results in the sets

y
82

where
d.

S2

S =

Si

The graphs

\(x,y)

2/

=
-

2
2

+ | Vx +
- Vz +
2

6a

62

I-

7}
7}

>S 2 .

of

& and S

appear in Fig. 82. The graphs of Si and

which are functions.

represent sets of ordered pairs

+64/-92=0-

("3,2)

-12

FIG. 81

/=

+-

f (-7,2)

-7,2)

-11

/=

2-j

<-4

-4

Graph of 5j

Graph
PIG,

82

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

135

The domains of S, Si, and $ 2 are each equal to the union of the
R e x & ]-7,l[}. The range of
]- o,-7] V [!,>[ or {x
S is the interval - ,<*>[. The range of S is the union of the ranges of
oo
VJ - oo ,2] = Note that
Si and &, namely, [2,
e.

intervals

Example

4.

A standard form for the

its

(h,k) represents

vertex and
(y

Let

S = {(x,y) tf The equation y

a.

The parabola has its

6. The graph of $

4y

equation of an x parabola where

|4a| its focal

2
fc)

+4=
4#

[.

4a(a?

width

is

given by

h)

0}.

can be rewritten as

(0,2)

-5

FIG.

c.

Solving for y in terms of

This results in the sets

where S

&

Va;

x,

we

83

find

and

Vs

2)

($/

vertex at (0,2) and has a focal width of

is indicated in Fig. 83.

1.

x.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

136

(0,2)"

-3

-3
Graph

Groph of

of

FIG. 84

and S 2 are shown in Fig. 84. The graphs of Si and

which are functions.
e. The domains of S, Si, and S 2 are each equal to the interval [0, <*>[.
The range of S is the union of the ranges of Si and S%, namely,
d.

The graphs

of Si

$2 represent sets of ordered pairs

[2,oo[U]-oo,2] =]-oo,oo[

Note that Si C\ S 2
Example
as y

5.

f(x)

{(0,2)}.

Many functions are

+ b or y = f(x)

ax

described

ax 2

Their graphical representation in a

7^ 0.

line or a parabola.

by

6x

defining conditions such

c

where

E XB

a,b,c

space

is

-R e

and

either a

Such functions are referred to as linear and quadratic

3
For example, the equations y = f(x) = 2x

functions, respectively.

and y

f(x)

3x 2

2x

define linear

and quadratic

functions,

respectively.

Exercise 18
Using the following methods, discuss Problems
Section 4.8 were discussed.
a.
fe.

c.

Reduce the equation

Graph a relation S.

e.

to 12 as

Examples

through 4 of

a standard form.

Solve the equation for y in terms of x and show that

two sets Si and

d.

to

S can be

associated with

St.

Graph Si and $2 and show that they are functions.

State the domain and range of S and show how these are obtained as unions of

the domains

and ranges

of Si

and

$2.

AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

137

Circles:

1.5S S =

2.
3.

x2

{(3,0)

{(3,0)

{(x,0)

x2

x Ellipses:

S =
S S =

4.
5.

6.

+
+
+

x2

{(3,0)

S S =
S =

8.
9.

6x

-f

8x -f 100

120

{(s,0)

9x 2

x
|

{(3,0)

- 0}
- 0}

+
-13-0}
5

183

8x

+ 4x

+
+

+
+

-4 =

40

{(3,0)

{(3,0)

{(x,0)

40

+ 160 + 24x - 640 - 64 - 0}

x + % - 6z - 160 + 9 - 0}
3x + 50 + 24x - 500 + 53 - 0}
4x 2

x Hyperbolas:
7.

x2

240
4
80
160

63

0}

0}

64

0}

x Parabolas:
10.
11.
12.

5 S =
S -

{(x,0)

{(a?,0)

{(3,0)|

The graph

30
60

4
9

0}
0}

0}

of each of the relations in

Problems 13 to 17 is either a point, the null

2
2
For example, let S
-f 4x
{(3,0) x -f
Sy + 20 = 0}.
Here x 2 + 2 + 4x - 80 + 20 =
can be restated as (x + 2) 2 + (0 - 4) 2 = 0,
which is satisfied only by the ordered pair ( 2,4). Hence, S = {(2,4)}, which
Note that the ordered pair ( 2,4) is not equal to
graphically is the point at (
2,4).
the set S (-2,4) ^ {(-2,4)} but (-2,4) E {(-2,4)}. Is S a function? Why?
Discuss and graph each of the relations in Problems 13 to 17.
set,

or two lines.

17.

S =
S
S
S =
S =

18,

Graph each

13.

14.
15.
16.

a.

x2

{(x,0)

{(3,0)

+
+

40
40

x2

{(x,0)

9x

{(3,0)

x2

+ 6x + 80 + 13 + 6x + 80 + 25 =

4x
60
5^0}
- 123 - 40 = 0}
+ 9x - 30 + 40 - 0}

02
2

of the following relations

{(x,y)\2x

4y

1}

and determine whether

b.

d.

c.

e.

/.

h.
i.

*.

19.
a.
c.
e.

/.
g.

= {(3,0)
Sn - {(3,0)
9

= I

x2

S2 -

US

S^

{(x,0)

{(3,0)

S -

it is

a function:

1)

'

S*= {(3,0) [0- V* -4)

- 2x}
S io = {(3,0)
- 4}
x* 2

j.

b.

{(3,0)

Using the indicated relations of Problem

Si

0}
0}

~}~

{(x,0)

18, discuss

S2

WS

the following:

d. Sz f*\ 03
Si r\ Sz
<S>4 VJ S&, and compare this with the graph of Sn
5e \J ST, and compare this with the graph of SIQ
S& VJ $ 9 and compare this with the graph of Siz
,

20. Specify the

domain and range

for each of the relations in

Problem

18.

21. Let

A =

6x

{(x,y)

4y

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

38

0}

F = {(s,?/) x -f 4 = 0}
Solve each of the following by a graphical procedure and/or an algebraic procedure.
Compare the results obtained.
|

A\JB

a.

b.

g.

B r\C
A UE

If

U=R XR

d.

23.

l(x,y)

24.

{(x,y)

If (x,y,z)

26.

{(x,y,z)

27.
28.

{(s,2/,2)

6}
22/

4s

5s

3s - 2y

9} C\ {(x,y)

2t/

3x

c.

BUG

/.

C C\E

6}

5y

h -

= 10 A 5x + y = 13 A 3s + 22/

2z

30

-I- 2/

C,

E C\F

{(z,2/)

-H

C X

h.

25}

XR*X Re, solve Problems 26 through

^ (s,2/,2)

2s

If

CUE

solve Problems 22 through 25 algebraically and/or graphically.

e,

xy

A C\B

e.

12

where C

+ 22/

=
=

is

h -

32

- 1 A 3s + 3y - 2 2 = -7}
= 36 A 3t/ + 4^ = 1}

18

28 algebraically.

f-

the set of complex numbers, solve Problems 29

13} Pi {(x,y)

4s

==

29.

{(s,i/)

30.

{(s,z/)

31,

Solve both algebraically and graphically and compare the results:

5xy

9s 2

(NOTE: Parts a and

4.9

2st/

7y

and

30.

19}

=0}

involve linear and quadratic functions.)

SUM, DIFFERENCE, PRODUCT, AND QUOTIENT FUNCTIONS

The combining

of

numbers through the operations

of addition, sub-

traction, multiplication, and division results in other numbers called

their sum, difference, product, and quotient, respectively.
Correspondingly, functions may be combined to obtain sum, difference, product,

and quotient

functions.

will

be restricted to

R XR
e

The

functions discussed in this section

e>

/ and g are functions with ordered pairs of the form (x,f(x)) and
(x,g(x)), respectively, then Table 1 summarizes the four different ways of
combining / and g to obtain a third function. If U = R e X Re the
domain of the sum, difference, product, and quotient functions is, made
If

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

Table

up

numbers

of those real

for

139

which the combining

and

of f(x)

g(x) has

meaning.

Example

1.

Let / be the function defined by f(x)

the function defined

by

g(x)

x2

|/(aO

2x}

2x and

2x}

let g

be

Then

3.

\(x,2x) |/(x)

and
g

Hence

(x,g(xft

+ g=

g(x)

{(,/(*)

x*

3}

+ 0(aj))

/(x)

(x,

x*

3)

g(x)

+ j(*) = & +
=

2x

x*

3}

3}

fg

2x
~2
X

/~\
\X)

The

respective domains

Example

2.

and ranges

To sketch /

graphed on the same

q
o

Id

V3J

of these functions are:

Example 1, / and g should first be

Then for selected values of the domain

g of

set of axes.

the corresponding /(#) and g(x) values could be added to obtain the
For example, in Fig. 85 (/
1) is obtained by
0)(
(/
00 (z) value.
adding line segment AB to itself, since line segment AB represents both

0(

1)

and /(-I).

Therefore, line segment

AD

represents

the second component of the ordered pair of /

g associated
of
the
of
g can be
/
with point D. Similarly, other points
graph

which

is

SETS

140

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

determined so as to eventually sketch this function.

Fig, 85 represents the graph of / + g.

The dotted

line of

f(jf) or

FIG. 85

Another method

of obtaining elements of the function /

of f(x) and g(x) as shown in Table 2.
addition
the
perform
g.
provides enough points to sketch /

The

is

to

table

Table 2

4.10

INVERSE FUNCTIONS

A function / is

a set of ordered pairs, no two of which have the same

different second components.
If the function / has
the additional characteristic that no two of its ordered pairs have the

first

component with

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

141

different first components, then the function

1
inverse
an
has
function, designated as /~
/
A denning condition for the inverse relation R* 1 is determined from the
original defining condition of the given relation by interchanging the
variables x and y.
Hence, if

same second component with

z-

then

1}

1
Further, the domain of R is identical to the range of fi*" and the range of
1
R is identical to the domain of Br If a given relation is a function, it
,

cannot be assumed that the inverse relation will also be a function. The
inverse must be examined to determine whether the requirements of a
function are satisfied.

Example la. If / =
Here both / and /~" are
1

6.

If

{(2,1) (3,2), (4,3)},

then/-

{(1,2), (2,3), (3,4)}.

functions.

/=

Here / is

1
{(5,-2),(6,-2),(3,4)}, then /a function, but /"* is not a function.

{(-2,5),(-2,6),(4,3)}.

Here
{(5,1),(3,1),(-2,1)}.
If/ = {(l,5),(l,3),(l,-2)}, then/-1
/ is not a function, but / is a function.
1 d. If
{(3,l),(-2,l),(-2,3)}.
{(l,3),(l,-2),<3,-2)}, then /1
Here/ and /- are both relations but not functions.
1

c.

/=

Example

2.

If
\x

x\

then

t
The graphs

of /

and

3-2
in Fig. 86

\y\

-y}

show that /

-5

PIG,

is

a function, while /- 1

SETS

142

RELATIONS

FUN CTIONS

Here f~ l contains ordered pairs such

as (2,5), (2,4) and others which have equal first components but different
co co[ represents both the domain
second components. The interval
of / and the range of f~ l while the interval [2, co represents both the

is

a relation but not a function.

1
range of / and the domain of /~

Example

3.

The graph

of a function

is

the set of

all

those points

xy plane corresponding to the ordered pairs belonging to /. Consequently, a function describes a subspace of the xy plane with the geometric
requirement that no two points of the subspace lie on a vertical line

in the

drawn anywhere

in the

domain

of the function /.

It follows that

a subset

of points in the xy plane represents a function if and only if a vertical

line (drawn anywhere in the interval representing the domain) inter-

sects the subset at just one point.

In Fig. 87, which of the subsets of

(1)

FIG.

87

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

143

the xy plane represent functions? The "vertical-line test" dictates

that the subsets of (1), (2), (5), (6), and (7) represent functions, while
those remaining are relations but not functions.

The graph of a function / can be used to determine whether the inverse

1
f~ is also a function. The inverse f" is a function if a horizontal line
(drawn anywhere in the range of /) intersects the graph at just one
Which of the subsets of Fig. 87 satisfy the "horizontal-line
point.
l

test/

and what does

this

imply?

Example 4. In Fig. 88, the subset of points corresponding to / is a

function because a vertical line intersects the graph of / at just one
The inverse f" 1 will not be a funcpoint for each value of its domain.
1
Further, both g and g" will

tion, since the horizontal-line test fails.

be functions, since both

4.11

line tests are satisfied.

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Another way of combining two functions to form a third function is

the method of composition. When two functions / and g are given, it is
possible to obtain a third function h called the composite function of /
on g and designated fg. The following examples illustrate the characteristics of the

composite function.

3* -2}

44

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

then

=
If

fc

/,

{(3,ft(s))

h(x)

3x 2

2}

then

In general, f o g^gf', that is, the composition of

noncommutative. This is apparent in Example 1. How1
1
1
/ and /- are functions, then / o/" = f" / = i, where

Example
functions
ever,

if

Here

i is

2.

is

referred to as the "identity function," since all ordered pairs

- 2x
1},
belonging to i are of the form (x,x). If / == { (x,f(x)) f(x)
1
* (^ l)/2} and both are functions.
then /- 1 = {Cr,/- 1
l/- ^)
\

^)

Hence

it

follows that

and

Hereto/
Example

==

/o/-i

3.

{( x ,i(xj)

i(x)

The most convenient way

x}.

to determine the

domain

of a

composite function / g is to obtain first, if possible, an expression for

the value of the function at x, that is, (/ g}(x). Those values of x for
which (/ o g) (x) has meaning constitute the domain of / g. If / and g
are defined
(/

0)00

by

f(x)

%/g(x)

=
1

the domain of (/o g )(x )

and

3/z

or (/o g)(x)

G^

{x

g(x)

=
|a;|

3/(z

x2

1,

1)

respectively,
1.

then

Consequently,

1}.

Exercise 19
(

TT

??

7? ^

For the functions described by the defining conditions of Problems 1 to

l
g, f\ and <r
2. f(x) - x 2
3. /(a;) = 2x -f 1
= a; 2
4
x
p(ic)
^(x) ~ 2a; -|- 1
0(oO

+ 9,f~g, fg, f/g, f

1. f(x) =2x -Z
4. f(x)
^(a;)

5.

-a:

/(^)
g(x)

= \/2 ~
-3

a;

6.

/(x)
0(0;)

'

6, find

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

Using / and g as defined in Example 1 of Section

I s gr// equal to //#?
Isf
g equal to

7a.

and /fir
/.
6. Graph /

by subtracting

line

segments.

145

show that /

4.9,

-f g

g -f

/?

Graph

fg

and //# by using the

tabular method.

8.

Let/-

Graph each

0,/(s)) |/00

of the following

/
f

Determine the domain for /

fg

hg

g, fg,

-f-

h+g

<7

and
9

d.

Use /, gr, and h of Problem 8.

Graph f g, f h, g h, g /, and A
Graph /~ x and 0" 1
t.
Show that / /- 1
Show that (f*g)h = f (g o h).

e.

Show

9.
a.
b.
c.

/.

that

(fg)~ =
l

g~ ojT

1
.

PROJECTS

Supplementary Exercises
Given the
{(;2/)

2/

sets

+2 =

A =

^ = 3},^= {(x,y) 3x - 2y -f 6 - 0}, and C =

1^
each set in Problems 1 to 6 graphically by shading the

{(x,y)

0), interpret

corresponding region.
1.

2.

{(x,y)

\x

+ y<Z/\x>0^y>0}

y G[-2,0]}

{(x,y)

{(X,T/)

4.

J =

{(rc,2/)

5.

K-

l(x,i/)

+ 6>OAa;<OAi/>Ol
|3x-22/+6>OAir+3/<3AyE [-2,0])
|3x~2t/ + 6>OAx+3/>3A7/>0)

6.

L =

{(x,y)

|2/+2<OA3x-2r/+6>OAa;-ft/<3|

3.

7.

Give a

|3a;-2y

set description for

each of the shaded regions

a.

A - f(a? y)
B - {(rc.y)
C - {(a;,y)
Find A H C, A

6.

If these three sets are interpreted graphically

as

shown

8.

is

F =
G =

Let

x2
|

+
-

4*'
|

in Fig. 90.

J?,

2
2/

2y

Si,

2,

3,

an d S 4

^ Fig. 89.

25}

0)

9j/}

and

5 H C.
on the same

set of axes, the result

146

SETS

RELATIONS

FIG. 89

FIG. 90

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS
c.

AND FUNCTIONS

147

Let additional set descriptions of subspaces of the xy plane be as follows:

{(x,y)

x*

0}

25}

F G =
F=

{(x,y)

a;

\(x,y)

)(z,2/)

4z 2

2y

2y

+
+

9y

>
<

0}

>

0}

<

0}

x>0]

>

0}

<

0}

0}

Using any of the set descriptions given in this problem and the symbols C\ and W,
describe each of the shaded subspaces (exclude boundary lines) shown in Fig. 91.
Example:

(1)

FIG. 91

148

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

9. Given that U = R, X Re, interpret each of the following sets graphically by

shading the corresponding region:
a.
6.
c.

d.
e.

/.
g.
/i.

i.

j.

10.

z>OA2/>OAz

|a;>OA2/<OA3

x,t/

B C DEF =
G =
#=
7 J =

{(aw)
{(,?)
{(z,t/)

2
2

-l-t/

<
<

169}
169)

A < 5y A + < 169}

< 169 A z > 5^}
x +
s-7/<7A3 -{-2/ < 169}
- 5y > 13 A - y > 7 A x + y <
A -h < 169}
y >
A x* + < 169}
x <
>

2/

a;

4-2/

a;

2/

2/

a;

{(a?,y)

a:

a?

169}

2/

2/

x
|

>

a;

>

2
7/

169

<

x*

5y}

One

plished

is

of the ways that a description of subspaces in the plane may be accomthe use of conditions which employ inequality and absolute-value symbols.

For example, if A - {(x,y) \x - 3| < 2} and B = {(x,y) \y + 4| < 1}, then

can be graphically interpreted as the shaded rectangle shown in Fig. 92. In
\

A C\B

=5

-7

FIG.

order to write the conditions in sets

92

and

in a

absolute-value symbols, the following procedure

form that does not involve the

may be

For
\x

(1)
(2)

Thus

<
>

3|

<

when * - 3 >
when 3 - 3 <

5
1

E ]1,5[

employed:

RELATIONS
For

\y

< 3
> -5

y
y

(1)

(2)

Thus

representation

Show
a.

