lectric systems lechnology Jostitute Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book ah B ABB Power T&D Company Inc. PADPreface to the fifth edition Fifty-five years ago, the Central Station Engineering Group of Westinghouse Electric Company first published a book focused on the practical application of electrical engineering to the transportation and delivery of electric power. ‘The Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book proved to be a simple, practical, and useful reference book for electric utility engineers aswell as electrical equipment designers. Three generations of power engineers have used what has become popularly known as the “T&D Book” both as a core technical reference and as a tutorial on the finer points of power delivery stem design and operation. In the five and one haif decades between its original publication and this latest edition, the T&D Book was revised and expanded three times. In many ways, the T&D book’s growth and evolution mirrored that of the electric power industry itself. The original book focused almost exclusively on transmission systems, addressing the higher voltages and longer lines then becoming common, as well as the rapidly growing complexity of transmissiot systems, particularly due to interconnection of individual electric utility systems into large power grids. The long-term trend, however, was toward an inereasing focus on distribution, that portion of the T&D system nearest the customer. Subsequent revisions of the T&D book added sections on power distribution systems, primary and secondary network design, capacitor application, and voltage flicker. This latest revision continues the trend of increasing attention to the levels of the T&D system nearest the customer. Chapter 24, Characteristics of Distribution Loads, focuses on consumer load requirements and how they imteract with distribution system economy and reliability. It presents detailed guidelines and design methods to identify the behavior of electric load on the distribution system, and to address it with respect to the “two Qs” — quantity and quality — that consumers of electric power have come fo expect the T&D system will provide.A more recent and accelerating trend in the power industry is the growth through mergers and acquisitions of both power companies and equipment supplicrs into international companies operating on a worldwide scale. Several enormous power companies operate large power grids on three or more continents. More directly associated with this book, what was once the Central Station Engineering Group of Westinghouse Electric Company has been absorbed into ABB ELECTRIC SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY INSTITUTE, part of a global company with technical and business resources vastly beyond anything the original authors of the T&D book could have envisioned. ABB-ETI continues to maintain the traditional, practical focus of the T&D book’s creators, but has added research and development activities focused on meeting the needs of the 21" century with new equipment, designs, and technology This latest revision does more than just talk about new technologies. Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, fifth edition, is available in the traditional printed format as well as on computerized CD-ROM. The new format expands the book’s usefulness as a resource for modem power engineers. The material presented here is the result of research, investigation and practical application by many engineers and scientists, including cooperative studies with electric utilities, conductor and cable manufacturers, communications companies and industrial power users. It is not feasible to list here all of the names of the companies and individuals who have contributed to the body of knowledge covered in this book. — These acknowledgements are given in the individual chapters. The authors gratefully acknowledge the hearty cooperation of all those who worked to produce this book. In particular, we wish to thank Ms Kathy Hendricks, who tirelessly assisted in the preparation, editing, and formatting of this fifth edition. Enrique Santacana Vice-President and Director October 1, 1997CHAPTER | 6 10 Contents Original Author and Revising Author General Considerations of Transmission CA. Powel © CA. Powel Symmetrical Components LE. Hobson @ D. Le Whiteheud Characteristics of Aerial Lines Sherwin H, Wright and C.F Hall © D, E Shankle und RL. Tremaine Electrical Characteristics of Cables . LN, Maller, de @J.S, Williams Power Transformers and Reactors - JE. Hobson and R. L. Wircke WR. L. Witche and J. 8. Williams Machine Characteristics C.F Wagner © C.F Wagner Excitation Systems JE. Barkle, Jn Application of Capacitors to Power Systems AA Jolson Regulation and Losses of Transmission Lines GD. McCann @ RF Lawrence Steady-State Performance of Systems Including Methods of Network Solution : EL, Hanier ® EL, Marder Relay and Circuit Breaker Application EL, Hander and J. C. Cunningham @ EL Harder and IC. Canningham Power-Line Carrier Application R.C. Cheek Power-System Stability—Basic Elements of Theory and Application . RD. Evans cond 1.8. Muller Ir I. E. Burkle Ie and BL. Tremaine Power System Voltages and Currents During Abnormal Conditions RL Witche @ RL, Witcke page page - page page page page page 64 96 page page page = page page page 290 342 401 433 496CHAPTER 15 Original Author and Revising Author Wave Propagation on Transmission Lines. CE Wingner and GD. McCann @ C.F Wagner Lightning Phenomena . CP Wauner and GD. McCann @ CF Wagner and JM. Claxton Line Design Based on Direct Strokes A.C. Monteith © E, L, Harder und J. M. Clayton Insulation Coordination wee ALG Monteith cnn #. 8 Vaughan © A.A, Jolson Grounding of Power-System Neutrals SB. Griscom SB. Griscusn Distribution Systems Jolin 8. Parsons and HG. Barnet ® Jobn 8, Parsons and HG. Barnett Primary and Secondary Network Distribution Systems John S. Parsons and HG. Barnett ® John S, Parsons and H. G, Barnest Lamp Flicker on Power Systems . SB, Griscom MS, B. Griseoms Coordination of Power and Communication Systems RD. Evans @ RL, Wirske Characteristics of Distribution Loads HL, Willis Appendix Index + page page page + page page page page + page page + page » page page 923 542 578, 610 643 666 689 n9 741 784 809 838CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF TRANSMISSIO) Original Author: G. A. Powel plication, the engineer has made eleetrieity of eon tinually greuler use to mankind. ‘The invention of the dynamo firet made engine power man: effective in relieving the toil and increasing the opportu nities and comforts not only of industry but also of the home. Its scope, however, was limited fo relatively short, distances from the power station beeatise of the low voltage of the distribution vireuils. This tnitation, for economic reasons, kopt the goncral use of electricity confined to city areas where number of customers could be served from the same power station. ‘The next