6.

c.

d.

nB

Consequently,

shown

is

{(x,y)

\x

]1,5[

E ]-5,-3[},

A C B for each of the following:

< 1 A \y - 1| < 2}, B = {(x,y)

3|

A A =
A -

and

x*
\

s2

{(z,?/)

((x,y)

11

A \y + 2| < 1), B - {(s,y)

A - 2| < 1}, B = J(aj,y)

<

\x\

Using one

|T/

graphical

B = {(^

The

2/

|x

3|

49}

16

< -x +

<

2
2/

<

2}

\y

2|

<

1}

4}

sets and shade each region according

could be titled "Mr. Mechanical Man."

graph the given

set of axes,

to the directions.

its

?+

^ < l),
11.

<

in Fig. 92.

graphically that

A -

149

when y + 4 >
when y + 4 <
2/E]-5,-3[

{(x,y)

AND FUNCTIONS

final configuration

CoZor

A =

Black

B -

Black

C =

Black

i>

<
<
<

N
N
N
|x

2
1

2|

A
A
A

<

A
A

White

-5| <

<

White

1}

White

4j

\y

|y

+
+

7\
7|

White

<3(
< 3}

White
Black

Black

3)

<

Black

1}

Black
-ZV

~3) <
2

{(*,!
1

S f^T, where

>Sf

+
+

(y
(y

+
+

Black

1}
I)

I)

2
2

<
<

1
1

A
A

x
x

>
<

Black

9}

Black

9}

+ 5y < 36 Arr E [4,9]}

s + 5y >26 A
E [4,9]}
4rc - 5y > -36 A
E [-9, -4]}
4x - 5y < -26 A x E [-9, -4]}

White

a;

n Tf, where 7

Z -

|(x,y)

|x|

White

a;

<

Black

complex numbers C is an extension of the set of real numbers R e so

numbers involving the unit i = \/ 1. It can be shown that the
2
solution set of an equation of the form ax -f bx -f c =
(a 7* 0) will be nonempty
if the coefficients a,6,c E C.
as
elements
numbers
will
contain
and
complex
= {(x,y) x* + 7/ 2 - 9} and
Accordingly, the intersection of two sets such as A
12.

The

set of

as to include

B =

{(x,2/)

5} will

be nonempty

if

U is

chosen as

C X

C.

n B is obtained

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

50

manner:

in the following

25

^2

_j_

i6

xi

16^2

(re

4. y2

xz

since

4t)(o: H-

= -1

40 -

Hence

Ar\B
The graph

A and B in
A C\ B are not

U=
If

X*

/.

^.

j.

A
B
A
B
A
B

=
=
=
*=

<f>

fl.

+x +

If (x,y)

additional evidence that the

re?/ plane furnishes
if
ordered pairs of real numbers, since A C\ B ~

C, tabulate the solution set of each of the following equations:

a. x* Hd.

{(-4t,5),(4i,5)}

the

of sets

ordered pairs of

ECX
{(x,y)
{(s,2/)

re

i/}

{(x,y)

^
x
\

y
2

x
8^ 2

Pi

+ 2jy =

{(x,y)

\(x

C, find
|

b.

x2

e.

Zx(x

B
3

3x

+4 +1 =

c.

4z 2

3z

1)

for each of the following:

A ==
B =
A =
B

g.

3)

4y = OJ
2i/ = 11
+ 97/ - 7}

z.

((rc,2/)

{(a;,y)

{(a;,y)

{(x y}

4}

ret/

a;
|

5x

4rc

~
2?/

7?/

1)
2

=
=

13}
19

13. In the physical sciences frequent contact

such as

A -

is

made with

{(2,6),(3,9),(4,12),(5,15),(6,18),

sets of

ordered pairs,

.}

or

In set A the components of each ordered pair are related in such a way that the ratio
and in set B, the
of the second component to the first component is the constant
ratio is the constant |%
Whenever a physical situation produces ordered pairs that are related in this
described manner, then the components of the ordered pairs are said to vary directly.
;

is a constant)
kx] (where k 9*
or "y is directly proportional to x."
In such situations the requirements of a function are satisfied, where its domain is
specified or understood implicitly so as to conform to the physical phenomena under

Symbolically, /

implies in

{(x,y)

y/x

k}

{(x,y)

words that "y varies directly as

re"

examination.
If

each of the ordered pairs of a given set is so related that the product of its comis a constant, then the components of the ordered pairs are said to vary

ponents

is
inversely.
Symbolically, g = {(x,y) xy * k} = {(*,y) y = k/x} (where k 7*
a constant) implies in words that lt y varies inversely as x" or "y is inversely proportional to re."
For example, the ordered pairs (3,1), (6,-J-), and (4,f ) are elements of
the set {(x,y) \xy = 3} and satisfy the definition of inverse variation.
|

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

151

Assuming that each of the sets in a to e contains ordered pairs all of which have
been formed in the same way, determine whether a direct or an inverse variation
exists and describe the set in the form \(x,y) P xv }.
\

a.

{(4,6),(2,3),(5,A),

/.

If

g.

It g

Ki,i),(i,A)(f A),
/

=
=

As a

14.

final

{(5,1),(10,2),(15,3),

.}.

= 3s}, graph/, f~\ and/ + /-*.

xy = 5), graph g, g~\ and g + p-i.

{(x,y)

{(x,y)

6.

-}-

problem in

this project

list, it is

suggested that a careful study be

made

of the ordered pairs connected with the unit circle.

This offers an excellent
opportunity for reviewing set concepts, set symbolisms, relations, and functions.
The following hints of procedure are included as helpful suggestions.

U {(x,y) R e X R e x 2 y z = 1). If 17, the universe in this discusgraphed, then the vertical-line test confirms that U is a relation and not a
function.
The
Furthermore, the domain and range of U are both equal to
1,1].

Let

a.

is

sion,

graph of

U is referred to as the

'unit circle/ as

shown

in Fig. 93.

FIG. 93

Let Ui

b.

((1,0),(-1,0)}

and

C7 2

{(0,1),(0,-1)}, as

shown

in Fig. 94.

Inter-

pret, graph, determine whether the relation is a function, and specify the domain and
f
J7 a )' = (tfi)'
Ut = (Ui
(t/ 2 )';
U*\ (Ui)
range in each of the following: Ui

U
n (CM'; u, = u n (u,y- Ui n
u n (C7i n t/ = u r\ Ui r\ u*.
u,

= u

u*; (Ui

t7 2 y; z;

n (Ui

r\ u,y-,

(U 6 y;

2)

examination of sets such as 17

]0,1[| and
((x,y) G C7 a; E ]0,1[ A y
x E ]-l,0[ A y
]0,1[} exposes ordered pairs associated with those
points on the circumference of the unit circle in quadrants I and II, respectively.
c.

C7 7

An

{(o;,y)

Note that these set descriptions exclude the points (1,0), ( -1,0), and (0,1), as shown
The description of the sets corresponding to the points on the unit circle
in Fig. 95.
belonging to quadrants III and IV is left as an exercise.
d. The review of special types of simultaneous systems occurring in algebra may be
z
the following type of problem. Let A ** \(x,y) x*
y = 1
accomplished by
This set can also be described as
x + 2y
2(.

{(x,y)

&U

2y

2}, since

SETS

152

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

U implies that one of the equations in the simultaneous system is auto(x,y)

2
2
If set A is interpreted graphically, the solution set corre1.
matically x -h y
This material may be extended
is {(0,1 ),(,)}.
intersection
of
to
the
points
sponding
as solution sets
to include simultaneous systems which lead to the empty set as well
which contain either one or more ordered pairs belonging to U.

(0,1)

(1,0)

(-1,0)

"(OrD

Groph

Graph of

of U\

Uz

FIG. 94

Graph of
FIG.

Number

95

can be created which effectively review techniques in arithtype illustrates how this may be accomplished.
If, for example, ordered pairs are selected in U 6 and 17? as described in part c, it can
be verified that (1
x)/y is always equal to yj(l -f x). In (7e and /?, (1 -f x)y ^
2
z
and thus (1
x)/y = y/(l -f- x) is equivalent to x + y = 1. However, the statement
(1
x]/y = i//(l -f x) is not true for all (x,y)
U, since division by is not possible.
= (Ui
Is (1 - x)/y = y/(l -f x) true for all elements (x,y)
E/ 2 )'?
Us, where Us
Are there other elements in (Z7a)' for which this statement is true? Problems of this
e.

metic.

identities

problem

of the following

RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

153

type add new flavor and provide exercises which involve fractions, number substitutions for letters, and other features sought in arithmetic and algebraic techniques.
Number identities can be created from any known trigonometric identity by replacing
the trigonometric expressions in the identity with ratios formed from the x and y
of the ordered pairs (x,y) belonging to U.
However, care must be taken to define

U which becomes involved in the verification of the identity.

U* where C7 3 = (?7i)' C\ (UzY has six important associated

the particular subset of

/.

Every

numbers

(Z,T/)

called ratios, namely, x, y, -i -? ->

Ui has only four

Every (x,y}
x y x y
z/0
important associated numbers, namely x, y = 0, y/x = 0, and 1/x, since x/y
=
C7 2 has four
(nonexistent).
Similarly, every (x,y)
(nonexistent) and 1/y
-J-

important associated numbers, namely, x

(nonexistent) and l/x
following type:

-J-

(nonexistent).

= 0, and l/y since y/x #/0

0, y, x/y
This material suggests problems of the
t

=
find the associated ordered pair or pairs of U,
(1) Given y/x
ratios
(see part d).
ing
,

and the remain-

= -J- and x < 0, find the associated ordered pair or pairs of U, and
(2) Given y/x
the remaining ratios. Many exercises which involve ratio and proportion emanate
from the ratios associated with each (x,y) belonging to U.
The ideas of this project are preparatory work for trigonometry. If further
enrichment

is

desired, one

may

proceed into formal trigonometry by establishing an

?7, an arc measure, and the measure of the angle

between each (x,y)

subtended by this arc on the unit
association

circle.

5
Mathematical Structures

INTRODUCTION

5.1

The mathematician

is

being challenged to

make

his discipline available

To meet this

responsibility he has introduced the

or
structure
a
mathematical
system, whereby a framework is
concept of
established for which he hopes to find analogues that apply to the physical

to all areas of learning.

The idea of such a structure comes into being by first acceptnotions on an intuitive basis. The structure itself is a set
various
ing
The investigaof abstract elements, undefined terms, and various rules.
tion of what can be discovered in the way of useful information deteruniverse.

mines the effectiveness

purpose of this chapter
internal

is

invented mathematical structure.

known

The

to introduce notions that will exhibit the

and properties of particular

as Boolean algebras, groups, and fields.

characteristics

structures

5.2

of the

mathematical

CONCEPT OF A MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURE

Every mathematical structure or system has its origin in various

undefined terms, such as set, number, and point. Since concepts are
defined on the basis of other concepts and terms, there must exist a
small core of words representing the basic vocabulary for defining newer
terms and concepts which arise in the development of a mathematical
structure.
This initial core of terms or concepts is originally undefined
and is accepted intuitively.
Given a nonempty set of elements C7, certain relations can be introduced between elements. A definition of equality is essential so as to
If x = y, then x and y are
distinguish one element from another.
identical, or the different symbols x and y represent the same element.
These symbols may be substituted for each other in any mathematical
expression.

A mathematical structure will contain

binary operations defined on U,

ways of combining two elements G U. If an operation combines two elements
U to produce a unique element U, then the

that

is,

operation

is

referred to as a closed operation.

154

For example, the set of

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

155

integers is closed under addition and multiplication but is not closed

under the operation of division. Hence, a set U is closed under the
U X U can be associated
binary operation * if each ordered pair
with a unique element G U; or in other words if a, b G U with operation *,
then a * b G U. Further examples of such operations are the addition
and multiplication of rational numbers, union and intersection of sets, etc.
Since one or more operations are basic ingredients of a mathematical
structure, various properties of each such operation must be examined
with respect to a particular set of elements. In general, if a,b G U with
operation *, then
a.

* is closed

6.

* is

if

a * b

U.

commutative ifa*6

c. * is associative

For example,

if

if

(a

N,

properties are possessed

*
I,

= 6*a.
= a*

* c
6)

F, or

by the

(b

R and

c)

* is either

or

*,

then these

resulting mathematical structures.

* b be denned as the average of two

numbers,
F and b G F. Does this operation
where a
possess the properties of closure, commutativity, and associativity?

Example

* b

(a

Let a

1.

6)/2,

Closure:

closed under the operation

any two rational numbers

is

of

*,
is

since the average

also a rational

number.
a

Commutativity

a * b

+ b and b * a

22

addition of rational numbers

be commutative.
operation
Associativity:

Hence

this

+b

since the

already known to
property holds for the
is

*.

* c

(a * &) * c
(a

+b+

b}/2

2c

* (b * c) *=

2a
a
Since

+b+
4

(b

+b+
2c

c)/2

2a

+b+

.
>

the operation

does not possess the associative property.

FUNCTIO NS

RELATIONS

SETS

56

These conclusions can be tested numerically by replacing a, b, and c

with specific rational numbers. It is important to note that the existence
of

for a defined operation does not ensure associativity

commutativity

for this

same operation.

Example 2. In each of the illustrations that have been considered,

the operation * was defined with respect to an infinite set of elements.
However, the operation * can be defined for a finite set of elements as
For example, the operation * defined on the set U = {e,o} may
well.
be described by the following table

where

e * e

e * o

To

find e *

o,

use row

o * o

and column

2.

The

o
o
e

result o

Since every cell in the table

cell.

corresponding
U, the operation

o * e

=
=
=
=

is filled

is

located in the

by an element

Further, the operation * is commutative,

since a study of the table exposes a symmetry about the diagonal, moving
from upper left to lower right. To test for associativity, all the possible
* is closed.

eight triples of three elements

For example,
each

member

(e

* o
o)

separately,

we

must be examined.

e * (o * o).

Using the table and examining

find

(e*0)*o = 0*0

6 *

(0*0)

=
=

e * e

Accordingly, a complete examination will reaffirm that the operation

* with respect to U
{e,o} possesses the properties of closure, commutativity, and associativity.

If

and "odd"

and

elements

and

o represent

"even"

represents the binary operation of

addition, then a simple interpretation of this structure for sums of even
integers, respectively,

and odd integers becomes apparent.

The most important component

set of postulates or assumptions.

of

If

any mathematical structure

is its

the basic assumptions of the system

are not contradictory, then the set of postulates is said to be consistent.

The usual intent when developing a mathematical structure is to hold

the

number

of undefined terms

and assumptions

to a

minimum.

How-

ever, for pedagogical purposes certain properties are included as basic

postulates even though they

postulates.

Still

may be logical consequences of previous

another significant characteristic of a mathematical

is a set of definitions which represent agreements concerning

symbolism and terminology so that newer concepts, properties, and
theorems can be derived.

structure

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

To summarize,

157

a mathematical structure or system consists of a set

of elements, operations, relations, postulates,

theorems, and definitions.
*
If
a
of
set
and
an
represents
elements,
operation, then {A: *} will

symbolize a mathematical structure.

The

set of

elements

is

clearly

characterized or initially described by a set of statements, called postuThe postulates represent the "rules" or "laws" of the system
lates.
and govern the meaning of the symbols that are used to represent the

Other statements,
elements, relations, and operations of the system.
called theorems, are formed and proved as a consequence of the original

and accepted rules of logic. When these theorems are

proved, they possess the same validity in the system as the original set of
postulates, since each of these theorems results as a logical consequence
set of postulates

of the postulates.

to construct many different mathematical systems

on
the
choice of different sets of elements, relations, operadepending
and
One particular system is not necessarily better
postulates.
tions,
than another; each one is studied on the basis of its own merits and
Mathematical systems are often developed with
interpretations.
definite interpretations in mind, but frequently a mathematical system
is devised in which no physical interpretation of the terms and symbols
is considered.
After a particular abstract system has been constructed,
If all the postulates of
it may be interpreted in many different ways.
the system are true for a specific interpretation of the terms and symbols
of the system, then this specific interpretation represents a "model" of
It

it.

is

possible

The applied scientist studies a particular

to some aspect of the physical universe.

abstract system so as to

Sometimes he succeeds
the
mathematical
not
because
system is incorfails,
rect but because the physical situation is not a correct model or interfit it

and other times he

Mathematical systems
pretation of the system under consideration.
certain
that
involve
be
looked
as
objects (elements) and
games
may
upon
are played according to specified rules (postulates)

Exercise 20
1. In each of the following, determine whether the indicated operation is closed
with respect to the given set. Give a counterexample for each operation that does
not possess the closure property.

Set
a.

p,q

{integers}

Operation
Subtraction

b.

p,q

{even integers}

Addition

c.

p,q

d.

p,q

{even integers}
{odd integers}

Multiplication
Subtraction

p,#

{odd integers}

E {odd integers}
E {odd integers}

Multiplication

/.

p,g

Addition

g.

Forming the square of p

RELATIONS

SETS

156

FUNCTIONS

Set
h.

p,q

P&

*'

p
p
p
p
p

j,

k.
1.

m.
n.
2.

mine

primes

Addition

Multiplication

{primes)

G
G
G
G
G

Forming the reciprocal of p

Forming the negative of p
Forming the reciprocal of p
Finding a square root of p
Finding a square root of p

{positive integers}
{integers}

numbers
numbers

{rational

{rational

{integers}

The operation

* is

for each case

whether the operation

Deterdefined as indicated in each of the following problems.

* is closed, commutative, and associative

with respect to the designated

Illustrate

set.

with a counterexample those situations

where a property does not hold.

a. a,b

GF

c.