step in the development of the present-day eleetrie systems was the invention of the transformer, ‘This invention was revolutionary in its elfect fon the eleetrie industry because it made high voltage and Tong transmission distances possible, thus placing the engine power, through the medinm of the alternating- current generator, at the doorstep of practically everyone. ‘The first alternating current system in America using transformers was pnt in operation at Great Barrinuton in Massachusetts in 1886, Mr, William Staniey, Westing- house electrical expert who was responsible for the install tion, gives an acconnt of the plant, part of which reads: Teh ee invention, and engineering ap- times more “Before loaving Pittsiangh I designed several induction coil, for transformers ax we now eall them, For parallel cannestion ‘The original was designed in the early summer of 1885 and wound for £00 volts primary and 100 volts secondary en Several ther epils were consimucted for experimsatal purposes. “At the north onc of the village of Great Brvingtan wus an old , Dy De 42 og 224-2 tog 242 logo #2) | ‘ohms por mile. D. ‘GMR te De ne 40.001597 40. : at 5+ 40-004087f logs (GMR)'duoidad ohms per mile, 4)Chapter 3 ‘The ninth root in the denominator of the logarithmic term 4s the GME of the cireuit and is equal to an infinitely thin tube which woutd have the same inductance as the throo- ‘conductor system with earth return shown in Fig. 21. GOMRexeae= VG feet. GMReeae™ V(GMRY sonssewe (dando) fort, CMR yoni VEMRecearl Vdandvale)® ft By previous derivation (See Bq. (23)), GMDeouaite =Vdvtvden ‘Therefore GME eos = GMB eossoaarMD) epee, feet. “35) Substituting GMRyaus from equation (89) in equation G4), a= +o.001507 feet. p, i [ae +90 008657 lose TTT earalGMD) gaan ‘ohms per mile. (36) In equations (34) and (86), r, is the resistance per mile of one phase conductor. Zero-sequence self impedance of three parallel conductors with earth return Equation (90) gives the self impodance of three parallel conductors with earth return and was derived for @ total current of unity divided equally among the three con ductors. Since zero-sequence current consists of unit cur- rent in each conductor ora total of three times unit current for the group of throe conductors, the voltage drop for zoro-sequence currenta ia three tirmes as great. ‘Therefore Eq. (86) must be multiplied by three to obtain the zero- sequence self impedance of three paraliel conductors with earth return, ‘Therefore, zoe ne HO.008T7F 70.01307 loge HOON8OTY lots TaN GMD Ecsoncs en isthe GMRasaa de> mus tele? ‘ohms per phase per mile rived in equation (35) or Y(GMR) Zero-sequence mutual impettance between twzo cirouils with earth return Using a similar method of derivation the zero-sequence ‘mutual impedance between 2 three-phase circuits with common earth return is found to be 0.0047 7f +j0.01397/ login ohms yer phase por mile (33) where GMD isthe geometre mean distance between the 2 three-phase cireuita or the ninth root of the product of the nine possible distances between conductors in one group and eondustor in the ether group. Note the sine larity between Eq. (38) and Eq, (31) De Characteristics of Aerial Lines 43 Zero-sequence self impedance of tro identical parallel cir ‘its with ear return For the special ease where the two parallel three-phase circuits are identical, following the same method of derivation a= S404 j0.01397f logie = aa gt OOOTT/+I0 O1887F loBs ERR GMD) ‘ohms pee phase per mile (09) in which OMR, of one set of conductors, (¥ TD YFaguinn )» ancl GMD is the geometric mean distance between tho two sete of conductors or the ninth root, of the product of the nine possible distances between conductors in one cireuit and conductors in the other circuit. ‘Uhis equation is the same as 4(Zo+Z).m) where 29 is the zro-sequence self impedance of one circuit by equa- tion (37) and zn is the sero-sequence mutual impedance between two cireuits as given by Eg. (88). For none identical cireuits it is better to compute the mutual and self impedance for the individual eireuits, and using 4(2o+Zeam) compute the sere-sequence self impedance. Zero-ssquence mutual impedance between one circuit (with ‘earth return) and me ground wires (with earth velurn) Figure 22 shows a threo-phase eireuit with n ground 4 8 20 g 20 TOTTI ITTTETTTT TOTTI OTT Fig. 22—A three-conductor three-phase circuit (with earth, return) and t ground wires (with earth return ‘wires, Equation (61) gives the zero sequence mutual im= ppedanoo etwoon two conductors: 20) 0.00477f-+70.01397f logis Pe ‘ohms per phase por mile et ‘whore dis is the distance between the two conduetors. ‘This equation ean be applied to two groups of conductors if dys, is replaced by the GMD or geometric mean distance between the two groups. In Fig. 23, if the ground wires are ‘considered as one group of conduetors, and the phase con- ductors a, b, ¢, are considered as the second group of con- ductors, then the GMD between the two groups is GMD=Vddandar—dantlocde feet Substituting this quantity for dy, in Eq. (1) results in an equation for the zero-sequence mutual impedance between fone cireuit and n ground wires, This fio) 18 fom.4 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 Feqm = 0.00477 General Method for Zero-Sequence Calculations ‘ De —The preceding sections have derived the zero-sequence +40.01397 logs x self and mutual impedances for the more common circuit, Wager daa srrangements both with and without ground wires. For (40) Zero-sequence impedance of one circuit with m ground wires (and earth) return Referring to Fig. 20 the tero-soquence self impedance of f single conductor, and the sero-sequence mutual im- peilance between a single conductor and snother single conductor with the same earth retuen path was derived. ‘These valucs aro given in Eqs. (30) and (31). As stated bo- fore, these equations ean be applied to multi-cconductor tireuits by substituting the cireuit GMR for tho conductor GMR in Eq, (0) and the GMD between the two circuits in Bq. (3). First, consider the single-conductor, single-phase circuit with earth return and one ground wire with earth return Referring to Fig. 20 conductor « is considered as the single conductor of the single-phase circuit, and conductor 6 will be tsed as the ground wire. Writing the equations for &, and B,, we have: Eyslatmt Thin Bus Tetat Tit JF wo assume conductor b as a ground wire, then since both ends of this conductor are connected to ground, Therefore solving By. (13) for Ty and substituting this value of fy in Eq, (41), Bent(su-2), To obtain 2, divide E, by I., and the result is ‘ohms per phase per mile, a (43) Ant (43) ‘The rero-sequence impedance of a single-conductor, single- phase circuit with one ground wire (and earth) return is therefore defined by Eq. (43) when zero-sequence self im peddances of single-eonluctor, single-phase eireuits are sub stituted for za, and zu, and the ero-suquence mutual ime pedance between the two conductors it substituted for 2. Equation (43) can be expanded to give the zoro-seque impedence of a three-phase circuit, with n ground wires (and earth) return, Fem tan — an) Where 29=er0-sequence impedance of one circuit with n ground wires (and earth) return. 25) =rero-sequence self impedance of the three hase circuit. fxg toro-sequence self impedance of n ground Zoq)2ero-sequence mutual impedance between the Phase conductors as one group of conductors and the ground wire() as the other conduetor soup. Equation (44) results in the equivalent cireuit of Fig. 23, for determining the zero-sequence impedance of one citeuit with ground wires (and earth) return, more complex circuit and ground wire arrangements a moreno Fig. 28—Equivalent clrcutt for zero-sequence impedance of ‘one circule (with earth return} and n ground wires (with earth general method must be used to obtain the zero-sequence impedance of a particular cireuit in such arrangements, ‘The general method consists of writing the voltage drap for exch conduetor or each group of conductors in terms of equence self and mutual impedances with all con- 's or groups of conductors present. Ground wire conductors or groups of conduetors have their voltage drops equal to zero, Solving these simultaneous equations Ee for © of the dosived circuit gives the tero-soquence im pedance of that circuit in the presence of all the other nero- sequence eireuits ‘This general method i shown in detail in Chap. 2, Part X, ZoroSequence Reactances. Two circuits, one ‘with two overhond ground wires and one with asingle over- head ground wire are used to show the details of this more ‘general method. Practical Caleulation of Zero-Sequence Imped- ance of Aerial Lines—In the preveding discussion umber of equations have been derived for nero-secquenco self and mutual impedances of transmission lines taking into avcount overhesd ground wires. ‘These equations can be further simplified to make use of the already familiar quantities r,,x., and x4, To do this two additional quat tities, rand 1, are necessary that result from the use of the earth as @ return path for gero-sequence currents. ‘They are derived from Carson's formulas and can be defined as follows: 0.00477f ohms per phase per mile. 0.008985 f loge 4. 6655x105 ohms per phase per (as) Ivis now possible to write the previously derived equations for zero-sequence ~lf and mutual impedances in terms of Tay a 24; Yo, and te ‘The quantities ry za, 24 are given in the tables of Electrical Characteristies of Conductors and Inductive Reactance Spacing Factors. The quantities Pe atnl are are given in Table 7 a8 functions of earth resistivity, p, in meter ohms for 25, 50, and 60 eyeles por second. ‘The following derived equations are these mast, commonly used in the analysis of power system prob Jems, mile,Chapter 8 Zoro-sequence impedance—one circuit (with earth return) bul without ground wiree Foret O.OONTIS 1397f losses ONT TEST ogautn( GMD ope ‘ohms per phase per mile. 7) amet ret 0.006987 logis 4.0050 10% road t AW0.20E 1080 iT saseane -nans, 1ogi0 GMD pete) sonttrotilortre~Brs) dhs por phase perme (7) whore and y= Htannyttawobtucn) tasy) 4 from Table 6 for spacing @ to b, ote. Mutual zero-sequence impedance beéwren two circuits (with tcarth return) but without ground teirea een) O.0ATT + 0.01 5 obms per phase per mile Gs) 2 = FJ. 000985) los 4.66510" —70.006985f logy GMD* 2m) Tet j(te— 3x4) Ohms per phase per mile (48) where 29 8 bltaan + taut tae tate btn Paar F titer t Zach + Dicer) Zero-soquence self impedance—one ground wire (with earth relra) = Sr 0.00877f+70.01897/ log P= ‘ohms per phase per mile D. * EMR eae (30) 24q9 Brat ret 70.006985f logy 4.6656 oh +0.000988, lon artrebilzerb ea) ohms por phase per mile, (49) Ber segs sel ipalaneo—tea ground wire (ith ert return) tun 2 0.001777 +j0.01897F log V(GMR)erneniy ‘ohms per phase per mile, @2) 25) = re j0.006085f li 4 685631006 OND, 1 O8IS2 tr “SGMR 2 8 1 Br 38 fag Sit rebilect ine fee) ohms per phase per mile 0) where 4 from Table for spacing between ground Wires day. Characteristies of Aerial Lines rr Zevo-sequence self impedance—n growna wires (with earth eturn) =3re4 000877f+0.01397f lone 10°? 0.006985 log retj(to~ Sra) ohms per phase per mile foe (52) 1 where £1 3, unevbeaven tei Raceen) Pa coees FBAcen) + Zoro-cequenece impelance—One circuit with n ground wires (and earth return) Portus SHO as) tw where 2y;)=sere-sequence self impedance of the three- the eisai 2oqzorosequence elf impedance of » ground Zag) vero-sequence mutual impedance between the three-phase circuit as one group of conductors and the ground wire(s) as the other con~ ductor group.46 4. Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-sequence Shunt Capacitive Reactance ‘The capacitance of transmission lines is generally a negligible factor at the lower voltages under normal oper- ating conditions. However, it becomes an appreciable effect for higher voltage fines and must be taken into con- Sideration when determining efficiency, power factor, regulation, and voltage distribution under normal op ‘sting conditions. Use of capacitance in determining the performance of long high voltage lins is eovered in det in Chap. 9, *Regulation and Loses of ‘Transmission Lines” Capacitance effects of tranemisson lines are also useful in studying such problems as inductive interference, light- ring performance of lines, conona, and transients on power systoms auch as those that occur during faults or these reasons forimulie are given Tor the positive, negative, and reroseisience shunt capacitive reactance for the more common transmission line configurations, The case of a two-conductor, single-phase circuit is considered to show some of the fundamentals used to obtain these formulas. For a more detailed analysis of the eapacitance problem a number of references are availabe. ** Tn deriving capacitance formnlns the distribution of a charge, ¢, on the eonductor surface is assumed to be ut form, This is true because the sp: between conductors: inthe usta transmission cireut is Igrge and theretore the charges on surrounding conductors prodace negligible dis- tortion in the charge distribution on a particular con ductor. Also, in tho esse ofa single isolated charged con fuctor, the voltage between any tio points of distances & and y meters radially from the conductor can be defined as the work done in moving unit charge of one coulomb rom point Ps to point P, through the electric field produced by the charge on the conductor. (See Fig. 24.) This is given ‘conDUCTOR | conovcron 2 Fig. 2A (wo conductor single phase circult (capacitance). by Vay~ 18X10? g In ® volts (53) where 7 is the conductor charge in coulombs per meter. By use of this equation and the principle of superposi- tion, the capacitances of systems of parallel conductors ean be determined. Applying Ea. (53) and the principle of superposition to the two-conductor, single-phase cireuit of Fig. 24 assuming. ‘eonduetor 1 alone to have a charge q:, the