G / and a * b =

a,b

and a

Examples.
e.

a,b

g.

a,b

G
G

i.

a,b

y. a,6

3 * 4

'

b,

3, (

d. a,b

-5)

and a

a,b

-2) = -5,

* b

G / and a *

a H- 26

ab
2

-2)
-5) - -2
G ^ and a * 6 = a
*

I and a * b = 6
/. a,6
AT and a *b means "take the smallest number"

Examples.
h. a,b

* b

3*5=3, 2*9 =

2,

2>

9*2=2, 4*4=4

G N and a * b means

"take the largest number"

b (note that b*a
ba
ab -\- a

G I and a *b =
G I and a*6=a + &

+b

a)

a&

3. Determine whether the three properties mentioned in Problem 2 hold for the
operation * as defined with respect to the designated set.

O.U-*

{6,0}

b.U=

{1,

-I,*,-*

Test the associative law for the following cases:

= i * (^ * {)
= 1 * (i * t)
K-0*fl *(-**) = -i*[t*(-OJ
[(-*)* (-01*1 - -i*[(-0*i]
(i * i) * f

c.

17

{a,6,c}

1 * t)

* i

&

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
d

U -

{a,6,c!

e,

U =

{a,6,c}

/.

17

159

{0,1,2,3,4}

Test a few cases for associativity.

THE MATHEMATICAL SYSTEM CALLED AN "ALGEBRA OF SETS'

5.3

The "algebra of sets" is an example of a mathematical system. The

and U (null set and
algebra of sets has a collection of sets, including
"="
as its relations; two binary
universe), as its elements; "C" and
and C\ and the concept of complementation
operations represented by

represented by '.
If S is a collection of subsets of a universal set

and

called

in S,

U B,

an "algebra of

which follow, are

Definitions

C\ B,

sets/'

and A' are

and

if

for every

is

also elements of $,

then

provided that the definitions and Laws

to 9,

satisfied.

UE

=*

AC\B =
A!

A}

S is an

If

of S,

algebra of sets and if A, J5, (7,

then the following hold for U, H, and
.

Identity
la.

\J

2a.

\J

= A
U = C7

0,

U,

'.

Laws

16.

26.

A
A

H
H

[7

= A

Idempotent Laws
3a.

VJ

36.

Pi

A = A

are elements

RELATIONS

SETS

60

FUNCTIONS

Complement Laws

U A'

4a.

5a.

= U

46.

= A

(A')'

P A'
=

56. 0'

C7;

Commutative Laws
6a.

VJ

B = B

UA

66.

PB

= B

PA

Associative Laws
7a.
76.

B)
(A
(A r\ B)

U C = A U (B U C)
n c = A n (B n c)
Distributive

8a.
86.

U (B Pi C)
P (B U C)

A
A

=
=

U B) Pi
P
B) VJ
(A

(A

(A
(A

Laws

U C)
P C)

De Morgan's Laws
9a.

(A

U B)'

A'

P B'

96.

The mathematical system

(A

P BY

called the real-number

A'

U B'

system has certain

The operations of
properties analogous to those of the algebra of sets.
""
addition "+" and multiplication
correspond to the operations of
union "U" and intersection "P." In both systems rules are devised
i.e., some rule or procedure assigns to each pair of
elements some unique element from the associated universe. FreB" is the "logical
quently, "W" is called "logical addition" and "A
sum" of sets A and B. Similarly, "A
B" is called the "logical

for these operations;

product" of sets A and B and

"P" is referred to as "logical multiplication."

algebra of real numbers and the algebra of sets are alike in certain
Some of these similarities and differences
respects and unlike in others.
The

will
a.

now be

noted.

The elements

of the

real-number system

(i.e.,

real

numbers) obey

the commutative and associative laws for addition and multiplication,

but only one of the distributive laws, namely, 86 and not 8a (see SecIn the real-number system, multiplication is distributive
tion 2.7).

over addition, but addition is not distributive over multiplication; i.e.,

= 3 4 3 5, but 3
3 (4
In the
5)
(4 5) * (3
4)
5).
(3

intersection

and
fo.

is

distributive with respect to intersection, and

distributive with respect to union, as indicated in Laws 8a

algebra of sets, union

is

86.

Another property shared by both systems

elements.

In the real-number system,

and

1 (one) is

real

number a the sum

is

(zero)

the multiplicative identity; i.e.,

is that same number

the existence of identity

is the additive identity

when
a,

is added to any
and when 1 is multi-

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

by any

plied

number

real

Symbolically,
Re, then a
(1) If a

Re, then a

If

(2)

G
G

o the product

=
=

is

161

that

same

real

number

a.

a.

a.

Correspondingly, the algebra of sets has a unique identity element "0"

for union and a unique identity element "U" for intersection; i.e., the
with any element A of S yields A, and the intersection of U
union of

with

also yields

The idempotent laws

for union and intersection state that the

union or intersection of a set with itself yields the same set. For real
numbers this is not generally true, since 2 +
and 3 + 3^3,
c.

2^2

though

Similar illustrations will indicate that the analogy

0.

does not hold for the multiplication of real numbers.

d. It is of interest to note that every real number has a unique additive
inverse; i.e., the addition of each real number a to its inverse (
a)
Also every real number a, except
0, the additive identity.
1
has
a
unique multiplicative inverse a" i.e., the multiplication
zero,
of each real number by its inverse yields 1, the multiplicative identity.
A like situation does not hold for the algebra of sets. The element A
of S has no corresponding element such that its union with the set A
yields

element

will yield the identity

the exception
section.

U C\ U =

For example,

UA

= R

5.4

THE MEMBERSHIP

e,

while

properties

0).

With

finite set of real

numbers, then

the other real numbers}

C\

A.'

0.

METHOD AND VENN DIAGRAMS

A G

For each element

called the

A =

{all

if

and

(excluding the case

U, this is also true for the operation of inter-

complement

of

/S,

A.

there

is

associated another element A' f

This complement

has the following

A\JA' = U

AC\A' =

(A')'

= A

In words, Law
set also obeys De Morgan's laws.
intersection
the
is
of
two
sets
union
of
a
the
that
9a states
complement
of their complements, while Law 96 states that the complement of an
The proof of
intersection of two sets is the union of their complements.
the use of
can
be
sets
of
for
the
through
law
accomplished
algebra

The complementary

any
membership
(A C\

BY =

For

tables.
A.'

UB

f
,

example,

the

proceeds as follows.

proof

of

Law

9b,

namely,

SETS

162

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

Example 1. Consider any element a of U. In terms of

and the two sets A and B, four distinct possibilities are

this

element

listed.

The

element a can:
1.

2.

Belong to
Belong to
Belong to

A
A
B

and

also belong to
not
to B
but

but not to A
Not belong to A and not belong to B.
These four possibilities appear in the first two columns of Table
3.

4.

The

1.

other columns are developed in successive order so as to verify the

given law.
Table

Row

a (5? A but a E: B. Hence in

columns 3 and 4, a G A! and a ^ B'.
By use of columns 1 and 2 column
5 is formed,
since if a @ A and
a E B, then a
A B. Since a E:
A VJ B it follows that a g (A
5)'.
Column 7 is formed from columns
3 and 4 in a like manner.
Accordr\
B'
A'
is
based
BY
ingly, (A
on the fact that the last two columns are identical; i.e., when a is an
element of (A VJ BY, it is also an
element of A C\B'] and when a g
f
This
(A
BY, then a & A' C\ B

3 illustrates the possibility that

FIG. 96

law can be verified by using a Venn diagram

(Fig. 96)

and examining

corresponding regions.

Thus (A

W BY

A! Pi

B', since

both sets represent the same region.

Example 2. It is of interest to examine by either the membership

method or Venn diagrams all the basic laws for the algebra of sets. As

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
a second example, the proof of

A
is

r\ (B vj c)

Law

8&,

163

namely,

(A r\ B) \j (A r\ c)

given in the membership table (Table

2),

which includes eight

possibili-

Toble 2

ties.

The Venn diagram

regions are given in Table

takes the form

shown

in Fig.

3.

FIG.

97

Table 3

97,

and the

5.5

RELATIONSFUNCTIONS

SETS

64

PROOF OF THEOREMS BY USE OF LAWS AND DEFINITIONS

The following examples illustrate how Laws

be used in carrying out proofs of theorems.
Example
a.
c.

a.

A A
A =

Prove that

1.

(A

H B) U

if

and

H SO

(A

B
6.

d.

Proof:

H BO

are subsets of

(A C\ B'}
B7)
(A

J7,

may

then:

UB = AUB
H A' -

= A
= A
= A

H (B VJ BO
n
C7

Authority

Law 86
Law 4a
Law 26

the steps are reversed, then:

A = AH U
= A n (B VJ BO
- (A H B) U (A

Law 26
Law 4a
Law 86

H BO

Authority

Proof:

= (A U B)
= (A U B)
= AUB
c.

to 9, Section 5.3,

n B) VJ (A H BO

(A C\ B) \J (A

If

(A

r\ (B'

V B)

Laws 8a and 6a

Law
Law

C7

4a
26

Proof:

Authority
46

n A'
n (A U 0)
(A H AO U (A n 0)
= U (A r\ 0)
= (A n 0) U
= AH
=A
=A

Law
Law
Law
Law
Law
Law

The proof

of part d

Example

2.

The

is left

as

an

la
86

46

6a
la

exercise.

definitions for subset, union, intersection,

and com-

plementation are involved in the proofs of the following theorems

a. If A
B and B C C, then A C C.
6. If A
B and B C A, then A = B.
B if and only if A B = B.
c. A
d. B
A if and only if A C\ B = B,

C
C

C
C

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

A C B and A C C, then A C B
A C B if and only if B' C A
If

e.

165

C\ C.

f.

These theorems may be illustrated by Venn diagrams but shall be

proved here more formally.
If

a.

A CB

and

A C

C, then

C.

Since A
represent any arbitrary element of A.
J5,
then by the definition of a subset, #
J5.
B C it
since
Likewise,
C.
follows that x
Hence, A C C, since every element of A is also
an element of C.
Proof: Let

a;

A CB

B C
A C B,

A, then A = B.
Proof: Since
every element of A is also an element of B.
Since B
A, every element of B is also an element of A. Hence every
element of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A
If

b.

and

A =

therefore

BCA

d.

B, by the definition of set equality.

if

and only

if

Proof:

B =

Pi

B.

B -

A.
B, then B
A r\ B
Let x represent any arbitrary element of A C\ B. Then if x
A and # G B. Thus A -B C A and since it is given
it follows that #
B = B then B A.
that A
A, then A C\ B = B.
(2) If
Let ic represent any arbitrary element of B. Then by the definition
B.
B and # A, it follows that x A
A. Since x
of subset, x
C
B.
C\
B
ConB
and
A
x
A
then
B
A
B.
If
Z
Thus
E
B,
B = B because A Pi B B and B C A B.
sequently, A
If

(1)

r\

A
H

A CB

/.

Proof:
If

(1)

if

A C

and only

if

B'

G
G n

A'.

C A'.

B, then B'

Let x represent any element in B'; then x & B, by the definition of

J5, every element
A, since, from A
complement. If x $ B, then 3
B' and
cc
and
since
A'
x
B.
Therefore
in A must be contained in
A'.
B'
that
x g= A', it follows
B.
A', then A
(2) If B'
of A; then x $ A' and x
element
B', from
Let
represent any
B. Part 2 can be proved by using
Hence z G B and A
A'.
B'

part

C
C

1;

that

is, if

A C

B, then (B)'

A by B and B
7

(A)

Replacing

by A throughout, we have:
7

If

B'

C A',

then (A

)'

(B

)'-

Since (A

= A and

follows that:
If

The

B C
f

A', then

A C

B.

proofs of theorems in c and

are left as exercises.

(')'

B,

it

AND MULTIPLYING POLYNOMIALS

SIMPLIFYING, FACTORING,

5.6

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

66

is employed to mean an expression created

complements by use of a finite number of operations
chosen from union and intersection, as exemplified by the set poly-

The term

from

"set polynomial"

sets or their

C C\ Z>, (A VJ B)'
C, A VJ B
polynomial consists of parts called terms, each term being
separated from the other by the operation of union. To be more specific,
a term is any expression which consists of either a single letter representing
nomials A,

U C. A

a set or

C\ B,

\J B, (A \J B)

set

two or more such

letters

combined by the operation

of intersec-

tion.
may be used for grouping
A'
C\
B
C\
A
Thus
C, and (A VJ B)
(C
purposes.)
B,
A, A',
D)
B and A VJ (B C\ C)
terms.
The
represent single
polynomials A'
r
consists of three terms.
consist of two terms, while (A VJ B} VJ C VJ

(Auxiliary symbols such as parentheses

we examine a

polynomial and consider intersection analogous

with multiplication, union analogous with addition, and sets A, B, C,
then the method for judging
analogous with real numbers x, y, z,
If

set

number

of terms in a polynomial involving sets

used for polynomials in the algebra of real numbers.

the

the same as that

is

If

a set polynomial

involves the intersection of sets, then each such set of the intersection is
called a factor.
The polynomial (B VJ C' VJ D) C\ A' C\ (B \J C) contains three factors, namely, B
C f \J D, A'', and B
It should be
C.

noted that a one-termed polynomial such as A may be regarded as

A C\ U with A and U as its factors.
The notion of a set polynomial is extended to include the cases where

>

A n represent n sets
2, n E: (natural numbers}, and AI, A 2
C\ A n is used to mean
with elements G U. Here A\C\ A 2
AzC\
the set of elements common to all the sets AI to A n inclusive, where AI P\
FurA 2 A 3 Pi
Pi A n is regarded as a one-termed polynomial.
\J
all
the
the
of
A
n represents
totality
ther, Ai\J A$\J As\J
ft

VJ A n is
elements of the sets A\ to A n inclusive, where A\ VJ A 2 VJ
as
an
laws
can
be
n-termed
extended
De
regarded
Morgan's
polynomial.
and are stated here without proof
:

A3
(Ai VJ A,
r\
r\
A,
A,
(A l

U
n

UA Y
n A ny
n

=
=

(AiY C\ (A*Y C\ (A 3)' C\

(A,y
(A 2 y vj (A 3 )'

H (A
u (A

n}
n

Correspondingly, the distributive laws take on the general forms

(B l VJ

(B! r\

VJ

Bn
= (A

VJ

n Bn

=
The

r\

BO

(A

j? 2 )

vj

(A \j

BO

r\ (A

J5 2 )

u
-

(A r\

n (4

vj

Bn

sn

following examples illustrate the use of the laws of the algebra of

sets for operating

with polynomials.

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

Example

U C) n

(A

Expand (A

1.

(5' VJ

VJ C) C\ (B f VJ

DO-

DO

A VJ [(A VJ Q n D
U C)] VJ [D H (A' VJ C)]
vj (B r\ C) u (D' n A
vj

- [(A' VJ C)
= [5 H (A'
- (B n A

J3

A^or%

167

(D'

no

Law
Law
Law

86
66

86

Note that the

original expression contains one term while the final expression contains four terms.

Example

a.

6.

c.

Factor each of the following:

2.

6.

(A n C) VJ (A r\ D) U (B C\ C) VJ
A U [B C\ (C VJ A')]

c.

(A r\ B) \j (c r\ D)

a.

(A

(A

O C) U (A n D) U (B H C) U (5 n D)

n B) vj (c r\ D)
[(A H 5) VJ C] n [(A C\ B} VJ D]
[C VJ (A n 5)] n [D VJ (A n B)]
(C VJ A) n (C VJ B) C\ (D VJ A) n

Example
a.
b.

B
A

vj [(A VJ B)
7

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

\J [(A' VJ B)
B VJ [(A 7 VJ

(B VJ
J7

VJ

{[(A

n A]
UA
H B VJ A}
7

)'

n B VJ A
U
[A
(A A 5
VJ
A) H (A
[(A
7

)]

[U C\ (A VJ
7
(A VJ
7

VJ

(J5
7

Law
Law
Law

8a
6a

8a

[(A

J5

8a

Authority

A' r\(U)
A'

B VJ
BU
B VJ
B VJ
B VJ
B VJ
B VJ

Law

66

Law 9a
Law 86
Law 4a
Law 26

86

n A]'

=
=

(D VJ B}

Authority
86

Law
Law
Law

Simplify each of the following expressions:

7
Pi B)

3.

(A U BY U (A

U (A H B)
(A VJ B) U (A H B)
(A n 50 VJ (A' n 5)
= A' r\ (B U B)

c.

6.

r\ JD)

= [A n (C VJ D)] VJ [B n (C VJ D)]
= [(C U D) n A] VJ [(C U D) n B]
= (C VJ D) H (A VJ 5)
A VJ [B O (C VJ D}}
= (A VJ B) H (A VJ C U D)
=
=
=

a.

(J5

J5

VJ

)
7

)
7

J5 )]

VJ

)]

Law 96
Law 9a
Law 5a
Law 6a
Law 8a
Law 4<z
Laws

66

and 26

Law 6<z
Law 7a
Law 4a
Laws

66

and 2a

A U (A C\ B)
- (A C\U) VJ (A
= A H (U U B)
= A n 17
= A

c.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

166

Law
Law

C\ B}

26

86

Laws 6a and 2a

Law

26

Frequently, these simplification procedures provide a means for modifying polynomials that arise in other mathematical systems or models
which have the same structure as the algebra of sets. These simplified
versions of polynomials are often more manageable in the light of their
interpretation to a specific mathematical model.

THE DUALITY PRINCIPLE

5.7

In the various laws for an algebra of sets

should be observed that

it

if

U by C\, and H by U wherever these occur,

U by

replaced by U,
0,
then the resulting statement
is

is

again a law of the algebra of

sets.

This

referred to as the "duality principle/ and any new law formed

property
as a result of its application is the "dual" of the original law.
For
7

is

A =

(A C\ B )
The validity of this dual may

example, the dual of a statement such as

(A C\ B)

becomes A = (A VJ J5)
(A
')
be verified by the methods illustrated in Sections 5.4 and 5.5. The
original statement A = (A C\ B) VJ (A C\ B ) was proved in Section 5.5.
r

Exercise 21
1. Verify each of the laws in Section 5.3
ship tables.

2.

If

A, B, and

g.

[A

i.

(A
(A

j.

of

Venn diagrams and/or member-

are subsets of U, prove the following identities

ship tables:
a. (A' \J B')' - A C\ B
r
c. (A
C\ B) Pi (A C\ B'} =
f
VJ (A r\ B)Y = AC\B'
e. [A
f

by means

d.