voltage between conductors 2 and 2 is Vy= 18X10" gn 22 vols, (64) Characteristics of Aerial Lines ‘This equation shows the work done charge from conductor 2 a distance face of conductor 1 through the eleetrie field produced by 4. Now assuming only concluetor 2, having a charge ge, the voltage between conduetors 1 and 2 is Vis= 18X10 gy In ba volts, 65) This eqnation shows the work done in moving a unit ‘charge from the outer radius of conductor 2 to conductor 1 ‘a distance Dy meters away through the elecitie fiekd pro duced by ge With both charges q, and ge prosent, by tho principle of superposition the voltage Viv is the sum of the voltages resulting from g, and gs existing one ata time. Therefore Vis is the sum of Eqs. (54) and (55) when both charges ¢ and gz are prosent, Yam txio(a ta Booed 7) vt 68) Also if the charges on the two conduetors are equal and their sum is zero, act oe 0 oF gee a Substituting ~ for y in equation (56) volts. on ‘The capacitance between conductors 1 and 2s the ratio of the charge to the voltage ar 1 Y= In 2 farads per meter. Ts (68) 36310" In ‘Tho capacitance to noutral is twice that given in Eq. (58) because the voltage to neutral is half of Vx. 1 C= farads per meter. (3) 18x10" In Ps “The shunveapastve rictance to neutral (or per con- ductor) is 2.5 14 oF in more practical unite L 2afe logs 22 login 22 megubms per conductor per (60) 60 7.0 = 0.0683" f mile ‘This can be written as TOT popga®® yey, Pt 0 =006859 ogy 140,008 tog fob FOOBSSF losie ‘megohms per conductor per mile (on) hore Dis and + are in foot and f is eyeles per second Hag. (61) may be written za =2¢-trd megohins per conductor per mile. (62) ‘The derivation of shnnteapacitive reactance formulas brings about terms quite anslogous to those derived for inductive reactance, and as in the easo of induetive reuct- ance, those werms ean be resolved into components a8 shown in Eq. (62). ‘The term 24! accounts for the electro static flux within sone foot radius and is the termChapter 3 os oy Ein gD. 1 eno he coe ductor outside radius only. The term zy’ aceounts for the electric flux between a one foot radius and the distance Dato he other eondustor and isthe tom 00088 og Ps iy Be. Note at ue nde reetane where the conductor geametrie mean radius (GMR) is used, in eapacitanee ealeulations the only conductor radius Used is the actual physical radius of the conductor in fee. Zerosequence capacitive reactance is, hike inductive: reaetanee, divided into components 2. taking into account the electrostatic luc within a. one-foot radius, 24 taking into account the cleetrostatie fax extornal torn radius of one foot out to a radius D feet, and 2y’ taking into account the flax external to 4 radius of one foot and is a function of the spacing fo the imag conductor. (= 170 og 2h megohims per mile per f conductor (6s) there h= conductor height above ground, {= frequeney in ops. -2/ is given in the tables of Hlectrical Characteristics of conductors, 2/ is given in Table 8, Shunt-Capacitive Reactance Spacing Factor, and 2, is’ given in Table 9, ‘Zoro-Sequence Shunt-Capacitive Reactance Factor, ‘The following equations have been derived in a manner similar to those for the two-conduetor, single-phase ease, making use of the terms a, 2 and z/. They are sum- marized in the following tabula: Shunt wwacitive Reactanee, x», of Throo-Phase Cireuite (Conductors a, b, ¢) (6) Positive (and negative) sequence 2. +x{ megohmsper conductor per mile. (64) (sum of all three 2's for distances between all possible pairs) = led ttdactaded. See Table (8) (65) (b) Zero-Sequence 2, of one cireuit (and earth), td w= 2 +2) —2r4 megohms per conductor per mle. (66) e given in Iq. (65). Table (9) gives xd. quence x, of one ground wire (end earth) wartafay megohms per conductor per mile co) (@ evo Sequence 2 of around wires (and earth) Beto t la mille afevaly 3, 32 megohms por conductor per (6s) dase) for distance betwoon ground wires. (© toro Sequences, of ground wits (and earth). shgnnt tot 20D, ‘zi! megohms per conductor per (69) rile” Characterieticn of Aerial Lines ar where (sum of all 23's for all possible distances ween all possible pairs of ground wires) 4 sum of all z.'s for all possible distances “veo all ground wires). (f) Zero-Sequonce 7. between one cireuit (ond earth) and n grou ssires (and earth) 3a! megohms per conductor per mile. (70) telat nen beds ad ented cem), (a) Zero-Seu 10 ze of one vireuil with n ground wires ‘megohms per conduetor per mile. (71) Shunt Capacitive Reactance, ze, of Single-Phase Circuits (Conductors a and 6) (hy 2c of single-phase circuit of two identical conductors .e{-+r4) megohms per mile of eireuit. (72) 24 ~2¢ for spacing botweon conductors, () 2, of single-phase civenit of two non-identical cone auctors a and b. 2! ala + 2oy-bBed megohms per mile of circuit. (73) ) 2, of one conductor and earth. f= an/-+-Ees megohms per milo. (coy Tn using the equations it should be remembered that the shunt eapacitive rouetance in mogohme for more than one mile decrenses because the capacitance inereases, For more then one mile of line, therefore, the shunt-capacitive re- actance as given by the above equations should be divided by the number of miles of line 5. Conductor Temperature Rise and Current. Carrying Capacity In distribution- and transmission-line design the tom- perature rise of conductors above ambient while carrying current is important. While power loss, voltage regula tion, stability and other factors may determine the choice ‘of a conductor fore given line itis sometimes necessary 10 consider the maximum eontiuous current cxrzying eapa- city of @ conductor. ‘The maximum continuous eurrent rating is necessary because it is determined by the max- imum operating temperature of the conduetor. ‘This tem- perature affects the sag between towers or poles and de- termines the loss of conductor tensile strength due to annealing, For short tie lines or lines that must carry excessive Toads under emergency conditions, the maximura continuous current-carrying capacity may’ be important fn solecting the proper conduetor. ‘The following discussfon prevents the Schurig and Frick* formulas for caleulating the approximate current-carrying capacity of eonduetors under known conditions of ambient temperature, wind velocity, and limiting temperature 1 ‘The basis of this method is that the heat developed in the conductor by JR loss is dissipated (1) by convection43 in the surrounding sir, and (2) radiation to surrounding objects. This ean be expressed as follows: PR= (WoW ,)A watts, where J =conduetor current in amperes. R-=conduetor resixtanes por foot. W.e= watts per square inch slissipated by convection, w, 8 por sqjure incl dissipated by radiation A=conducior surfaee area in equare inches per foot of length, ‘The wabts por square inch dissipated by convection, Wy ean be determined from the following ectuation oo1sv Wen Tayi AE watts per square inch, (76) where p= pressure in atmospheres (p= 1.0 for atmo- spheric pressure). v= velocity in feet per second. Ty= (degrees Kelvin) average of absolute temper atures of eonduetor and ait outside diameter of conductor in inches. (degrees () temperature rise This formula is an approsimation applieable to con- ductor diameters ranging from 0.3 inch to 5 inehes or more when the velocity of air is higher than free eonveetion air 3 (02-055 ft/s), The watts per square inch dissipated by radiation, Wi, ‘ean be determined from the following equation: wenenstf (is) ~(iee) | ‘watts per squate inch At where H=relative emissivity of eonductor surface (£=10 for “bluck ody,” or 0.5 for average oxidized copper legrees Kelvin) absolute temperature of con- Auetar. Tom (degrees Kelvin) rounding. By caleulating (W.+W), A, and R, it is then possible to determing F from fq, G5). ‘The vahie of f to use is the ne rosistanco at the conductor temperature (ambient temperature plus temperature rise) taking into account skin effect as discussed proviously in the section on pos itive- and nogative-sequence resistances ‘This method is, in general, applicable to both copper and aluminum conductors. ‘Tests have shown that alum- jmum eonduetors dissipate heat at about the same rate as copper conductors of the same outside diameter when the temperature rs the samo, Whore tot dat ie available on conduetors, it should be used. ‘The above general method can be used when test data is not available, or to chook test results, ‘The effect of the sun upon condactor temperature rise is generally neglected, being some 8° to 8°C_ This stnall ‘effect is less important under conditions of high tempera- ture rise above ambient.¢ ‘The tables of Electrical Charactevisties of Conductors jnelude tabulations of the approsimate maximumn eutrent- Tr absolute temperature of Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 3 $ APPROXIMATE. CONDUCTOR CURRENT a 70) ed 5 8 B08 a AMBIENT TEMPERATURE °C Fig. 25_-Copper conductor current carrying capacity in Am- prea VS. Ambient Temperature in'C. (Capper Conductors at "75°C, wind velocity at 2 fps.. g APPROXIMATE: CONDUCTOR, CURRENT Cr a [AMBIENT TEMPERATURE Fig. 26—Aluminum conductor current carrving capacity in ‘Amiperes VS. Ambient Temperature in "G. (Aluminum GonChapter 3 ‘TapLE 1—Cuaractertstics oF COPPER Conpuctors, Harp Drawn, 97.3 Percent CONDUCTIVITY Characteristics of Aerial Lines 2 lananin he a pete ‘Ohne isl haat ie Sg seo of : He : BOR ane a attic shut Gaga ver Bd at “ii | wea AEB Hiaine | REM » ve. ca2F3 vse zt levees fos gr ma Re HEB 2 ttt Su HAAR 8 math ah ook ag aS ae A aH bse ee 1a a Sie Bay / ae a b 2 teu ste EE carrying cupacity based on 50°C rise above an ambient of 25°C, (75°C total conductor tomporattire), tarnished sur- {noo ('=0.5), and an air velocity of 2 fot per second.’These conditions were used after diseussion and agreement. with the conductor manufacticers, ‘These thermal limitations aro bused on. continuous loading of the conductors. ‘The technical literature shows little variation from these conditions as line design limits” ‘The ambient air tera- perature is generally assumed to be 25°C to 40°C whereas the temperature sse is assumed to be 10°C 10 60°C. This ives a conductor total temperature range of 35°C to 100°C. For design purposcs copper or ASR conductor total temperature is usually assumed to be 75°C aa use of this value has given good candetor performance from sm standpoint, the limit. being about 100°C where ‘annealing of copper and aluminum begins Using Schurig and Frick's formulas, Fig. 25 and Fig. 26, have been calculated to show how ewreat-eurrying eapa- city of copper and aluminun conductors vaties with am bient temperature assuming conductor temperature of 75.C and wind velocity of 2 toot per second. These values are conservative and ean be used as 2 guide in normal line design, For those lines where a higher conductor tem perature may be obtained that approaches 100°C, the con~ ductor manufacturer should be conaulted for tost data or other more een information as to eonduetor tempera: ture limitations, Such data on copper eonduetors has been presented rather thoroughly in the technical litersture? II{ TABLES OF CONDUCTOR CHARACTERISTICS, The following tables contain data on eopper, ACSR, hollow copper, Copperweld-copper, and Copperweld con ductors, which along with the previously derived equations, permit the determination of positive-, nogative-, and zero” sequence impedances of conductors for use in the solution ‘of powersystem problems. Also tabulated ane such con- ductor characteristios as size, weight, and current-carrying capacity as limited by heating ‘The conductor data (r, 2,7) along with inductive and shunt-eapacitive reactance spacing factors (xg, ze") and zero-sequenee resistance, inductive and shunt-eapacitive reactance factors (r— 26, 2!) permit easy anbstitution in the previously derived equations for determining the syma- ruetrieal component sequence impedances of aerial circuits. ‘The cross-seotional inserts in the tables are for esse in50 Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 & ‘Tape 2-A—Cuaractenistics oF ALUMINUM CABLE STEEL REINFORCED (Atisen Campany f Aare Pall 4 3 | Tosooges | i $9 oat ta JSUT 3b leg orit 9 sooseg Sat oo Tee conta tele ort i s00S0q {48 te as ge ‘Seat fig coe) Sf er o altos Hie = ian Boe 353 a we 8 ‘sso 00] 27 200 ae Pea ares 2512 a CERI Si we 2 5 ie 3 18 z Pn Bpw ee eubehs B Rag: : i i SES BS ps’ Cama eg Cpt ha atin apna th cea we lye SPC condo tng) ih IsTIcs OF “EXPANDED" ALUMINUM CABLE STEEL REINFORCED ct gate can SET | wt Bee Bret _| “Abner «thal tbat de oS ot (0) Bin Chars ot athe willlre meso rop,Chapter 8 Characteristics of Aerial Lines BL ‘Tasty 8-A—Cuaracrentstics oF ANACONDA HOLLOW COPPER Copuctors & 1 cabot, Be step Chri leg aren sia Rees | EE von wie | See EL ae | a = ibe hatte] 3 Bi ie Ga ae tee | oe oa SSR ee tae Be ead a Bagi gees ee ee Bea aa ae STG UR | PRS) BRU ER Rare Se sr ean] tau |izan | gaa (game | az. bade ume soue eu uel sloamh at SLE A GS TERRE ie Bie meen eee ue mae EGRESS iB Gen (SR) eee ee ee ao ies alga pan ee ee eee vagy | oi |aua | sm jem | se a frags oar gaa ng | BS HB lig iat tee) Be See ees | i CBE) EER Bg aed 1a | #8 SB) EBT HE) ter) BE Seca R ee wp) a8] e best ae | rae | eae / gent pales bau we |e |e age ce) ak |e oie SSSR A Ra th 3 | abby | RBS aR | aR |e Preteen #10 Beal ges | igh ae | age GRRE SACHS Foy tonto TEE RPT IECL Sad le por Tan Tl,reeney oT Go, averape raed wae ‘TABLE 3-B—CHaRACTERISTICS OF GENERAL asin TYPE HH HOLLOW COPPER Conpvcrors oO (Gane Cable Corporation) wee fe contre | oy Geo) EE one eee ete Inductive Reseanee EE" | Bu | wat leh) Boake | | ok ‘ie Fen Sis | tee eae) as we ja Tee tri || la [oe Bee bee ee ger ats sag sal ae bases oe saeleae haa Be) Ue bes ge SO Rea geen ae Bel is fase sa ee Hae Be Be) is pe a Eee Hee Bat eg nes B k epileasbems pamue ae 23 8 & b SSSR a He Set 88 es i Ren GRH Batis BS UE eS £ DNR ieee] 1att see eee ie zea ga @ te exe meats E eee ee Bel TH 6B 1s) f SUE Rae es aa 8 PRPS RE) oe SOE