A C\(A C\BY ^ A C\B

(A n B') r\ B' = A C\ B'

f.

(A

\J

U (B U C)]'
Pi B' H C'
h. A U (A
U B C\ (A \J B) = (A C\ B') U (B C\ A)
W BY -(AW B') r\(A\JB)C\ (A' W B')
f

of

member-

b.

- A

by use

U (A

')'
f

C\

\J

B) = A

B) f

UB

3.

Using the laws for the "algebra of sets/' perform the following operations:

o.

Expand:

(1)

U (B'

(3) (A'
6.

\JB)C\(C\JD)

(4)

H (B
(A U

(2)

(4)

(A

U (B n C")
n B) U (C n D)

(2)

HA'HC

(4)

(A VJ

(2)

A'

')

VJ
C\

(7)
r

(C \J

Factor:

n 5) U (A n C)
U 5 n (C U D)
[(A n 5) n (C vj D)] vj [A n C"]

(A
A'

(1)
(3)

(5)
c.

r\ C')

Simplify:

(1)
(3)

A VJA'VJB
A H B n A'

n B'

U A' U 5')'

VJ #')

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

169

H B U (A H \J (A C\B}\J (A' r\
V n A \J B U C) n (A VJ C)
n 5) n (A' u B)
(8) 5 n KA' n 5) u A]'
A H(A
n (A U C)] U [B r\ (B \J C')]
[(A U
r

(5) [(A

')

(7)
(9)

')]'

'

(A
(A

(6)

(10)

4. By use of the laws of the algebra of sets, prove each of the identities in Problem
Justify each step in your proof.
5.

Write the dual of each

6.

If

and

of the

statements in Problem

are subsets of a universal set U, then

2.

2.

U = {zEC/|zEAVzE}
AC\B={x:U xEAAxEB]
A

Using the symbols "E",

a. A C\ B'
d. A' C\ B'
Example.
7.
a.
c.
<?.

g.

","
b.

(A C\ B) \J C'

Draw Venn diagrams

"V," and "A,"

A' \J

{x

EU

to illustrate

A C (A U B)
A C B implies A n 5 = A
A C 5 implies A\J B = B
A' C J5 implies A W J5 - ?7

5.8

rewrite each of the following sets:

c.

(x

EA A

(A'

C\B'}\JC

E B} V x & C}

each of the following:

d.

(A
B} C A
(A C\ B'} C A

f.

A C

b.

'

implies

HB

=*

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

The algebra of sets can be considered a model of the abstract mathematical system called a "Boolean algebra." The elements, relations,
and operations of the algebra of sets obey the same laws as those of a
Boolean algebra. In fact, every abstract Boolean algebra with either
a finite or an infinite number of elements has an algebra of sets as a
model. As a means of introducing the notions of a Boolean algebra, a
finite

algebra of sets containing four elements

Example

1.

If

T =

U =

{a,b,c}

and

if

A -

is

illustrated.

then A' = {c}. The

and ', forms an algebra of

{a,b},

{U,A,A'$}, with f\ U,
Boolean algebra). The following three tables list all
the possible unions and intersections of these four sets and their
complements.

set of subsets
sets (a

model

of a

A'

U
A

following illustrate the construction of the tables:

The

An

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

170

\J

A = {a,b} U
= {a,b,c}
= U

examination

A' r\

{c}

U =

{c}

=
=

A'

r\ {a,b,c}

{c}

of the tables reveals that:

The property of closure holds for W, P, and

The binary operations of U and C\ are commutative and associative.
The operation U is distributive over P, and P is distributive
'.

1.

2.
3.

over VJ.

The identity elements for VJ and

The complement laws hold, since

4.
5.

U A'

and

are

[7,

respectively.

AC\A =
A'P A =
f

E7

A'UA
0U [7=

C7

C7U0 =

C7

f7

=
=
C7P0

0P

17

Note that the complement of U is and vice versa.

6. As a means of illustrating some of the other laws

of the algebra of
included.
sets, the folio wing examples are
a. The testing of the distributive law for the particular choice of
C\ (A' \J 0) = (A
elements A, A', and shows that
A'}
(A C\ 0).
To prove this statement, the tables are used and each member is

treated independently.

C\ (A'

U 0)

- A
=

P A'

and

(A C\ A'} \J (A C\

0)

The testing of De Morgan's law for the particular choice

= A' C\ (A )'. Here
and A' shows that (A

U AJ

(A VJ A'Y

= (UY
=

of

elements

and

A' C\

(AJ =

A' C\

=0

In summary, this model (algebra of sets)

where

\J

=0

b.

T = {U^AjA ^} and W,
7

Pi,

and

'

is

designated as {T: VJ,P\/},

refer to union, intersection,

and

complementation.

The elements

of

many models of Boolean algebras are not necessarily

To describe more generally the mathematical

interpreted as being sets.

system called a Boolean algebra, the algebra of sets may be used as a

now representing abstract elements,
guide with A, B, C. D,
and U now replaced by and 1, the operations VJ and Pi now replaced
and
left unchanged.
It should be kept in
by
respectively, and
mind that the operations of + and are defined for the particular model
under consideration and, even though called addition and multiplication,
.

'

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

171

should not be confused with the meanings usually associated with these
and 1 have only those properties
Further, the elements
symbols.
prescribed by the laws.
If these designated replacements are made in Laws 1 to 9 for the
algebra of sets in Section 5.3, then the laws become those for a Boolean

algebra.
Identity
la.

2a.

A +
A +

= A
= 1

Laws

16.

26.

A
A

=
= A

Idempotent Laws
3a.

A +A = A

36.

A A = A

Complement Laws
4a.
5a.

A +A =
(A'y = A
f

46.

56. 0'

A'

1; 1'

Commutative Laws
6a.

B = B

A +

+A

6b.

A B = B A
-

Associative Laws
7a.

(A
(A

76.

C = A

B) +
B) C -

+
-

+
-

(B

(B

C)

C)
Distributive

86.

A + (B
A (B +

9a.

8a.

C}
C)

=
=

(A
(A

+
-

5)
B)

(A
(A

+
-

Laws

C)

C)

De Morgan's Laws

It
still

(A

)'

= A

B'

96.

(A

BY =

A'

B'

is noted that the principle of duality, discussed in Section 5.7,

retains its significance throughout this new list of laws.

a Boolean algebra of four elements B = {0,A,A',1}, where

are abstract elements (not necessarily sets), is being considered,
then the following tables define +, -, and '.

Thus,

and

if

This system

is

designated as {B: +,*/}.

SETSRELATIONSFUNCTIONS

172

Example 2. An interesting example of a model of a Boolean algebra

'
of four elements with +, -, and
assigned different meanings is illustrated

by the

set

D =

{1,2,5,10},

where the elements

the positive integral divisors of 10.

For any a,b
to
mean
the
common
least
interpreted
multiple

mean

b to

mean

to

common

the greatest

the quotient

when

For example, 2 + 10 = 10,

and 1' = 10. This system

10

is

divided by

5, 1

A +

are

(5

10)

=
=

1,

10

compared

Table

is

and

(2

and
5)

-,

be
b

2, 5

1,

(2

+ 5)

(A

C)

10)

= 10-10
= 10

B =

{1,A,A',Q} and the set T = {J7,A,A ,0}

= {1,2,5,10}, a similarity of
with those for the set
7

observed.

The

1-1

existing

correspondences are shown in

1.

Table
Elements

Operations

the tables for {T: VJ/Y), C7 is replaced by 10, A by

2, A' by 5,
and
1, and the operations VJ and Pi are replaced by
the
tables for {D: +,*/} result. As a
consequence, any statement involving
the elements of T will have a corresponding statement
involving the
elements of D. For example,
If in

and

(A \J

by

nA

= U C\ A
= Am {T:U/V}

and

(2

a!

then:

10

the tables for the set

structure

and
and

is

according to the present interpretation of

6,

will

Hence

a.

a and

designated as {D: +,/}.

illustrate the distributive law
(B C) = (A

To

If

of a

(LCM)
of

represent

+b

D, a

(GCD)

divisor

of

5)

=
=

10

2 in

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

173

These statements may be checked by using the respective tables for D

and T.
The two interpretations {jD: +,-/} and {T: U/Y1 of the Boolean
are said to be isomorphic.
This follows since the correspondence existing between the elements of the two models holds under

algebra [B:

all

5.9

+,/}

operations.

THE BINARY BOOLEAN ALGEBRA OF THE

TWO

AND

ELEMENTS

The

simplest Boolean algebra contains only the two elements

and 1
the
variables A, B, C, D,
in the list of laws of Section 5.8 take
i.e.,
on only the values
and 1. This Boolean algebra is referred to as a
Boolean
and ' defined on any A and B according
binary
algebra with
to the following tables

The

algebra of sets consisting of the two elements

Boolean algebra.
complementation are
of a binary

Its tables for union,

and

is

a model

intersection,

and

U
U

The

abstract mathematical system referred to as the binary Boolean

algebra satisfies all the laws of Section 5.8. For example, De Morgan's
law (9a) is verified as shown in Table 1. The columns enclosed by

Table

double lines represent the

(A
BY = A' B'.

left

and

right

members

of

De Morgan's

law,

Since the variables A, B, C, D,

and 1, these tables exhibit
values
.

variables

and

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

174

with the two

are permitted to assume only the

involving any two

all possibilities

binary operations

and

No

should be encountered for accepting any of the statements

1 = 1.
defined by these tables, with the exception of 1
However,
U = U"
one should recognize the similarity of this statement to "U
difficulty

"e very thing in the universe in

which, interpreted loosely, states that

"
union with everything in the universe yields everything in the universe.
It is also of interest to note that exponents or coefficients other than
and 1 are not needed in this type of algebra, since the result of the prodwill be
A or the sum
uct A A A

A+A+A+---+A

or

either

1.

The tabular method

of testing the validity of a

analogous to the membership-table

In a similar manner
Their verification

The methods

all

is left

method used

the other laws

as

an

law or theorem

is

in previous sections.

be tested by this method.

may

exercise.

of procedure for proving

theorems in a binary Boolean

algebra are illustrated by the inclusion of the following two proofs.

Example 1. Prove A +
2.
Columns 1 and 4

Table

AB = A

(where

are identical,

AB = A

),

and the theorem

as
is

shown

in

proved.

Table 2

Example
Table

2.

Prove

A +

(A'C

5)

3.

Table 3

(A

B)

C,

as

shown

in

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

The theorems

of

Examples

laws of a Boolean algebra.

Example
Proof:

A +

(A'C

A + (AC

3.

and 2 may

This

B)

is

also be

illustrated in

(A

175

B)

proved by using the

Example

3.

C.

Authority

+ B} -

+ A'C} + B
(A + A'}(A + C) + B
1
(A + C) + B
(A + C) + B
A + (C + B)
A + (B + C)
(A + B) + C

Law 7a
Law 8a
Law 4a

(A

=
=
=
=
=

Laws

Law
Law
Law

66

and 26

la
6a
7a

THE "ALGEBRA OF CIRCUITS"

5.10

other models of a binary Boolean algebra which have received

attention recently are:

Two
much

an interpretation of a binary Boolean

and construction of electronic
algebra that has application to the design
computers and dial telephone systems
of a binary
b. The "algebra of propositions" as an interpretation
Boolean algebra concerned with the study of "methods of reasoning"
a.

The "algebra

of circuits" as

Since both of these models are quite extensive and complex, the objective
here is to introduce briefly the meanings of certain key terms and symbols
pertinent to these interpretations.

The simplest type

represented by single

of

circuit

letters,

Switches will be

involves switches.

such as

B, C,

and A!

will

but have opposing

refer to two switches that operate simultaneously
If two
vice
versa.
then A is closed and
states, namely, if A is open,
then
so that both close or both open simultaneously,
1

switches operate
the same letter will be used to designate each of these switches.
Two switches are said to be connected in parallel when current flows
Two switches are said to be
if either or both of the switches are closed.

connected in

and

while

series

when

A
represent two switches, then
connection.
series
a
implies

AB

same meaning

both are closed. If A

B implies a parallel connection
It is noted that A + B has the

current flows only

as the disjunction

"A and

"A

B"

if

or B," but

AB has the same mean-

ing as the conjunction

and they are
Illustrations of these circuits are shown in Fig. 98,
means that
circuit"
an
table
the
"open
summarized in Table 1. In

SETS

176

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

current will not flow, while a "closed circuit"

means that current

will

flow.
Parallel circuit

A+B

Series circuit

AB

A
-

FIG. 98

Table

Series

Parallel

"open" is replaced by "0" and "closed" by "1," then the switches in

and the switches in series operate in accordance with the addition
and multiplication tables, respectively, of the binary Boolean algebra.
An isomorphism exists between the binary Boolean algebra and the
If

parallel

algebra of electric circuits.

Each of the switching networks shown in Figs. 99 and 100

Example 1
has been translated into a Boolean polynomial, where a Boolean polynomial refers to any expression created from the symbols representing
.

the variables and operations of a Boolean algebra. Since current will

if one, two, or all of the switches are
C
closed, then

A+B+

flow

represents the network shown in Fig. 99.

Network

Boolean polynomial

A*

A +B

FIG. 99

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

177

Example 2. The networks of Fig. 1006 and c are equivalent; that is,
current will flow through each of the two circuits when the same combinations of switches A, B, and C are open or closed. Table 2 illustrates
Network

Boolean polynomial

ABC

A(B

AB

(c}

(AB'

this conclusion.

Note that

all

4-

C)

+AC

+ A')B

eight possible combinations for A, B,

and C have been examined.

The laws

Boolean algebra frequently enable one to modify a given

polynomial so that a simpler electric circuit may be designed. The
of a

178

network (AB'

SETS

RELATIONS

A')B

in Fig.

FU NCTIONS

lOOd

CB +

is

equivalent to the network

is a consequence of

BA', which

represented by the polynomial

the laws of Boolean algebra as applied to

(AB

A')B.

This

follows since

(AB

Further,
Fig. 101

A')B

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

B(AB'}
B(B'A)
(BB')A

0-A

Law
Law
Law
Law
Law

+ A'}
+BC + BA'
+BC + BA
+BC + BA'

+BC +BA'

+ BC + BA
BC + BA'

Authority
66

86
66

76
46

Laws 6& and 16

Laws 7a 66, and la

A') and either of the circuits shown in

J?(C
be utilized to produce the same effect.

BC + BA
may

B(AB

FIG. 101

Example

3.

is controlled by a box
moved to closed position,
close and those marked A' will open.
open position, the switches marked A will open

The network shown

with three buttons A, 5, and C.

all the switches marked A will
If

button

is

moved

to

If

in Fig. 102

button

FIG. 102

is

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

179

and those marked A' will close. Open position

box closes its corresponding primed switches, and
button closes

for

any button

in the

closed position for

any

its

corresponding unprimed switches.

A translation of the circuit shown in Fig. 102 in the language of Boolean
represents two switches in parallel and
algebra, where
represents
f
two switches in series, is given by the polynomial (A
B)(A
C)

This polynomial may be written in simpler form through

the use of the laws of a Boolean algebra.

B(B

CO-

+ B)(A + C) + B(B + CO
= AA' + AC + A'B + BC + BB + BC
= + AC + A'B + BC + + BC
= AC + A'B + BC + BC'
= AC + A'B + B(C + C')
= AC + A'B + B(l)
= AC + A'B + B
= AC + B
The polynomial AC + B results in the design
f

(A

Authority

Law 86
Law 46
Law la
Law 86
Law 4a
Law 26

accomplishes the same purpose as the original

AC
and

either of the circuits

+B

shown

(A

B)(C

in Fig. 103

Example
of a

circuit.

new

Section 5.9

1,

circuit

which

Further,

B)

may

be utilized to produce

the same effect.

FIG. 103

Example 4. A light in a house is controlled by two switches. When

both switches are off or when both are on the light is on; when one
switch is on and the other is off, the light is off. Now if A and B represent the two switches in an "on" position and A' and B represent the
switches in an "off" position, the polynomial A B + A' B is equal to
L, where L corresponds to the light being on. The plus sign is substituted for the word "or" and the multiplication sign for the word "and."
F

Hence
Authority

AB + A'B'

+ A')(AB + B'}
= (A + A')(B + A')(A + B')(B +
= 1 (B + A')(A + 50 1
= (B + A')(A + B')

Law

(AB

')

8a

Laws 6a and 8a

Law 4a
Laws 26 and

66

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

ISO

Either of the two circuits (Fig. 101) based on the two polynomials,
B ), can be used to accomplish the desired
A'B or (B
A') (A

AB +
result.

Thus,

FIG. 104

It is suggested that the

(A

two equations

B}(A'

C)

+ B(B' +

C")

- AC + B

and

AB + A'B =
f

of

Examples 3 and 4 be

verified

(B

+ A') (A + 50

by the tabular procedure

(see Section

5.9).

Example

5.

decisions to be
It should

Machines

may

be designed for the purpose of verifying

the moves of certain puzzles.

made when performing

be noted and stressed that a complete analysis of the proposed

puzzle must be carried out before a machine can be designed. The

completed machine does not render any decisions which the player
himself cannot make, but the consequences of desired moves for the
puzzle are usually obtained with greater speed. The following well-

known and

frequently repeated puzzle

is

now examined.

A man traveling with a goat, a wolf, and a basket of cabbages comes to

a river that must be crossed. A boat is available that is large enough for
man and

one of the other objects. The wolf and goat cannot be

together (on either side of the river) without the man, since the
wolf will eat the goat; nor can the goat and the cabbages be left together
without the man, since the goat will eat the cabbages. How can the man
the

left

get across the river with his entire cargo intact? How can a machine
be designed that will light a red light to indicate a dangerous situation
or a green light to indicate a safe situation?
The machine is to have a box with four buttons; each button is to

have two

settings: "closed position" to represent that the associated

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

181

object is on the initial side of the river and "open position" to indicate
that this object is on the other side of the river. The letters M, G, W,
and C indicate that each object is on the initial side of the river, while

the letters M',

(?',

W,

and C" indicate that these objects are on the

the situation MGW'C' is analyzed, it

on the initial side and the wolf and
are
goat
on
The
the
side.
circuit contains switches marked
opposite
cabbage
and
C'
controlled
M', (?',
by the button settings.
M, ff, W, C,
means
MGW'C'
that
buttons
and
G are in closed posiAccordingly,
opposite side of the river.

If

man and

follows that the

W,

tion

W and C are in open position.

and buttons

switches for those marked

marked M'

those

G',

consideration of

If

M,

G,

W,

This results in closed

and C' and

in

open switches for

W, and C.

4
all possible situations results in 16 or 2 different
are
with
two
four
involved
locations
for
since
objects
possible
cases,
in
16
is
Table
3.
of
these
cases
each object.
listing
given

corresponds to the set of the six dangerous situations, then

D = MQ'WC' + MG'W'C +
If

we

MG'W'C'

M'GWC'
+ M'GW'C + M'GWC

simplify according to the laws of Boolean algebra,

Authority

D = MG'WC' + MG'W'C + MG'W'C'

+ M'GWC + M'GWC' + M'GW'C
- M'W'OC + M'WGC' + M'WGC

+ MW'G'C' + MW'G'C + MWG'C'

+ WC' + WC)
+ MG'(W'C' + W'C + WC'}
- M'0[W'C + W(C' + C}}
+ MG'[W'(C + C) + WC'}
- M'G[W'C + W(l)] + MG'[W'(l) + WC
= M'G(W'C + W) + MG'(W + WC')
= M'G[(W' + W)(W + C)}
+ MG'[(W + W')(W' + C')}
= M'G(W + C) + MG'(W + CO

Laws

60, 66, 7a, 76

= M'0(W'C

Law

Law 86
Law 4a
Law 26

Laws 6a and 8a
Laws 4a and 26

If

we examine

D', the set of all safe situations,

law,

D'

= [M'G(W +

C)

Again simplifying according to the laws

D =
r

[(M

MG'(W'
of

and use De Morgan's

CO]

Boolean algebra, we find

+ W'C'][(M +
f

GO

86

(?)

WC]

SETS

182

Table

The complete
shown

in

Fig.

circuit for

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

and D'

is

shown

in Fig. 105.

The

circuit

106 illustrates a dangerous case, and that in Fig.

107

illustrates a safe case.

circuit

PIG. 105

5.11

THE "ALGEBRA OF PROPOSITIONS"

As indicated
application

is

statement)

is

in the previous section, another model that has wide

the "algebra of propositions." A proposition (simple
a declarative statement; e.g., "2
2 = 4" or "It is

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

A dangerous

case:

183

MG'WC'

FIG. 106

A safe

case:

M'Q'W'C'

FIG. 107

Only those statements that have a definite truth value will

be considered in the algebra of propositions; i.e., each simple statement
may be labeled as being definitely true or definitely false. Statements
"
such as There are living creatures on Venus" will not be elements of the
chosen universe of statements because of their doubtful truth value.
Hence all statements will assume one of two values, T (true) or F (false).
The elements of the algebra will be simple statements designated by
raining."

The operations A, V, and meaning

q, r,
and
"and," "or,"
"not," respectively, are used with simple sentences to
form compound sentences and are analogous to
+, and of the binary
the small letters p,

',

'

Boolean algebra.

The compound statement p A q

is

called the

"conjunction" of p

RELATIONS

SETS

184

FUNCTIONS

and is false otherwise.

g; it is true only when both p and g are true
The compound statement p V q is called the "disjunction" of p and g;
it is true when at least one of the simple statements is true and is false
only when both p and q are false. The negation of p, written p', is
false when p is a true statement and true when p is a false statement.

and

in the following "truth tables."

These ideas are summarized

T
F

Example

If

1.

p and

q represent the simple

F
T

statements

John loves Mary.

It is raining.

q:

then
P
p

A
V

John loves Mary and it is raining.

John loves Mary or it is raining.
John does not love Mary.

<l-

q:

p':

Example

If r

2.

and

represent the simple statements

G I).

r:

is

an integer

s:

is

a prime.

-s:

s:

G I and a is a prime.
G / or a a prime.

is

(a

then

A
V

r
7

Suppose that a
are true.

then

is 5.

A s is a true statement, since both r and s

V s is also true and r' is false. If a is 4,
statement, r V s is true, and s' is true.
Then

It follows that r
s is

a false

Another connective that

the "If, then" type

The

is

not a prime!

is

is

utilized to

form compound statements

of

the implication or conditional, denoted by

one of the most frequently used statements in

"If, then" type is

mathematics. The truth table for implication

is:

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
If
is

185

the hypothesis and q the conclusion, then the implication p > q

false only when a false conclusion has been obtained from a true

is

Example

hypothesis.

3 serves to illustrate the truth table for implication,

Example 3. Suppose an instructor makes the following statement to

a student: "If you receive a passing grade on the final examination,
then you will pass the course/' The student agrees to abide by this
Using the following translations, consider
cases with respect to the truth table.

statement.

You
You

p:
q:

>

If

all

four possible

receive a passing grade on the final examination.

will receive credit for the course.

you receive a passing grade on the final examination, then

you will receive credit for the course.

Case 1: Suppose p is true and q is true; i.e., you do receive a passing

grade and you do receive credit. You will certainly have no cause to
be angry with your instructor; i.e.,
q will be accepted as being true.
Case 2: Suppose p is true and q is false; i.e., you do receive a passing
grade but still fail the course. You will certainly have cause to be angry.

p>

Here p > q will be accepted as being false.

Case 3 Suppose p is false and q is true; i.e., you do fail the examination
but still pass the course. You certainly have no cause to be angry and
:

q will be accepted as being true.

4: Suppose p is false and q is false;

the final
i.e., you do not pass
no
have
You
in
course.
the
credit
not
receive
and
do
examination
>
Hence
the
q
was
this
p
be
since
cause to
original agreement.
angry,

Case

will

be accepted as being true.

In plane geometry the terms "theorem," "converse/ "inverse," and

were used in the
"contrapositive" were introduced. These terms
construction of mathematical proofs of statements in the form "If p
7

then g," where p and q represented the hypothesis and conclusion,

Through a sequence of logical
respectively, of the original theorem.
a valid conclusion
steps permitted by a stipulated mathematical system,
obtained from some stated hypothesis. Theorems such as
was
usually

"If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are equal, then the quadrilateral is a

a transversal, then alternate
square" or "If two parallel lines are cut by

were proved within the framework of the

theorems of plane geometry. In many
other
and
elements, postulates,
or contrapositive of the original theorem
inverse
or
instances the converse
interior angles are equal"

was employed

The meanings of these

summarized in Table 1.
are
theorem
stated

to arrive at a valid conclusion.

terms as related to an

initially

RELATIONSFUNCTIONS

SETS

186

Table

Example 4. These
diagram shown in Fig.

Theorem

ideas are illustrated with respect to the

It is evident in this diagram that A
108.

G -A, then a 6 B.
aE B, then a G A.
If a $ A, then a $ 5.
If a $? B, then a $ A.
If

Converse

If

Inverse:

Contrapositive:

Venn

B.

True
False
False

True

initially stated theorem and its Contrapositive are both

inverse
and the converse of the theorem are both false.
the
while
true,

Notice that the

FIG.

Suppose the

initial

08

theorem was

If

If

a
a
a

GB

then a

A.

False

A, then a
J3, then a
A, then a

B.

A.

True
True

B.

False

Then
Converse

Inverse:

If

Contrapositive:

If

These examples imply that a theorem and its Contrapositive are

equivalent, while the inverse and converse of this same theorem are also
equivalent; i.e., the theorem implies the Contrapositive and vice versa,
while the converse implies the inverse and vice versa.

Symbolically

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
these facts are represented as follows

Theorem
(P -*

Contrapositive

Converse
(g

187

Inverse

p)

(p'

The symbol <- is called a double-implication or equivalence symbol.

The previous examples have illustrated that a compound statement
involving the equivalence symbol is true when the left and right members
both have the same truth value, i.e., when both are true or both are
false.
The truth table for equivalence is:

Note that p
if

g is

read "If p then

q,

and

if

q then

p"

or

"p

if

and only

g."

The following examples serve to illustrate the use of truth tables in

examination of compound statements or compound expressions.
Example

5.

The statement (p
2.
The table

ner shown in Table

>

q) <-> (q'

p') is verified in

the

dictates that the statement p

mang

has

Table 2

As a consequence,
and
this
these two statements are equivalent
equivalence produces
T for each entry in the last column. Such a compound statement as
7
7
(p
p ) is called a "tautology." A tautology is a statement
g) -> (g
that is true regardless of the truth or falsity of the initial statements p
and q. In a similar manner, (q > p) - (p' > g') can also be shown
This verification is left as an exercise.
to be a tautology.
the same truth value as the statement

The importance
one

of the tautology (p

>

q) <-> (q

>

p') is that it

forms

method of indirect proof. This suggests that if

experienced when proving p*q, it might be simpler to

of the bases for the

difficulty is

>

g'

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

188

theorem. Correspondp', the contrapositive of the initial

q'
inverse as related to
the
for
true
holds
situation
a
similar
studying
ingly,

prove

the converse.

The laws for a Boolean algebra (Section 5.8) may be restated by

with V, with A, and A, B, and C with p, q, and r. Further,
replacing
is defined to represent a false proposition, while 1 represents a true
"="
is replaced by
In any statement where the symbol
proposition.

"<->," it will

mean

truth value as
for p,

q, r, s,

that the

its right
.

left

member

appearing in

member

statement has the same

what the truth values are

of this

regardless of
it.

replacements, the identity law (la),

-> p.
Since
represents a proposiA, takes the form p V
is equivalent to p according to the
tion that is always false, then p V
meaning of disjunction. This can also be shown by the truth table:

According

to

these

agreed

A +

Since each entry in the last column

is

T, the statement

<->

is

tautology.

Laws

16, 2a, 26, 4a, 46,

and 56 are

easily rewritten in the

language

of

the "algebra of propositions/ and this is left as an exercise. For example,

Law 4a translated into symbolic language is p V p' <- 1, and the truth

value of this statement

truth table

is

always true.

This

is

substantiated

The tautology p V

p' is referred to as the

law

"the excluded middle"

of

in logic, namely, that a proposition or its negation must be true.

The remaining laws of the Boolean algebra become
:

<-

3a.

5a.

(p')' <-

6a.

V q) <-> (q V p)
66. (p A
((p V q) V r] <-> [p V (q V r)]
[(p A q) A r] <-> [p A (q A r)]
[p V (q A r)] <+ [(p V g) A (p V r)]
[p A (g V r)] <- [(p A q) V (p A r)]
(p V tfX <-> (p' A g
(p A g)'
(p V q')

la.
76.

8a.
86.

9a.
96.

by the

36.

<->

(p

5) <-

(g

p)

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

189

newly formed statements are tautologies and may he verithe

use of truth tables.
The verification of De Morgan's law
by
<->
A
V
is
in Table 3.
illustrated
Since each entry
qY
(p
(96), (p
q'\
All these

fied

Table 3

column is T, the statement (p A qY <- (p' V #0 is a tautology.

The mathematical systems referred to as the "algebra of circuits/'
the "algebra of propositions," and the "algebra of sets" (consisting
only of the two elements U and 0) are all models of the binary Boolean
An isomorphism exists between all of these structures, since
algebra.
the correspondences shown in Table 4 prevail.
in the last

Table 4
Boolean algebra

-*

Switches

Sets

<->

Intersection

<-

Union

False

Open

<->

Closed

<-

Series

<-

Conjunction

<->

Parallel

Disjunction

-*

<-*

Propositions

True

Exercise 22
1.

Evaluate each of the following Boolean polynomials

variables permitted to assume only the values

and C are

for those cases

and

where A, B,

1.

Example:
a.

AB'

For example, in row 3, if A is 1, B

and C is 1, then AB' + C is 1.

is 0,

SETS
&.

e.

AB

h.

(A

B*

4-

B)(A

4-

c.

(A

+ BY

f.

(A

4-

i.

A(AB +

Using the tabular method

a binary Boolean algebra:
a. (A'B'Y - A 4- B
c.

(4'B')'

e.

g.

(A
(A

3.

Show

B)
f

C)

2.

of

RELATIONSFUNCTIONS

B}(A

4-

B)(A'

= A
B') = A

4-

4-

C)(B

is

C)

= (A

A'B'

4-

BC

.4

j.

A[(B

b.

(A'B}'

d.

A(AB}

C)'

= (AB'Y + AB
f

AB

=*

and theorems

+ A''

f. B[(C + D}'
B)(A' + C)

G - A, O, D ,O
a Boolean algebra.

that the set

following tables,

/I

g.

of Section 5.9, verify the following laws

(A'B}'

4-

rf.

4-

with the operations

B] =

-j-

and

-,

defined

by the

a and 6 are any elements of D, then a 4- b will be denned to mean the least
multiple of a and 6, a b the greatest common divisor of a and 6, and a'
is divided by a.
the quotient when
Determine whether the following constitute
4.

If

common

Boolean algebras with respect

c.

D
D =
D

5.

Show

a.
b.

to the designated operations

set of the integral divisors of

set of the integral divisors of
set of the integral divisors of

N
N
N =

6
12

30

that the power set 2 7 is an algebra of sets if I

Show that this
1,2,3 1.
is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of the integral divisors of 30.
{

algebra of sets

6. Using only the laws

Problem 2.

of a Boolean algebra,

prove each of the identities in

7. Design an electrical network to

represent each of the following polynomials
without first performing any simplifications on the polynomials.
a. (A + B)A'
b. AB 4- AC
c. (A 4- B)(A' 4- B)
d. AB -f B
e.

g.

AB + A'B + AB'
ABC + A + BC

j.

A[(B 4- C)D 4- C'(E + F)}

(B 4- AC')(B 4- A' 4- C) 4- C'D

8.

Write a polynomial for each of the

9.

Draw

i.

parts a to

f.

(AB

h.

(A

4-

A'B

B'

4-

+ A'B'}C
C}A' + (B

4-

C')D

+ B'D
circuits

shown

in Fig. 109.

a pair of electrical networks to represent each of the laws and theorems in

e.

Exam-pie. (A 4- B)(A + C) = A -f BC as shown in Fig. 110. In either of the networks shown in Fig. 110, current flows only when switch A is closed or when both
B and C are closed. Hence the two circuits are equivalent.
a.

d.

+B
A(A +
A

- B

B}

4-

- A

b.
e.

AB - BA
ABC -f AB'C

c.

4-

AB'C

4-

A(B

C)

- AB

A'B'C = (A

+ AC

B')C

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

191

-A*

(0}

(c)

+A't

FIG. 109

FIG. 110

10a. Construct a
(1)
b.

and

network

for each of the following

BC
By

(2)

[B(B

the use of the laws for a Boolean algebra,

Boolean polynomials
A)][C(B'

C)]

show that the networks

of parts

2 are equivalent.

11. In each of the following compound statements, assign letters to the simple
statements contained therein and then rewrite the original statement in symbolic
form.

Example. Roses are red and violets are blue.

p:

Roses are red.

q:

Violets are blue.

p
hot and

q:

Roses are red and violets are blue,

humid.

a.

It

b.

Six is a whole number or -f is a fraction,

Jack and JiJJ went up the hill,

C*f

is

it is

92

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

Roses are red or violets are blue.

Roses are not red or violets are not blue.
Roses are not red or violets are blue.
If I live in Ohio, then I live in the United States.
If a number is not even, then it is not divisible by

d.
e.

/.
g.

h.

A number
A number

i.

j.

is

even

is

odd

2.

and only if it is divisible by 2.

and only if it is not divisible by

if

if

2.

If p = 0, q = 1, and s = 0, determine
12. Let p, q, and s be simple statements.
means that
whether each of the compound statements in a to j is true or false (p =
I means that p is true).
p is false and p
c. p' A q
b. p' V q'
a. p V q
f
A g')
e. (p A q) V s'
d. p A p'
f. (p A g) V (p
h. p V (q V
')'
g. (p V g) A (p' V q')
f

(p A g) V (p' A g) V (p A g') V
[(p' A g') V s] A [(?' V p') A s']

i.

J.

(p'

g')

Given: the simple statements

13.

p:

It is

snowing,

g:

The

street

is slippery.
car has snow tires.

r:

My

s:

I arrive at

work on time.

Write each of the statements in a to j in words.

a. p A q
b. g A r
r

d.

e.

(P A g)
'-r

0-

j.

>

p'

A.

(p

6.

Suppose p and

are false and g

statements in Problem

r)

and

/. p'

14#. Suppose that p and g are true and r

for each of the statements in Problem 13.
of the

c.

i.

and

s are false.

r are true.

(p

V
A

g
g

r)

Obtain the truth value

Obtain the truth value for each

13.

15. Verify the tautologies of Section 5.10 (3a, 36, 5a, 6a, 66, 7a, 76, 8a, 86, 9a, 96)
the use of truth tables.
16.

Which

of the statements in a to

p -> (p ->

c.

(p')' <-*

e.

[(p

0.

K5'

g)

d.

P')

*->

g)

Write

[(p

g)

;.
i.
x

(p

/.

A.

(p

g)

(p' -* g')

V g) A r] <-> [p V (g A r)}
[p A (p -> g)] -> g
- g)' - (p A q')
(p
[(p A g) V r] <-> [p A (g V r)]
[(p->g) A (g->r)]-* (p -> r)
[(p

g')]

words the converse, inverse, and contrapositive

Parts a, d, and e refer to plane geometry.

a triangle is equilateral, then it is isosceles.

snowing, then the street is slippery,
a man lives in Boston, then he lives in Massachusetts.
two angles are right angles, then they are equal.
two lines do not intersect, then they are parallel.

a.

If

6.

If it is

c.

If

If

<->

in

ing theorems.

e.

(g

(p' V g)
Ag)- [p~(g V)]

(p-*q)<->
(p

d. If

[(p A r') -* g']

-> p)! -+ (p <-> g)

r] <->

1.

m. (p

6.

g)

&.