TGS |e eslie ahs ah attested 13 BM Eee | SERRE ae ~The a aa of gules sega, (Tisha unfor, raghat SUSE bitdig dot fee rane 00 Se#2 Chazactoristes of Aerial Lines Chapter & ® ‘TABLE 4-A—CHARACTERISTICS OF COPPERWELD-COPPER Conpucrors: cee gg Ra Reo ee ea ae bet baat ew ae Bs peso ie bibs ee ise levee | oes faze so he em eisbae aiees laze EREVERE 12) BB 8 PERR EERE BS Bae Me earig) o fe fev enter one alae moe EE EnE| oe 8 Pe aad 1 tet a am [ow iz lo az k sm fo x0 lo sao naee ERE EE| ba) Bs BRD Bac ah ace uae eaelzae| ial 4 he par on baa as bar pat ems oy ue 8 a he #5 ges es ps hae bw a be age x : le pes nay bo os om liom paw oan oe i i Ren CRS Ce ib aem eh aati HONE NS : Eiichi estas eat bse SR iabie Ho lewis j i ea haz wa aah eae siha eis if i Lae Bee e t i a tea at am ae < i i ee Se na Le & ; i BRST She) BENT a hy Se 8 eB) 8 PRE BRE I PERE SRPGa) f |ES)M) & PEER ES Ra at et BR les aan] 7 is) aime) a ba ea ba he as pankeen samba agus ae g asd 8 bake aa be ke bes mak | i 3 Ba pS ae EE RE pa oe tno [pow [rom] ein | we = lin fx on se be fs pio Re ea a earth eee Ep Aa eG Te ae aa gare eRe ta Ne A at ey ple finding the appropriste table for a particular conductor. Aluminum Cuble Stool Reinforced, represents stranded For these figures open circles, solid circles, and eres paper. hatched circles reprosent copper, stecl, and aluminum con- The authors wish to acknowledge the eooperation of the ductors respectively. ‘The double eruss hatched area in the conductor manufacturers in supplying the information for insert for Table 2-1, Characteristies of “EXPANDED” — connpiling these tables,Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines 58 ‘TawLe 4-B—CHARACTHRISTICS OF COPPERWELD Conpuctors we f a usa Anat [oat a A cnr inen | omer Pitan S| Se eee PRESS] nab | eg? | elles | RE eR eal |g [adele ce Le becle La Lebel le lnta Lee ofa] [SF eS m] a | Raletalati & lal otal tll ota ote oS Resp ii bef bay a Ga AER Gl BEG a Re gag | 3 = a oa a bl TER es He ed ede ed IS aS re she a aes par ho a SE as J a Fs Pe a eB A oH] ge gh a fee a bat bas ae ae om) ES ae pi bees bap op isis ae ant he be bigear keener k aeh gy wc ie [ESE Re ®@ ke Eekepe pes Hie BEY a & Rk bs ed gd pret] one [es 0 no fo a0 ie as 48s Jo 50 23s Jo r2mn sora, FE 38 | BES B PERRIER SOE REG RRS Hed loag ealegl bepspst bss uiehe Hee gag ue] B lsheiehs Rega hae SRS] EH| R]53 REIS EN ES Be SS Ba PEGE | Hg] BRR RR Ra Pe sepa RRS TOSE aT a i dc pa rt hing eft ReneS mapa eae a i Ne Te eng Cagaty a 6 Cyc ‘Tapue 5—Semv Errecr Tass 00 1 c0000 10 1 o7si6 50 1 31800 on 1.0000 rr jt onszs st 135102 02 1.0601 12 {vies 52 1 soe 03 1.00008 Le 1onszo | 3000 33 Lato o4 0013 4 owe 11607 34 1assr0 08 1.00082 15 1ozss2 1 iiss 35 Favon 06 1 ann 18 oss | 1.20058 a6 1 soso 7 100124 17 105205 | vans 37 1.58597 os ani 18 105210 1202 | 38 Tose oo 100340 bs 106180 eer 30 1oa91Chapter 3 Characteristics of Aerial Lines "Tapts: O—-INDUCTIVE Reactance Sractno Factor (xq) Ons per Conpuctor Per Mie 3 ' z a8 i f 29 ah SSRE2888] 23 Eg oe i Saneceee| te gest 3 H 23 SS & |. H Pod 5 B al2 8 Ba fe 7 Bale Ht Bay 2ik Poa ae Bt a veh a ms Be i Gee ste gee are | | |= |SBSS88E Sek “st |= |geceseee a: | | = /zeiee a - | |2/§8scsccs Hy g 2 & a 2 BE |= |seeesece i F ~ eRe }igeooeee ~ BEgeaee? gecsccse + | SREEEERR [fescsece «| ESEESESE ea es | eRe feccsees Sscccoddsccesenscacsssccscscsadcdsesndcasadacess| 7 28h SARARARRRNSRRTBAABRRARGTIISSSTSCharacteristics of Aerial Lines cy Chapter 3 ‘Tasue 8~-SHUNT CAPACITIVE Reacrance Spacine Factor (z/) Mecomms rer Conpucror PER Mie EQUATIONS: wasn ted waltel—2ig 2 5 Es z x SSeSS0EE gecocces, gue SEPARATION Be82ce35 Sesccees Hine PRBDSESE sagesc: | ES G8 SRS SES EEE EEEESS EEESESER| c [ee g ‘Tapur 9—~Zeno-SequeNce SHUNT CAPACITIVE REACTANCE FACTOR Megohins per Conductor pet Mile FREQUENCY vo EEEESESSSERIENED TELS aag Geen cedar sau Sunaanecuee sccdssssacceacncaciseceiasesceesccousscessececes J [erroswonessnssonensaanhauaandasnaaxasnarsscavseeee56 IV CORONA With the iereasod use of high-voltage transmission tines and the probability of going to still higher operating volt- ‘ages, the common aspects of corona. (radio influence and corona loss) have become more important in the design of tronsmission lines, Tn the early days of high-voltage transmission, corona was something whieh had to be avoided, largely beeeuse of the energy loss associated with it. In recent years the TET (radio influence) aspect of corona has become more i Portant, In areus where RI must be considered, this factor ‘might establish the limit of acceptable corona performance. Under conditions where abnormally high voltages are present, corona ean affect system behavior. It ean raduce the overvoltage on long open-cireuited lines, Tt wil atten- uate lightning voltage surges (see See. 29 Chap. 15) and switching surges.” By increasing the electrostatic eou- pling between the shield wire and phase conductors, co- rrona at times of lightning strokes to tossers or shield. wires reduces the voltage across tha supporting string of inst Tators and thus, in turn, reduces the probability of flash- over and improves system performance. On high-voltage Tines grounded through a ground-fault neutralizer, the in- phase current due to corona loss ean prevent extinction of the are during a line to ground fault 6. Factors Affecting Corona At a given voltage, corona is determined by conductor diameter, Tine configuration, type of conductor, condition ofits surface, and weather.” Rain is by far the most im- portant aspect of weather in increasing corona. Hoarfrost ‘and fog have resulted in high values of corona loss on ex- perimental test lines, Horever, itis believed that these high losses were caused by sublimation or condensation of ‘water vapor, which are conditions not likely to oeeur on an operating line because the conductor temperature would normally be above ambient. For this reason, measnre- ments of loss made under conditions of fog and hoartrost might be unreliable unless the conductors were at operat- ing temperatures. Falling snow generally causes only a moderate inerease in corona, Also, relative humidity, tem perature, atmospheric pressure, and the earth’s electric field ean affect corona, but their effect is minor compared to thatof rain, There are apparently other unknown factors found under desert conditions which ean increase corona."