17.

m are tautologies?

a.

by

for

each of the follow-

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
18. If

each implication in Problem 17

falsity of its converse, inverse,

is assumed
and contrapositive.

to

193

be true, determine the truth or

CONCEPT OF A GROUP

5.12

Among

the abstract mathematical structures of importance are those

group and a field. The basic characteristics of these structures are

of a

presented so

to illustrate

as, first,

how

other mathematical structures

emanate from them and, second, to indicate that their postulates represent the framework from which well-known algebraic techniques arise.
Certain aspects of the second objective have already been studied when
they were discussed in Chapter 3 with reference to number systems.
Other sets of numbers will now be examined under specified operations
so as to determine whether they possess the properties of either a group,
a

or both.

group is defined as follows:

group symbolized by {K: *} is a mathematical structure which
possesses a set of elements K, a well-defined binary operation *, and
an equivalence relation between the elements of K. Further, it must
field,

satisfy the following properties

G-l

The operation
For

all

* is closed.

G K and 6 G K,

* b

K.

G-2:

The operation

G-3

For all a G K, b G K, and c G K, (a * 6) * c = a * (6 * c).

There exists in K a unique element i, called the identity element,

G-4

such that for

* is associative.

all

G K, a * = * a = a.
G K, there exists a unique element a' G
i

For every element a

called the inverse of a, such that a * a'

Though every element

of

a' *

commutes with the

K,

i.

identity element

i,

does not necessarily follow that a * b = b * a

is,
for all a,6
K. If the operation * possesses the property of commutativity, then the group is referred to as a commutative or an abelian
group. In most of the examples which follow, the groups will possess
that

a *

i * a,

it

commutativity.

Example

1.

The

ordinary addition

set of integers / with the operation * interpreted as

is

zero, since for all a

a group.

/,

+
+

The

identity element i

a.

is

the integer

Further, for all

/,

= 0. Note that is
= ( a)
the
(
a)
a, since a
The
associative
its own inverse.
property represented by the statement
=
is
a
c
true, since this is valid for all integers a, 6,
c)
(6
(a
6)
is usually referred to as the "additive
which
and c. Therefore {/: +},
inverse a' is

group

of integers,"

is

a group.

+a

194

Example

The

2.

set of integers that are divisible

#={...,
with

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

by

-8,-6,-4, -2,0,2,4,6,8,

2,

namely

.}

interpreted as ordinary addition, satisfies all the necessary propa group. This follows since the operation of addition is closed

erties of

and associative with respect to K and, further, is the identity element.

Each element in K has an inverse. For example,
2 is the inverse of 2,
,

is

the inverse of

4,

and

is

its

own

Therefore {K: *}

inverse.

is

a group.

Example 3. The set of integers I under ordinary multiplication is

not a group, since the multiplicative inverses of integers are not contained
in I.
That is, for every a
/, except the element 1, there exists no
inverse for a in 7.

Example

The

4.

set of natural

operation of addition, since

element

(0

numbers,

JV, is

not a group under the

contains no inverse elements or identity

g N).

Table 1 exhibits additional sets of numbers where a

specified operation has been considered with reference to the properties
of a group.
The structures in rows b and d are groups, while those in
rows a, c, and e are not. If in the structures of rows c and e the zero
element is excluded from consideration, these are also groups.

Example

5.

Table

Example
integer

6.

m>

modulo m" and

25

ss

0(mod

If a and r are integers and if a

r is divided by a fixed
where the remainder is zero, then "a is congruent to r

5),

are all divisible

is

is

written a

and

by

r(mod m).

-3 s 2(mod

If

m is 5, then

5), since 13

3,

25

13

0,

and

3(mod

In general, if a ss r(mod m) where a,r

/ and
= a, where q represents the
1, then mq + r
divided by m, and r represents the remainder.
5.

an integer greater than

quotient

when

is

5),

-3 -2

Suppose that every element

of the set of
integers

is

divided by 5

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
a listing

is

carried out according to the remainders 0,

total of five subsets

/3

=
=
=
=

-I

Jo
/!

72

1*

{.

{.

10,

9,

is

5,0,5,10,

These

.}
.}

are

,-8,-3,2,7,12,

.}

Note that

,7,

...}

i-

/2,

zero.

ference

2,3,8,13,

_fi_14QU
o,
i,^t,y,i*t,
then a

called

4.

2(mod
2

/ and
classes.

equivalence

T\1T\IT\IT\1T
W Jj W J UI U 7 =

/O
.

because 22

Similarly, since
3
2 =
5

Note that

and

sets are subsets of

4,1,6,11,

ss 2 (mod 5),

1, 2, 3,

obtained, namely:

If

22

{.

195

/T

For example, since 22

7 2 then
divided by 5 leaves a remainder of
then
3 = 2(mod 5) because the dif-

5).

when

3 E: Is,

when divided by

5 leaves a

remainder of zero.

integral multiple of 5 is added to any element of an

equivalence class, another distinct element of this same equivalence class
is obtained.
Further, it should be observed that the sum of an element

5 or

if

any

with an element of 7 4 yields an element of 7i. Hence we write

= /i with the understanding that the operation of addition
defined in this way means that if any element of / 2 is combined with any
element of /4, an element of /i is obtained. For convenience and pur= 1 is used to replace 7 2
7 4 = /i. With
poses of identification,
these notions as a background, it is possible to develop an arithmetic
of J 2

J2

/4

204

referred to as a

modular arithmetic.

Consider the set

and defined
elements of

The

K=

{0,1,2,3,4}

and the operation

replaced by

remainder obtained when the sum of any two

2 = 0.
4 = 3 and 3
divided by 5. For example, 4

to be the

K is

table for the set

study of

K becomes

this table establishes the fact that the four properties of a

group are satisfied. The operation

table is occupied by an element of K.

is

closed, since every cell of the

The

operation

is

associative,

which are known to

since it
is
element
The
0, and each element in
identity
possess this property.
K has an inverse. If the inverse of a is designated as a', then 1' = 4,
= 0. Thus {K: } is a model possessing
2' = 3, 3' = 2, 4 = 1, and
corresponds to the addition of integers

roup structure.
If * is

replaced

by

and defined to be the remainder obtained when

SETS

196

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

is
is divided by 5, then {K:
}
the product of any two elements of
the
G-3
and
(where
identity
not a group. Group properties G-l, G-2,

element

is

1)

are satisfied, but

possesses an inverse;

1'

1,2'

G-4

is

3, 3'

not, since not every element in

= 2, 4' = 4, but has no inverse.

excluded from consideration, then

which satisfies the group properties under
If

is

Any

set

becomes the

The

set

table

{1,2,3,4},

is

(with zero excluded) which has been formed as a result of

modulus always satisfies group properties G-l through G-4

This fact is stated without proof.
if and only if m is a prime.
under
= 5. However, if m = 4,
=
In the example where K
{1,2,3,4}, m
=
since
a
the element 2 does not
is not
K {1,2,3} under
group,
possess an inverse.
using

as a

Example

7.

The familiar

set of elements

P =

1,

roots of unity) forms a group under multiplication

and

follows

1.

l,i,

t}

where

Here multiplication designated by

is

(the fourth

\/

defined

as

This table indicates that G-l and G-2 are

holds, since the identity element is 1.
7
a unique in verse a'; that is, I = 1, ( I)'
It is interesting to note that this

satisfied.

The property G-3

Further, each element a has

model

!,&*'

P =

i,

and

i)

of a

i.

group
= {1,2,3,4} of a group under
is isomorphic to the model
under
of Example 6.
If 1 <- 1,
i <-> 3, then the following
1 <- 4, i <- 2, and
illustrates how this correspondence under the operation is maintained
for models {P: 0} and {K: <8>}:

{!,

l,i,

i}

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES
Consequently, the replacement of
in the table of {P:

yields

by

1, i

by

197
i

2,

an exact duplicate

by

3,

and

of the table for

by 4

{K:

The motions

of a cross may be used to interpret a finite

Suppose a cardboard cross is mounted on a
sheet of paper upon which are drawn two perpendicular lines, as indicated

Example

group

8.

of four elements.

The cross is fastened to the paper at the intersection of the

by a paper fastener which permits rotation. It is possible to

in Fig. 111.

two

lines

rotate the cross in either a clockwise or a counterclockwise direction.

In order to keep a record

of the rotations, the four ends are labeled a, b, c,

as the initial position for the arrangement indicated
All rotations take place in integral multiples of 90.

and d and considered

in Fig. 111.

g_
[

FIG.

A counterclockwise rotation of 90

1 1 1

arrangement indicated
of the cross indicate
the
exterior
on
placed
will yield the

where the letters

previous starting position. This rotation carries the ends a into b,
This arrangement also is representative of
b into c, c into d, and d into a.
a clockwise rotation of 270.
A counterclockwise (or clockwise) rotation of 180 yields the arrange-

in Fig. 112,
its

ment in

Fig. 113

and

carries the

ends a into

c,

6 into d, c into a,

and d into

6.

A rotation of leaves the initial arrangement of the cross unchanged.

Note that there exist only four possible rotations that will bring the
cross into coincidence with itself.

motions
following table displays a set of four counterclockwise
and the
rotation
under
cross
of
the
which yield all possible arrangements

The

198

SETS

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

FIG, 112

FIG. 113

corresponding symbols used for their representation:

= [Ro,Ri,Rt,Ri\
this point a set of elements
which represents a motion. If A, 5
K, then A *
At

is

obtained, each of
defined to mean

is

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

199

B is performed first and then

For example, 7? 2 * R z means to rotate the cross first
by A
through 270 and then follow this with a second rotation of 180. These
rotations in succession produce the same position of the cross as would
a single rotation of 90.
Hence R% * R$ = Ri = JS 3 * J? 2
In terms of

the result of the combined rotation where

followed

a table,

An

examination
through G-4 are
elements are R'Q
of this

the table reveals that the group properties G-l

The identity element is RQ and the inverse
E 3 R$ = Ri, and R'z = R\. Thus {K: *}
RQ, R(

of

satisfied.

illustrates

example

a group.

Example 9. A rearrangement of the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 is called a

permutation of these numbers. For example, the arrangement 2341
obtained from 1234 means that 1 is replaced by 2 2 by 3, 3 by 4 and
4 by 1.
Such a rearrangement or permutation is indicated by the
/I 2 3 4\
where the top line points out the initial arrangeelement (
),
\Z o 4 I/
;

ment and the bottom

The four

4
*

is

Y and P

elements of a set
operation

the final arrangement.

distinct permutations,

=*

(3

line

==

Po

(,

4)'^

are
3

now

1==

\2

l)'

considered as the

j,

K and are studied from the standpoint of a group. The

K = {P ,Pi P^P^} to mean that

defined on the set

if

T,S
#, then T * 5 implies that the permutation S is to be carried
out first and then followed by the permutation T on S. For example,
/I 2 3 4\
/I 2 3 4\
*
can be P erformed as Allows:
P 3 * Pi = (
)
(
7

Pi

Thus

Pi

\1

Q
o

);

i )

Ps

which

is

the same as

since 1

>

1,

4y

4^4. Hence the result obtained from the two

permutations Pi and P under * is equivalent to the single permutation P
2 _> 2,

3-^3, and

The

It

RELATIONS

SETS

200

FUNCTIONS

* on this set K.
following table describes the operation of

can be shown that the properties G-l through G-4 will hold for this
under *. Thus {K: *} is a group.
If the ends of the cross designated as a, 6, c, and d in Fig. Ill are

set

relabeled

and

1, 2, 3,

4,

respectively, the permutations

Pi, ^2,

and

fii, ^2, and R% which were

3 play the same role as the rotations RQ,
It is left as an exercise to verify that the
discussed in Example 8.
groups of Examples 7 to 9 are isomorphic to one another.

The

discussion has been limited to commutative groups, even though

not a necessary property of a group. This was done so that less
complicated examples could be utilized to illustrate group properties.
The various models of a group structure point up the importance of the
this is

group concept itself. It is apparent that many interpretations can be

given to both the elements of a set and the binary operation that help
to create a group.
The various examples which have been discussed
also point out how different interpretations or models of a group
isomorphic to one another.

may

be

Exercise 23
1.

Determine

in each case

whether the given

set of

elements under the designated

operation forms a group.

a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

f.
g.

h.

K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K

=
=

set of

even integers;

set of

odd

* is subtraction.

7;

=
=
=
=

set of all integral multiples of 3; * is addition.

set of all positive rational numbers; * is multiplication.

set of all positive irrational numbers; * is multiplication.

* is addition.
set of all numbers of the form a -f- b \/2, where a,b
F-,
set of all polynomials of the form ax
where
a,6
b,
I] * is addition of

polynomials.
2 A where
1.

2.

A =

{a,b,c}

* is

union of

sets.

For Problem 2

fied for
3.

* is
multiplication.

integers; * is multiplication.

of Exercise 20, determine whether the group properties are satiseach of the given sets and operations.

Given that the motions

RQ:

No

Ri:

120

of

an equilateral triangle

are:

rotation of the triangle

clockwise rotation of the triangle about
240 clockwise rotation of the triangle about

its

center

its

center

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

201

To visualize these motions, cut out an equilateral triangle from cardboard and then
outline this triangle on a sheet of paper along with the additional lines LI, L 2 and I/ 3
,

Cardboard triangle
FIG. 115

Let the vertices of the cardboard triangle be labeled both back and front with the
The motion Ri is produced by placa, b, and c as indicated in Fig. 115.
ing the cardboard triangle on the outline of Fig. 114 and rotating the cardboard 120.
three letters

The

rotation R\ carries the vertex a into 6, 6 into c, and c into a. The rotation R~>
leaves the vertices
c, b into a, and c into 6, while the rotation RQ

carries a into

These motions may be designated by the representative figures shown

where the letters outside the triangle indicate the initial position. If K
is considered to be the set {Ro^R^Rz} and RZ * Ri is defined to be the combined
motion of performing Ri first and following this by R* (on the result of #t), then
K under * forms a group. For example, the arrangement resulting from the comunchanged.

in Fig. 116,

SETSRELATIONSFUNCTIONS

202

FIG.

bined motion of

Thus

Ri can be obtained by using the following scheme:

>

>

>

>

#o, since

a.

1 1

>

6->

Complete the following table and verify that

Is this a commutative group?

- [R ,Ri,R} under

forms

a group.

ft i

tfo

#2

So
ffl

6.

If

the cardboard triangle of Fig. 115 is lifted and nipped over each of the three
1/2, and L 3 of Fig. 114, three new motions of the triangle can be produced

lines LI,

back

with itself. These flipping motions are

flipping carries the vertices a, b, and c into different posiexample, the flipping of the triangle over the line LI leaves a unchanged

that will bring

it

tions.
For
but interchanges

into coincidence

Each

called reflections.

and

These new motions with respect to the

c.

are designated as F\, Ft, and

The three

reflections

respectively, as

now
Though

\Ro,R],R,Fi,Fz,Fii}.

lines LI,

L 2 and L 3
,

shown

in Fig. 117.
included with the three rotations form the
3,

new

set

these six motions have been illustrated with

17

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

203

respect to the designated initial position of the cardboard triangle, it is emphasized

that the primary concern is with the motions themselves. The labeling used for the
vertices is a device to help keep track of the motions being performed.

The motion Fi* R\

and

Ri,

where R\

is

defined to

is

performed

first

mean the combination of the two motions Fi

and then followed by Fi upon the result of JBi.

FIG. 118

FIG. 119

Thus F\ * R\ implies that the cardboard triangle is rotated first through 120, producing the arrangement shown in Fig. 118, and then flipped over the line L\ with
the result shown in Fig. 119. This combined motion can be described as:

The combined motion

1

7*

#1

=F

Fi

> c

Ri has the same effect as the single motion Fz, and thus

9.

If the motions to be performed first are listed in the column to the left while those
performed second are listed at the top, then the results of the operation * may be

summarized

in a table.

Second motion

First

motion

Complete this table and verify that

a commutative group?

Is this

z,F \,F ,F z\

under

forms a group.

There are

4.

permutations

Let
first

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

204

arrangements of the three numbers

be designated as

/I
VI

3\
3J
3\
3J

/I

3\

V2

l)
3\

2J

p
Fl

p
P4

_/l

~U

p
**

P
_

These

V3
/I
V3

3\
2j

Pz means

to

perform

P.

or

It follows that

ft* P.

>

2->
3-*

2_> 2- 3
3_* i_> |

which

is

Pi

"

-([

2)* (5

?)

(2

[K: *} is a group. Is this a commutative group?

motions of the equilateral triangle in Problem 3?

Is it

l)

?3

Show

'

that

isomorphic to the group of

?
If zero is excluded, will the
modulo 7 a group under
modulo 7 be a group under <8>? (See Example 6, Section 5.12.)

Is the set of integers

set of integers

CONCEPT OF A

FIELD

field is a mathematical structure, designated as

and
a set of elements g> two binary operations

satisfying the following postulates

g-2:

3.

gf-1:

VI

p
^

* be defined so that
[PQ,Pi,Pt,Pi,P4,Pi] and
Thus,
followed by P* on the result of P 5

5.13

and

#=

5.

1, 2,

six possible

may

possessing
}
defined on $, and
,

is a commutative group with identity element

(zero)
{%:
and the additive inverse of x denoted by ( x).
{go: 0} is a commutative group with identity element 1 and
1
the multiplicative inverse of x denoted by 1/x or or
g
}

g-3:

denotes the set of nonzero elements.

is distributive over 0.
The operation

The equivalence relation designated by the equality sign represents

the fact that if a = 6, then a and b are symbols for the same element.
The individual postulates of a field appear in Section 2.7 but are there
interpreted with respect to real numbers. However, if these postulates
are rewritten with R e replaced by g ( a se ^ f abstract elements), then
the general concept of a field will be the result. In this manner the
properties of a field can be studied as an abstract structure without any
In Chapter 2 the sets F and R ej together
reference to a particular model.

with the operations of addition and multiplication, were shown to be

models of a field. Further, the examples of Chapter 2 illustrated the
format to be used for proving theorems. In addition, it was shown that
many of the well-known techniques of algebra follow as logical consequences of the postulates of a field.

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

205

As an added illustration of the format for proof, the following theorem

If a,b,c
referred to as the "cancellation law for addition" is included.
=
5
a
c.
6
then
a
that
such
c,
g
Authority

Proof:

4.

+b
+
&)
(-a) + (a
(-a) + a + 6
+6

5.

1.

2.
3.

= a+c
= (~a) +
= (-a) +
= +c
= c

1,

(a + c)
a + c

2.
3.