? The effect of atmospheric pressure and temperature it generally considered to modify the critical disruptive volt- age of a conductor directly, or as the 34 power of the air density factor, 8, whichis given by: 9 iPr (78) where b=baromotrie pressure in inches of meroury P= temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, ‘The temperature to be used in the above equation i gen- erally considered to be the conductor temperature. Under Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 ‘Tanus 10—Sraxpano Barowsretc Parssume a9 a FUNCTION o ALEITUDE “Ahitade, Proawre, | Alutade, | Prowur feet in. My feet ia He — 1000) 102 4000 25.88 = 500 aor | 5000 280 | 6.000 28.98 ° 29.92 8.000 22.92 row | Bae 10 000 200 a2 15 000 3000 26.81 20.000 standard conditions (20.92 in, of Hg. and 77°R) the air density factor equals 1.00. ‘The sir density factor should ‘be considered in the design of transmission lines to be built in areas of high altitucle or extreme temperatures. ‘Table 10 gives barometric pressures as a function of altitude. Corona in fair weather is negligible or moderate up to voltage near the disruptive voltage for a particular con- ductor. Above this voltage corona effects increase very rapidly. The calculated disruptive voltage is an indicator ‘of corona performance. A high value of eritieal disruptive voltage is not the only criterion of satisfactory corona performance, Consideration chould also bo given to the sensitivity of the conduetor to foul weather. Corona in- creases somewhat more rapidly on smooth eonductors than it does on stranded conductors. ‘Thus the relative corona characteristics of these two types of conductors might interchange between fair and foul weather. The equation for eritical disruptive voltage is: Eyng,3% 4m loge Dt ‘where: B,=critical dieeyptive voltage ia ky to neutral ‘g=etitieal gradient in ky per centimeter. (Ref. 10 ond 16 use Qe=2.1 Ky/em ems. Recont work indicates value given ia ‘Seo, 10 more aceurate.) radia of conductor in ocatimatere Dothe distance in centimciers butmeen conductors, for single- phase, oF the equivalent phase spacing, for three-phase voltages, jurfuce fastor (common yalues, O84 for stranded, 0.92 for egmentaleonductors) swair density factor aa) ‘The more closely the surfave of x conductor approuches ‘a emooth cylinder, the highor tho critical disruptivo volt age assuming constant diameter. For equal diameters, 3 stranded conductor is usually satisfactory for 80 to 85 per- cent of the voltage of a smooth conductor. Any distortion of the surface of a conductor such as raised strands, die burrs, and soratches will increase corona. Care in handling conductors should be exercised, and imperfections in the surface should be corrected, if it is desired to obtain the best corona performanee from a conduetor. Die burrs and die grease on a new conductor, particularly the segmental type, can appreciably increase corona effects when it is first placed in serviee. This condition improves with timo, aking some six months to become stable. Strigel* concluded that the material from which a cone ductor is made has no effect on its corona performance, InChapter 3 T 3s] Kw/3-PHASE MILE G00 industrial areas, foreign material deposited on the con ductor can, in some eases, seriously rediuee the corona per formance. ' Reference 28 gives some measurements made in an industrial area.) Corona is an extremely variable phenomenon, On a con- ductor energized ata voltage slightly above its fair weather corona-starting voltage, variations up to 10 to Lin earon loss and radio-influence fastor have been recorded during fair weather. ‘The presence of rain produees corona loss on 2 conductor at voltages as low as Gb percent of the voltage A which the suine loss is observed during fair-weather ‘Thus it ia not practical to design a high-voltage Tine such ‘that it will never be in corona. This also precludes ex: pressing a ratio between fair and foulsreather corona, Sinee the former might be negligibly small Ia conductors de-energized for more than about a d corona. is temporarily increased. This effect is moderate compared to that of rain. It ean be mitigated by re-ener- fing line daving ni weather where sich a choi po 7, Corona Loss Extensive work by a large number of investigators has ‘been done in determining corona loss on conductors oper ‘ted at various voltages. ‘This work has lead to the devel- Characteristics of Aerial Lines 8T Curve 11.4 in. HH copper. 3=088. Ref. 19. Corona loss test ‘hae in desert at a location where abnormally high corona loss it observed om the Hoover-Las Angoles 287 5-ke bo which i strung. ‘nith thie conductor. Measuroment raade in three phase test Line ‘This particular curve is plotted for 3~0.88 to show operating con- dition in desert, All other curves are for 6=1.00. (Curve 2—Kaine as curve 1, except eonverted to 81.00, Gurve 314 in. HH copper, Ref. 12 Corona lose test made in California. Comparison with eurve 2 shows effect of desert eondi- tion. Measurements made on three-phase test line, 80-foot at spacing, 16-(00t sag, 30-foot ground elearanco, 700 fest long. Curve 41.1 in, IU, Ref. 13, Measurements mae on throo-rhase test line, 22-f00% at spacing, 16-Foot sag, Moot ckarance to scaund, 700 feet Ioag. Curve 51.85 In. smoath, Ref. 12, This conductor had poor sur- face. Measurements made om theeephase tet Hine, $O-faot spac ing, 16-oot sag, 30-foot ground clearance, 700 fee long Curve 6-66 in, smooth aluminum, Ref. 7. Reference eurve ob- tained by converting perplasee measurement vo onsen three-phase line. Dimensions of Fine not given, Curve 704 jn. seaooth eylindes. Ref, 25. Ta reference this con- ‘ductor is referred to a8 having an fofinite number of strands, Plotted curve obtained hy conversion of per-phase measurements to three-phase values using an estimated value for charging kva, to give los ona line having 45-00 lat configuration. (Curse 81.96 in.¢mooth akuminum. ef, 28. Roferencs carve givet three-phaae lose, but ine dimensions are not given. Curve 91.57 in. smooth. Tel. 28. This conductor was sinooth and clean, Reference curve gives per-phase values. Plotted curve ia for 4-foot Sat spacing. Fig, 27—Fair-Weather Corona-Lots Curves for Smooth Con- “ductors; Alr Density Factor, $= ‘opment of thrce formulas®™1 generally used in this country (Reference 18 gives « large number of formulas). ‘The Carroll-Rockwell and the Peterson formulas are con sidered the most accurate especially in the important low loss region (below 5 kw per three-phase mile). ‘The Peter- son formula, when judiciously used, has proved to be a 1e- liable indicator of corona performance (ee See. 9) for transmission voltages in use up to this time. Recent, work ‘on corona loss has been directed toward the extrahigh- voliage range and indicates that more recent information should be used for these voltages. ‘air-weather corona-loss measurements made by a num- ber of different investigators are chown in Figs, 27, 28, and. 29. All curves are plotted in terms of kilowatts por throe- phase mile. The data presented in these curves has been corrected for air density factor, 5, by multiplying the test voltage by 1/6*2. Some error might have been introduced. in these curves because in most eases it was necessary to convert the original data from per-phase measurements. ‘The conversions were mate on the basis of voltage gradient, at the surface of each conductor. The curves should be used as an indicator of expected performance during fair weather. For a particular design, reference should be made to the original publications, and a conversion made for the design under consideration, ‘The relation between fair-88 35} E es} ——-} | = | gee + = 2 E as} « 5 o 108 “208-300 400-500 600. ue ‘and fontwenther corona loss and the variation which ean bbe expected during fair weather is shown in Fig. 30 for ‘one conductor. Corona Joss on a satisfactory line is primarily eaused by rain. This is shown by the fairly high degree of correlation between total rainfall and integrated corona loss whieh has been noted.