4.
5.

The authority or reason for each step is left as an exercise.

The principle of duality is a property possessed by a Boolean algebra
and not by a field. However there are various theorems derived from
the field postulates that exhibit interesting parallelisms. As examples,
,

1.

If a,b

g and

then 6
3.

8 and

a
2.

If a,b,c

If

c,

1.

if

then
a

+b=

if

0,

2.

then a

= -(-

3.

If a,Z>

If

or a

S,

then

a.

If a,&,c

c.

G
6

c,

a ^ 0, and
then b = c.

&, a ?* 0,

and a

1,

I/a.

g, a 5* 0, then a

<

(cr )"

=
I/a

1
-

to prove correThus, if the theorems at the left are proved, it is possible

a
the
at
by 1, and
by
right by replacing
sponding theorems
a
field
for
universal
not
a
is
The
property
duality principle
by I/a.
which are not true
structure, since parallel statements can be created
= is true for all elements
For example, a
of all the elements in g.
1 = 1 does not follow for all elements
statement a
but the
in
,

parallel

5,

in g.

Example 1. The
It was shown
field.

K=
K

set of integers modulo 5 where

Example 6 of Section 5. 12 that

in

is

{0,1,2,3,4} is

a commutative

= {1,2,3,4} is a commutative group under

Q
group under addition and
is distributive over
shown that
be
also
can
It
multiplication.

Example
not a

field.

The
The

2.

set of integers

table for

modulo

K and the

6 where

K = {0,1,2,3,4,5}
K are

table for

is

is

The

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

206

but 2v fails to be such under <g>.

a commutative group under
the
elements
that
fact
the
table exposes
2, 3, and 4 do not have
,

multiplicative inverses.

F,
a,b
addition:

The

3.

Example
is

set

numbers

of

To show

field.

that

J5T

form a + b
2, where
a commutative group under

of the
is

+ y V2) + (w + \/2) = (x + u) + (y + v) \/2. If

+ v) G F. __It follows that
w,v G F, then (2 + u]_E F and
+ w) + (y + v) V2 is of the form a + b A/2.

G-l:

i>

(a;

o?,s/,

(?/

(a;

G-2:

Since associativity holds for real numbers,

numbers

V2 =

G-3:
G-4:

form a

of the

(a

is

the identity element for addition.

\/2)

real

the

is

additive

inverse

numbers

of the

In a similar manner

form a

of

A/2 =

+ b V2

(0

form a

excluded)
1

is

will

hold for

a commutative group under multiplica-

V2

7
V2

0.

it

+ b V 2.

1.

since

can be shown that the set of numbers of the

it

tion with identity element

It is left as

+ b V 2,
/

b V2)
b \/2)]
[- (a
(a
Since commutativity holds for real numbers,

G-5:

hold for real

will

it

+ b V 2.

The multiplicative

\/2

an exercise to show that multiplication

(a
v

inverse of

26 2

0)y

distributive over

is

addition.

complex numbers of the form a + bi where

The veri1, is another model of a field.
fication of the postulates as they apply to numbers of the form a + bi
is left as an exercise.

Example

a,b

5.14

Rej i

4.

The

set of
2

1?

fc"

CONCEPT OF AN ORDERED

FIELD

If a field satisfies an additional set of postulates that imposes an

order relation upon its elements, then the field is called an "ordered field/'
In this case it is assumed that the field possesses in addition to the

equivalence relation of equality a second relation denoted by the symbol

"<" and read "less than." The statement "a < V is read "a less
9

})

b
and, by agreement, means the same as "6 > a" which is read
"6 greater than a." Thus if {g:
is an ordered field, it possesses
}

than

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

"<"

the order relation

P-l:

If a,b

<

b,

If a,6,c

P-4:

the following "order postulates":

and only one of the following

(Law of trichotomy)
b,
a
and
<
5
b, then a + c < b + c.
if
an
d
c
and a < b, then ac < be.
>
S
such
a
b and b < c, then a < c.
that
<
8

G
G
If a,b,c G

P-3:

satisfies

5, then one

If a,6,c

P-2:

and

>

+>X} and {R

fields \F:

is

true:

b.

By convention, it is agreed to say that "a

or that "a is negative" when "a < 0."
The two

207

+,X}

is

positive"

when "a

>

0"

are ordered while the fields

It is also
created from / (integers) modulo p (a prime) are not ordered.
noted that the field {C: +,X }, where C is the set of complex numbers,
is

not ordered.

basic theorems result as a consequence of the added order

postulates for a field. As illustrations, a number of these theorems are

Many

proved.

Order Theorem
a

1.

Proof:
a < b

<

2.

-+

3.

<

4.

b 4- c

5.

2.
3.

a,6,c

% and

if

<

and

<

+c

<
<

+d
+d

2.

If

By

2.

P-2

3.

By

4.

P-2

5.

P-4

% and a <

Proo/:
a <

(-a) +a < (-a)

a >
a or
<

1.

Order Theorem

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

d,

then

+0

hypothesis
hypothesis

0,

then

-a >

0.

1-

By

2.

P-2

3.

Field postulates with respect to

additive inverse and
identity

hypothesis

elements

1.

<

Authority

Order Theorem

1.

If

1,

d.

3.

If a,b

S and

<b

-b < -a
6 < -a

<

6,

then

Authority

Proof:
a

(-a) + a
< (-a)
+ (-6)

1,

< (-a)

2.

+b
<

(-a)

3.

+b+

+
or

(-6)

4.

.5.

-a > -b

6.

>

b.

SETSRELATIONSFUNCTIONS

208

The reasons
an

as

left

for the various steps in

Order Theorem

4.

If a,6,c

%,

1.

<

2. c

2.

4.

-c >
-ac < -be

5.

ac

3.

>

be

Order Theorem

<

If

a.

and

2. &

3.

6,

4. b

&.

<

then ac

0,

>

be.

5.

then

If a,6

>

8,

3.

Order Theorem 2

4.

P-2

5.

Order Theorem 3

<

then a

&

if

and only

if

>

0,

0,

Authority

<

b or 6

+
+

(-a)
(-a)

and

By hypothesis
By hypothesis

Proof:
1.

<

if

Authority

Proof:
a < b

1.

Order Theorem 3 are omitted and

exercise.

>

If b

The proof

> a
> a+
>
>

0,

of part 6

L By
(-a)

then a

<

is left

as

hypothesis

2.

P-2

3.

Since a

4.

By

(-a)

definition

&.

an

exercise.

Exercise 24
1. Determine whether the
given
and multiplication forms a field.
a. K = set of rational numbers
b.
c.

d.

K
K
K

k,
t.

g.

2.

a.
6.
c.

d.
e.

/.

0-

A.

elements under the operations of addition

set of integers

=
=
=

K
K
K =
K =

e.

/.

set of

numbers
modulo 3
modulo 4
integers modulo 9
numbers of the form a + b \/2 where a,fc E /
numbers of the form a -f 6 \/3 where a,b E F
complex numbers of the form a + bi where a,6

set of real

set of integers
set of integers
set of
set of
set of
set of

E#

Prove the following theorems for an ordered field:

E S, and if a > 0, and 6 > 0, then a + 6 > and ab > 0.
If a,b E 5, and if a >
and 6 < 0, then ab < 0,
If a,b E g, and if a <
and b < 0, then a + b < and ab > 0.
If a,6,c E 5? and if ac < be and c >
0, then a < b.
If fl,6,c E 5 and if c < 0, then a < b if and
only if ac > 6c.
If a,&

E 5 and a ^ 0, then a > 0.

E 5, then a >
and only
a" > 0.
If a,b E 5 an(i
a > 6 and a& > 0, then a" <
If
If

a
a

if

if

if

&- 1

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

PROJECTS

Supplementary Exercises

is

denned

to

a subset of a universal set C7, then the complement of A, written A',

be that set of all elements of U not contained in A. Frequently only a
part of the complement of a set may be of interest. For example, if .A and B are
two subsets of 7, then it might be of concern to investigate that part of the complement of B which is contained in A. This set, described as {x x E A A x & B}, is
referred to as the "difference of the two subsets A and B" and is designated A
B.
If

1.

is

Thus

A - B

{x

x
|

EA

and x

g B\

or

A - B = A C\B'
Draw a Venn diagram
The complement of a

a.
6.

set;

that

is,

if

illustrating the set

(A

C\B

7* 0).

considered to be a special case of a difference

a subset of ?7, then A.'
U A. Complete the following

is

subset

is

statements:
(1)
(4)

A - U A - A =

- A =
- =
= Ar\U'=Ar\0 =
(2)

(5)

A-U

(3)

17

(6)

A - - Z7 =

Example.
c. Using the definition of "difference" and the laws of the algebra
the following
(1)

(A

(2)

A
A

(3)

-B)
VJ
r\

of sets,

prove

(B
(B

-C
-

C)
C)

= A -6BUC)
= (A \J B) - (C - A)
- (A r\ B) - (A r\ c)

(A -B)' = A'U
(5 - (7)
B) - C = (A - (7)
(5) (A
- C = (A - C) C\ (B - C)
J5)
(6) (A
- (B - C) = (A - J5) (A C)
(7) A
d. Is set difference a commutative operation?
(4)

U
n

The symmetric difference A A 5 of two elements A and B of a Boolean algebra

denned by A A B + A'B or, equivalently, A A B - (A + B)(A' + ').
a. Show that AB + A'B ** (A + B)(A' + B').
Rewrite the above definition for "A" by use of
b. Suppose A and B are sets.
the symbols VJ and C\. Construct a membership table for A A B. From a Venn
2.

A'

is

diagram, identify the region or regions represented by

B in words.
A

A B.

Describe the set

c.

By

use of either membership tables or the postulates of the algebra of

verify each of the following laws of

(1)
(3)

(5)

A A0 = A
A A A -0
A AB - B AA

sets,

"A":
(2)
(4)
(6)

A A?7 = A'
A A A' - U
A A (B A C) - (A

A B) A C

Using the definition of "symmetric difference" and the postulates of the algebra
of sets, prove the following:
(1) (A
BY - (A \JB}C\(A\J B')
(A C\ C)
B)
C) = (A
(2) A
(B

e.

AB

by using the
Design an

3.

with respect to the Boolean algebra of the integral divisors

and
as given in Example 2, Section 5.8.
B.
A

definitions of -f,
its corresponding table for

Construct

Interpret

of 6

father

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

21

electric circuit

'

which simulates the moves

and two sons wish

The

to cross a river.

of the following puzzle:

father weighs 150 pounds and

each son weighs 75 pounds. The only available boat

How do they all succeed in getting across?

capable of carrying 150

is

pounds.

an

hall light is controlled by three switches.

4.
Design
effectively controls the hall light so that the throwing of

turns the light on or

5.

of

which

the switches

off.

The mathematical

elements

electric circuit

any one

structure called a "ring" consists of a

nonempty set of
and multi-

K on which are defined two binary operations called addition

with the following properties

{K:
} is a commutative group.
(2) Closure and associativity hold for

satisfied:

plication
(1)

for

Note that commutativity does not have

Therefore the distributive law is stated in two parts:

<> is

(3)

distributive over

(b

(g>

(b

Determine whether each

c)

c)

<8>

(a

<g>

b)

(a

(b

<8>

a)

(c

<E>

<8>

to hold

c)

a)

under the operations of addition and

of the indicated sets

multiplication forms a ring:

a.
b.
c.

d.
e.

K
K=
K
K
K=
K=

set of integers

set of

even integers or

{.

numbers of the form a

of integers modulo 4
of integers modulo 3

set of all
set
set

-f-

set of integers with the following

b
a
plication": If a,b
/, then a
/.

6.

The statement

[(p

q)

p]

2,0,2,4,

\/2> where

new

+b

>

,4,

we

write the tautology [(p

q)

p]

q)

.}

G1

definitions of "addition"

inference or law of detachment, since the conclusion q

from the compound statement [(p matics along with other tautologies

and a<8>6=a-h&

a tautology and

q is

a,Z>

This law

is

referred to as the law of

may

be inferred or detached

frequently used in mathethe development of a deductive proof.

If

in

p].

q in the

is

form p

the following examples

tf

illustrate its use.

Example

1:

p -

Example

pass this course, then I shall graduate.

passed this course.

q:

If I

p:

q:

shall graduate.

2: (euclidean plane

p-

geometry)

two

lines a

and

p:

b are not perpendicular

then they are parallel.
a and b are not perpendicular to c.

q:

q:

If

to a third line

is

and "multi-

ab.

parallel to

c,

b.

MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES

211

In Examples 1 and 2 we asserted p > q (the major premise) and p (the minor premise)
without any concern for the truth values assigned to either p or p - q. Our major
interest is in the symbolic form of the compound statement [(p > q) A p]
g, which
is a tautology; i.e., this law is valid and is independent of the truth values assigned
to its

component

parts.

In each of the following, determine whether the conclusion

from

major and minor premises (no judgment

its

is

to

is

correctly inferred

be made relative to the truth

or falsity of the premises).

a.

b.

7.

If

it

It

is

Conclusion:

I shall

Major premise:
Minor premise:

If a triangle is isosceles,

Conclusion:

Angle

go swimming.

Triangle

GHI

G is

is

then

isosceles

equal to angle

its

(GH =

base angles are equal.

HI).

I.

Consider the following argument:

Major premise:
Minor premise:
Conclusion:
8.

snows, then I shall go swimming.

snowing.

Major premise:
Minor premise:

If

two angles are right

angles, then they are equal.

A = angle B.
A and B are right angles.
Angle

Consider:

This month is May.

Last month was April.
Six

months ago

it

was June.

Analyze the following statement:

If this

then

six

month is May, then last month was April. But if last month was
months ago it was June. Then if this month is May, six months ago

April,
it

was

June.

Does the conclusion

(p

r) is

a tautology.)

logically follow?

(Hint: Prove that

[(p-#)

(q-* r)]-

Answers

CHAPTER
Exercise
la.
b.
c.

Not a

Problems

to Selected

well-defined set

1,

Page 3
GQ

2a. r

Well-defined set
Not a well-defined set

d.
f-

h&Q
<Q
ff

Exercise

2,

Page 4

Exercise

3,

Page

3a. Finite set; eight elements

b. Infinite set
d.

Finite set; two elements

/.

Infinite set

h.

Finite set;

elements

la. Finite set; four

elements

2a.

i.

is

{M,i,s,p}
b. Infinite set
/. Finite set; nine elements

d.

7
2 but less than 8
greater than
{-1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7}

x has

less

than 30 days

{7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37}
Infinite set

g.

{February}
x H- 1 = x

h.

0J

k.

+ 2x
^

=0
=

+5

3x
-h 5
set of rational
5

Q -

{1,2,3,4,5}

is less

numbers

than 6

2x

6a.

213

True

g.

False
False

A.

True

d.

Exercise
1.

Six

3.

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

SETS

21

Page 10

4,

5a.

1; 3; 7

1357---2n-l---

ways
Exercise 5, Page 12

16.
d.
f.
g.

A = B
A B

A^B
A*B

Exercise 6, Page 17
{Tuesday, Thursday}

la,

* is a

{*

of the

day

week beginning with the letter T}

C (all days of the week}

{Tuesday, Thursday}
c.

{5,6}
{x

3.

is

a natural

number between 4 and

{5,6}

N CRe
N CF

NCI

F CRe
Re~ CRe
I+
e
7+ C F
I+

CR
CI

{a;

is

a natural number greater than 4}

CRe
CRe

Ri
I

4a.
d.

True
True

5a.
d.

CF

g.

False

e.

H
H
H
H

CRe

k.

False

h.

{10}

{0}

CN

CF

60.

CI +

HCI

h.

&

t.

n.

86.

(3(_

d.

V3, - V3}

{x

x
|

A and

a;

Yes

d.

No

e.

Yes

7* 0}

{0,4}

Exercise 7, Page 20
I/-

{{0 {0}',0,{0}};{0,{0},0};{0,{0},{0}};{0,0,{0}};{{0},0,(0}};{0,{0}};
)

All but {0, {0},0, {0}

3.

2*

1;2

and

are proper subsets; 16 subsets

2;

set of n elements is an element of the set of

not contained in the set of all proper subsets.
4a. False
6a. True

No, the given

all

nonempty subsets but

is

d.

False

t.

True
True

j.

False

/.

c.

T == {1}
S - {{1},2}
V - {{{1},2},5}
T G 5, 5 E F, but 2

Let

m. False

Exercise
2a, Set of
6.

False

even natural numbers

Set of positive integers and zero

8,

gF

Page 23
4a.
c.

f.

C\

= B
B C\C A'

(10,20,30,

.}

ANSWERS TO
60.

c.

UB

.4

P\

==

{all

the elements of

or

B = A
B = B

IB

Exercise
2o.

/i.

A - B (B
(B

215

B -

A
A

C\

SELECTED PROBLEMS

9,

Page 34

{2,6,10,14,18}

-A)' = U

- AY C\(A - BY -

{1,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,12,13,15,16,17,19}

3e.

46.

gram

is not the only Venn diathat will satisfy the given con-

This

ditions.

lla. 55 per cent

8a.

34

6.

10

c.

c.

e.

d.

65 per cent
25 per cent

216

SETS

FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS

CHAPTER
Exercise

0,

Page 58

ANSWERS TO
<)a.
r.

(0,1}

e.

(3)

ff.

(0,1,2)

> 5}
\x\x < -22}

10a.

\x\x

c.

\x\x

i.

{2,

217

A.

{x\x g[-i,3]}

e.

g.

SELECTED PROBLEMS

12a.

03

-5
e.

15a.

flf.

-202

VT

-2

-1

/2

-2

CHAPTER

Exercise 12, Page 78

la.
d.
f.

i.

2a.
c.

e.

A X A =

!(3,3),(3 J 4),(3,5),(4,3),(4,4),(4,5),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5)J

J3XA

((l,3),(l,4),(l,5) (2,3),(2,4),(2,5),(3 3),(3,4),(3,5),(4 ; 3) (4,4),(4,5)}

(4
(A

J5)

.4)

=
=

{(3,3),(3 4),(4,3),(4,4)j
}

{(3,3),(3,4),(4,3),(4,4)|

elements
elements
n elements

7x

3.

7+

XN - N X

mn

Exercise 13, Page 83

la.

{(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(5,5),(6,6)|
{(*,y)

=
B* =

i)*

e.

eu xu
(2,3,4,5,6)

(2,3,4,5,61

{(3,2),(4,2),(4,

{(x,y)

D* JR*

D* =
R* -

e U X U\x
(3,4,5,6)

12,3,4,5}

{4,5,6}
{2,3,4}

X A) HOB X
X B) r^(B X

/+

SETSRELATIONSFUNCTIONS

218
2a.

123456
No

/.

6.

Yes

d.

No

n.

3a.

123456

23456

No
No
Yes

Exercise 14, Page 88

la.

K-1,-2),<0,0),(1,2)}
jD*

>*
'

- {-1,0,11,12*=

-2,0,2), fl*

-2,0,2}

{-1,0,1!

- !),( -2,0),( -2,1),(

{( -2, -2),( -2,

_2,2),( -2,3),(

- !,-!),( - 1,0),

(-!,!),( -1,2),(-1,3),(0 -2),(0 -1),(0,1) (0,2),(0,3),(1, -2),

J

D* -

>

>

-2, -1,0,1,2,3}, R* - {-2,-l,0,l,2,3}

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS

219

/?or/?-1

-3

-3

2a.
c.

R~

ft"

\(x,y)

{(3,0)

R y
- 3},
- 5},

],

d.

-1

7a.

C\R 2

Ri

SETS

220

RELATIONS

CHAPTER

FUNCTIONS

Exercise 15, Page 115

16.

"'JlllllllIllIlL

1X4

h.

4c.

-3

-3

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS

221

y
3

S 2/4

(-6,0)

76.

JT

(6,0)

222

SETS

RELATIONS

FUNCTIONS

Exercise 16, Page 119

/

la.

c.

-9

.7-

\
k.

2a.

\l

74
-4

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS

36.

223

4a.

Vr J7
:

Exercise 17, Page 127

Yes

la.

e.

3a.

*./-

=
/ -

e.

Aa; G]0,oo[}

-frr'Ar 6]0,oo[}
- 4) A w G
f(w) = 2w(w;

/()

[-2,oo[; Z2*

(*)

A/3-

-A

a;(200

x)

12.

]4,

[0,*[

[}

e]0,oo[}

EIO,co[}

]0,

AA

I (a:,

,- 1A , nr
]0 50[

'

'i50[|

16.

/-

108
,

TTX

,
2

AA

Exercise 18, Page 136

13.

K-3,-1)}

16.

17.
18/.

-2

--*-!}

[0,oo[

/=

/=

{(,/())

&[; ^*

/(r)

Jf(r)

14.

7a.

10a. /
c.

D* d D* =

/=

4a.
rf.

Yes

2o.

No
No

c.

-2

RELATIONS

SETS

2Qf.

For

ft,

0.

For

Si,

;.

For

= [0,
* =
[O
D* - [0, co
fl* -]-o,0]
>*

>

f(f,-f),(2 2)j

24.

((\/

5,- \/2)|
26.

JD*

22.

10,

FUNCTIONS

28.

[0,oo[

= ]-oo,

oo

Exercise 19, Page 144

3.

fO

/-<7

fff

+j\/2
= A/2 - x -

T/

{(*,

\/2 -

3)

9a.

-3

-1

{(s,y)

\/9 -

=
{

(x,y)

x*

1}

(x,y)

V9

=
x

a?l

y}

*}
3}

ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS

225

CHAPTER 5
Exercise 20, Page 157
la.

Yes

d.

No

g.

Yes

i.

No

k.

m.

3a.

Yes

No
Yes

d.

No

/.

Yes

Exercise 21, Page 168

26.

A (A n By

- A

Columns 6 and 7 are

j.

3d.

(A'

W BY

(1)

(A

(3)

(A'

6.

(2)

c.

(3)

(4)

(7)

* (A

r\

identical.

U BO H (A U B) Pi (A

U B') H (A U CO
n c) w (B n c) u (A

(A U B) Pi (A U CY
(A U C) n (B U C) n (A

\J B')

r\D)\j(B r\D)

\J

D)

n (B \J D)

A'

(8)

56.
d.
flr.

A \J(A \JBY = A UB'

(A UBOUB' - A UB'
A U B'
[A' n (B Pi C)]'

6a.

6.

A'

n B'
U B'

{a;

{x

G Z7 x G A A x g BJ
G U \x g A V * g B)
|

RELATIONS

SETS

226

FUNCTIONS

Exercise 22, Page 189

2a.

4a.

Yes

6.

No

c.

Yes

A'-

-L,
Sb.

A + BC

d.

AB'(C

e.

(AB

+C

B)
4-

DE)B

Exercise 23, Page 200

la.
c.
e.

g.

No
No
Yes
Yes

2a.
b.
.

i.

No
No
No
No

Exercise 24, Page 208

la.
c.
:

>.
0.
.

Yes
Yes

No
No
Yes

5.

Yes; yes

Index

Abelian, 193
Abscissa, 77

Cartesian-product set,
R e 78
Re
Circle, 100-102, 125

XR*X

Absolute value, definitions

of,

66-68

area

in relations, 117, 14S

Additive inverse elements, 44, 52, 161

Algebra, binary Boolean, 173-193
Boolean, 169-193

175-182
of propositions, 182-189
of sets, 159-168
of circuits,

natural-number system, 43
in real-number system, 51
in structure, 155
Average, 155
in

Axis, x, 99
y,

99

e,

77

127

regions of, 104, 127

as a relation, 130-131, 146-147
unit, 151-153
Circuit, closed, 176

equivalent, 176

open, 175
175

Algebraic equations, 47
Associative law for operations, in algebra of sets, 34, 160
in Boolean algebra, 171
in group, 193

of,

R XR

parallel,
series,

175

switches

of,

175

Class, equivalence, 11, 195

Closed circuit, 176

Closed operation, 154-155
Closure laws for operations, in group,
193
in natural-number system, 42
in real-number system, 51
in structure, 155
in system of integers, 45
Coefficient, 174

Commutative group, 193, 200, 204

Commutative law for operations, in

Binary, 154
Binomial theorem, 20

Boolean

(see

algebra of

Algebra)
in
in
in

Cantor, Georg,
Cardinal number, 11
Cartesian construction, 74
set,

160

in structure, 155
Complement of a set, 22, 113

laws

Cartesian-coordinate system, 77

Cartesian-product
/ X /, 75

sets, 34,

Boolean algebra, 171

natural-number system, 43
real-number system, 51

of, 34, 160,

161, 171

Complementary relation, 84
Complex number, 6, 149, 206

74-78
227

SETS

228

RELATIONS

Composite function, 143

domain
range

of,

of,

Compound

144

144
defining conditions, 65-70,

FUNCTIONS

Distance, 67
Distributive law for operations, in algebra of sets, 34, 160, 166

Boolean algebra, 171

natural-number system, 43
in real-number system, 51
in

in

108, 126

statement, 183
Conditional equations, 53
Congruent, 194

Division, for natural numbers, 44

for rational numbers, 44

Conjunction, 175, 183

Divisor, zero, 47

Connectives, and, 22, 183

and/or, 22, 183
if and only if, 187

Domain,

Compound

if,

then, 184

not, 184
or (exclusive), 22, 61

of composite function, 144

of function, 120, 139,

144

of relation, 81

Domain

variable, 139

Dual, 168

Duality principle, 168, 205

relations as, 79

Constant, 6

Constant function, 120, 123

Constant polynomials, 56

Element, identity,

image

43,

44

of,

Contrapositive, 185

inverse (see Inverse elements)

Converse, 185
Coordinate line, 48

unity, 43

Correspondence, one-to-one, 9-10, 48,

96, 172

of a set,

Ellipse, 106, 131

Empty

or null set, 4

as a relation, 81, 120, 126

Equality, of ordered pairs, 74

49-50
Dedekind, Richard, 40

Decimals,

infinite,

Defining conditions, 5-6, 15

absolute value in, 117

compound, 65-70, 108, 126

as equations, 47, 53, 57

of sets, 11

Equality properties, 52
Equality relation, 82
Equations, algebraic, 47

equivalent, 111

conditional, 53
defining conditions as, 47, 53, 57
equivalent, 57, 111

as inequalities, 64, 102

for inverse function, 141

identical,

for inverse relation, 141

Defining property method, 4-6

De Morgan's

laws, for algebra of sets,

160-162, 166
for

Boolean algebra, 171

Dependent system, 111

Dependent variable, 120
Difference function, 138
Direct variation, 150
Disjoint sets, 25, 113
Disjunction, 175, 183

first-degree,

47

53

second-degree (quadratic), 47, 150

simultaneous, 109-111
Equivalence, 9-10, 187
of sets, 9

Equivalence class, 11, 195

Equivalence relation, 82-83, 205
Equivalent circuit, 176

Equivalent defining conditions, 111

Equivalent equations, 57, 111
Excluded middle, 188
Exponents, 174

INDEX
Factor of set polynomial, 166
Factorization, of polynomials, 56-57
of set polynomials, 167

204-208

Field, concept of,

120

dependent variable

of,

120

difference, 138

120, 139, 144

horizontal line test

number, 152

Identity laws, for algebra of sets, 34,

160

Function, composite, 143, 144

constant, 120, 123

of,

Identical equations, 53

for multiplication, 43

Finite set, 3

domain

Boolean algebra,

Identity function, 144

First-degree equations, 47

of,

for

171

Identity elements, for addition, -44

numbers, 51

definition

Idempotent law,

Identities,

ordered, 206
of rational numbers, 51
of real

229

for,

143

identity, 144

for

Boolean algebra, 171

for group, 193

for integers, 44
for natural numbers, 43

for real numbers, 51

Image, 8-9, 86
Implication, 184

Improper

independent variable

of,

120

set, subset,

13

Inclusion, 13

inverse, 140, 141

Inconsistent system, 111

line as, 123

Independent system, 109

Independent variable, 120

linear,

136

phraseology of, 121, 126

product, 138

Indirect proof, 187

Inequalities, 61-66

defining conditions as, 64, 102

quadratic, 136
quotient, 138

defining regions, of circle, 105

of ellipse, 106

range of, 120, 139

real-valued, 121

of hyperbola, 107

of parabola, 106

of real variable, 121

113

relation as, 120

linear, 64,

single-valued, 120
sum, 138

quadratic, 64, 113

sense of, 63

vertical line test for, 142

solution
in

two

of,

63-66

variables, 102

Infinite decimals,

Greater than, 61, 82

Group, 193-204

commutative or
204
properties

abelian, 193, 200,

193

of,

Infinite set, 3,

40

equivalence

of,

Integers,

2, 75,

10

193

negative, 44
positive,

44

subtraction

for,

45

44-45, 94-95
Intersection of sets, 21

system

Hyperbola, 107, 133

Hypothesis, 185

49-50

laws

of,

of,

34

Interval notation, closed form, 69

open form, 69

Idempotent law,
159, 161

for algebra of sets,

Inverse elements, additive, 44, 52, 161

for group, 193

SETS

230

RELATIONS

Inverse elements, multiplicative, 47,

52, 161

Inverse function, 140, 141

Inverse operation, 44, 52

FUNCTIONS
cardinal, 11

Number,

complex,

149, 206

6,

of elements, in a cartesian product,

76

Inverse relation, 85-87, 141, 142

Inverse statement, 185

in a set,

30-32

as integer,

2, 44,

Inverse variation, 150

irrational, 6, 48, 90

number, 6, 48, 90
Isomorphism, 173, 176, 189, 196, 200

natural, 2, 42-44
negative, 61

Irrational

94-95

nonnegative, 69
positive, 61
Lattice, 75

prime, 2

Less than, 61, 82

rational, 2, 46, 90,

Line, 48, 98, 102, 146-147

coordinate, 48
as a function, 123

of subsets, 18
identities,

Linear inequalities, 64, 113

152

system, 41

44

of integers,

Linear (first-degree) equations, 47

Linear function, 136

of,

real, 6,

Number
Number

real-number, 48
as a relation, 124

Mapping, image

92-93

48

natural, 42
rational, 46-47, 92-93
real, 50,

160-161

Mapping into, 8-9

Mapping onto, 8-9
Membership relation, 2
Model of structure, 157,

One-dimensional space, 48, 99

One-to-one correspondence, 9-10, 48,
96, 172
169, 175, 206

Modulo, 194
Motions, of cross, 197-199
of equilateral triangle, 201-204
as reflections, 202
as rotations, 197

Multiplicative inverse elements, 47, 52,

161

Open

175

circuit,

Operation, binary, 154

154-155
complementation, 22

closed,
of

of intersection, 21

inverse, 44, 52
of sets, 21-22

laws

of,

34

of union, 22

Natural numbers, 2
division for, 44
for, 43
42-43
Negation, 184
Negative integers, 44

subtraction

system

of,

Negative number, 61
Nonnegative number, 69
Notation, interval, 69
Null or

empty

set,

as a relation, 81, 120

of, 61-63
Order properties, 63-66, 89-90, 207
Ordered field, 206
Ordered pairs, abscissa of, 77

Order, concept

cartesian-coordinate system, 77

concept
equality
ordinate

of,

73
74

of,

77

of,

for testing, 103

Ordinate, 77
Origin, 99

INDEX
Parabola, 106, 135, 146-147
Parallel circuit, 175

Permutation, 199
Placeholder, 6

Plane geometry (see Statement)

Polynomials, Boolean, 176
constant, 56
degree

of,

56

Regions formed, 25
by circle, 104

by ellipse, 106
by hyperbola, 107
by line, 103
by parabola, 106
Relation, circle as, 130-131, 146-147

complementary, 84

55
in more than one variable, 56
in one variable, 55
zero, 56
Positive integers, 44
factorization

23\

of,

as a connective, 79
domain of, 81
equals, 82

equivalence, 82-83, 205

as a function, 120

Positive number, 61

greater than, 61, 82

Postulates, 156-157

inverse, 85-87, 142

Power

less than, 61,

set, 18,

190

Prime number, 2
Product function, 138

line as,

Proof, indirect, 187

null, 81,

120

"R on a

set

of theorems,

164-165

membership, 2

R X R

Proper subset, 13

in

Properties of group, 193

range

Property, 52,

82

82

124

U," 80
96

ej

of,

81

reflexive,

82

symmetric, 82
transitive, 82

Quadratic (second-degree) equations,

47, 150

Quadratic function, 136

Quadratic inequalities, 64, 113
Quotient function, 138

universal, 81

Ring, 210
Rules of signs, 54

Second-degree equations, 47, 150

Series circuit, 175

Range, of composite function, 144

of function, 120, 139
of relation, 81

Rational numbers,

2,

90

field of, 51

system of, 46-47, 92-93

Real numbers, 6, 48
coordinate line for, 48
field of,

51

as infinite decimals, 49

system of, 50, 160-161

Real- valued function, 121
Reductio ad absurdum, 90
Reflexive property, 52, 82
Reflexive relation, 82

Set description defining property, tabulation method, 4-6

Set polynomial, 166, 167

Set selector, 7, 15-16
Sets, 1

159-168

algebra

of,

belongs

to, 1

cartesian-product (see Cartesian-

product

set)

complement

(see

Complement

a set)
description

of,

4-6

disjoint, 25, 113

does not belong to, 2

elements of, 1

of

RELATIONS

SETS

232

number

Sets, elements of,

equality of, 11

equivalence
finite, 3

of,

30-32

improper, 13
21

of,

laws of operation

of,

161-163

Sum function, 138

Superset, 13

of,

Switches, circuit, 175

of, 34,

membership method
membership relation

160

null or empty, 4, 81, 120, 126

operations of,
power, 18, 190

21-22

Symmetric difference, 209

Symmetric property, 52, 82
Symmetric relation, 82
inconsistent, 111

subsets, 13

independent, 109

18

of,

supersets, 13

union

104

System, dependent, 111

solution, 15-16, 57-58

number

circle,

Subtraction, for integers, 45

for natural numbers, 43

40

infinite, 3, 10,

intersection

Subspaces, formed, by
by ellipse, 106

by hyperbola, 107
by line, 103
by parabola, 106

of,

FUNCTIONS

of, 22,

34

of integers, 44-45,

94-95

mathematical

Structure)

of natural

unit, 5

(see

numbers, 42-43

universe, 15-16
Venn diagrams, 24-30, 161-163
well-defined,

Tabulation method, 4-6

Simple statement, 182

Simultaneous equations, 109-111
Single-valued function, 120
Solution

15-16, 57-58

set,

Term,

Space, one-dimensional, 48, 99

three-dimensional, 78

simple, 182
of,

183, 188

field,

algebra of

sets,

204-208

group, 193-204
ordered field, 206
ring,

142

210

of,

hypothesis

of,

185

159-168

Transitive property, 52, 82

Transitive relation, 82

Trichotomy, law of, 207

Trigonometry, 153
Truth tables, 184-189

improper, 13
number of, 18
of

R XR
e

ej

185

Truth values, 183, 188

Two-dimensional space,

Subsets, 13

96

Subspaces, 25, 96, 103, 148

185

185

inverse

of,

of,

of,

185

proof of, 164-165

Three-dimensional space, 78

157, 169, 175, 206

of,
of,

vertical-line,

Theorem, conclusion
converse

mathematical, 154-157
postulates of, 156-157
theorems of, 157

model

Test, horizontal-line, 143

contrapositive

Structure (system), abstract, 157

types

set polynomial, 166

ordered-pairs, 103

two-dimensional, 77, 96-97, 99

Statement, compound, 183
truth value

Tautology, 187-189
excluded middle, 188
law of inference, 210

Union
laws

of sets, 22
of,

34

77, 96-97, 99

INDEX

Unit

circle,

Unit

set, 5

151-153

Unity, fourth roots

Unity element, 43

233

Variable, values

of,

Universal relation, 81
Universal set, 15

196

of, 6,

121

Variation, direct, 150

inverse, 150

Venn, John, 24

Venn diagrams,

24-30, 161-163

Universe, 15-16, 174

Well-defined

set, 1

Variable, 6

dependent, 120
domain, 139

Zero divisor, 47

independent, 120

Zero polynomials, 56

CZ

6708