#4#40 ‘The corona lass at certain points on a transmission tine can reach high values during bad storm. conditions. Hewever, such conditions are not likely to oc- cur simultaneously all along a line. Borgquist and Vre~ thom expoct only a variation from 1.6 to 16 kw per mile, with an average value of 6.5 kw per mile, on. their 380-kv lines now under construction in Sweden, ‘The measured loss on their experimental line varied from 1.6 to 81 lew per mile. The calculated fair-weather corona loss common in the U.S.A. is generally less than one kw per mile, based on caleulations using Reference 16. Where radio-influence must be considered, the annual corona loss will not be of much economic importance, and the maximum loss will not constitute a serious load, ‘Corona loss is characterized on linear coordinates by a rather gradual increase in loss with inereased voltage up to the so-called “knee” and above this voltage, a very rapid inerease in loss, ‘The knee of the fair-weether loss curve is ‘generally near tho critical disruptive voltage. A transmis- Characteristies of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 Curve 11.4 in, ACSR, Ret. 12. Conductor was washed with gxs0- live then toap and water, Test configuration: three-phase Tin, S0rfoot Hal spacing, 16 foot seg, 20foot ground clearance, 700 foot Jon (Curve 2-10 in. ACSR. Ref. 11. Conductor weathered by expacure to air without continuous energaation. Text oonfiguration: three- phase Fine, 2000 flat sparing, 700 fost long Curve 21.125 in, hollow copper. Ref. 1. Washed in ame manner ‘as for curve I. ‘Test configuration: theeo-phase line, 22-font fat spacing, Curve £1.49 in, hollow copper. Ref. 4. Washed in same manner ns for curve 1. Test configuration: three-phase line, 30fo0" flat spacing, U-foot sg, S0-fot ground clearance, 700 fest long. Curve $2.00 in, hollow aluminum. Ref. 14, Washed in ame man ‘ner as for carve 1, “Test configuration: three-phase Tine, 30-foot fiat spacing, 16-foct eag, 20-fo0t ground elearance, 700 fet fong. Curve ¢ 1.09 in, stecLalamingm. Ref, 22. Referenco carve i aver- ‘ake fair-weather corona loss cbteined by converting per phase imessarerpents t three-phase vals, fora Tine 22.8 Foot flat spac> ing, 32.8 fect high, ‘This conductor used ot 220-Ly lines in Sweden. ‘whieh have above dimensions Curve? 125 in. steebaluminuim, Ref. 22 App, A. Plotted urve ‘obtained by estimating average of « number of fairweather por phase curves given in reference snd eonverting to threephas loss for line having 22foot flat epacing, S0-foot average height. Curve 81.08 in. eterl-sluminur, 2tstrand, Ref. 23. Plotied curve ‘blaine by conversion of per-shase measurements to three-phase values, ating an estimated value for charging kva, to give os on & Tine having 4S-foot flat configuration Carve 90.1 in, Hollow Copper. Ref. 11. Conductor washed, "Test configuration: three-phase He, 20foot Gat spacing, 700 feet Tong. Fig. 26-—Fair-Weather Corona-Lose Curves for Stranded Con- ductors; Air Density Factor, ?= sion line should be operated at a voltage well below the voltage at which the loss begins to increase rapidly under fair-weather conditions. Operation at or above this point ean result in uneconomical corona loss. A very careful an alysis, weighing the annual energy cost and possibly the maximum demand against reduced capitalized line cost, must be made if operation at-s voltage near or above the knoe of tho fuir-weather loss eurve is contemplated. ‘Corona loss on a conductor is a function of the voltage ‘gradient at ils surface, Thus the effect of reduced con- ductor spacing and lowered height is to increase the corona Joss as a function of the increased gradient. On transmis sion lines using a flat conduetor configuration, the gradient at the surface of the middle phase conductor is higher than ‘on the outer conductor, This results in corona being moze prevalent on the middle conductor. 8, Radio Influence (RI) Radio influence is probably the factor limiting the choiee of a satisfactory conductor for a given voltage, The RI performance of transinission lines has not been as thor oughly investigated as corona loss. Recent publications (sce references) present most of the information available. RI plotted against voltage on linear graph paper Js characterized by a gradual increase in KI up toa vol-Chapter 8 35] lo 30] Kw/S-PHASE MILE Characteristics of Aerial Lines 69 Curve 1—4/0.985/15.7° Smooth) Ref. 25. dnot given, but assumed 1610, which is average value for Germany. Reference curve ob txinad by converting single-phase measurements to three-phase values on the basis of surface gradient. Dimensions of line usod ia making convarson aro not given Curve 2-4/0827/16.7" (teanded aluninum-steel), Ref. 25. 3 1.002. See discussion of Curve 1 (Curve $—3/0.985/11.8" (Smooth), Ref, 26, 41,002. Reference arve gives single-phase measirements verausline-onground volt= tage, bat It Ie pot clear whether actual test voltage or equivalent voltage at line height is given. Lattor was used in making th co version to thren-phase. If this ie wrong, curve is approximately 15 peroent low in voltage, Converted to flat configuration of 45 fect. Curve 4~2/1.00/17.7" (Steanded slumsioum-stel). 81.01, Ref.12, App. A. Reference curvo gives per-phase measurements vermis tradient, Converted to three-phase corona loss on ine of 42.f00t average height, 39.4-f00t flat conigurstion. Curve 52/1.25/17.7" Stranded sluminum-atel) Snot given, prob ably close to unity. ef. 12. Reference curve, whic gives three- ‘hase corona las, was converted from per phase measurements, ‘Dimensions 42.5 fest average height, 894 feet fat configuration, ‘This conductor was eelectad for use on the Swedish 880 kv stom, Original author probably selected a worse fair-weather condition than the writer did in plotting carve 4, which could seeount for thei closeness, ie 6-2/1 04/23.7" (Stranded aluminum stel). Fnot given, Ret 13. Plotted curvo is average of so single-phase frieweathor curves, converted to three-phase loss for 4foot flat soniguration, Bee Curve 7 Curve 7-2/1.04/15.7* (Stranded aluminum-etel). &n0t given. Ref. 13, Plotted curve is average of two single-phase fair-weather curves, converted to three;phise loa Tor 45-foot fat configuration Date for curves 6 and 7 were taken at same time in order to show ‘eet of sub-conductor reparation. “Bundie-conductor designation—uraber of eub-conductors/out- Fide diameter of each sub-oonducter in inches oeperation betwee adjacent sub-conductors in inches, Fig, 29—Fair-Weather Corona-Losa Curves for Two-, Three-, and Four-conductor Bundles; Air Density Factor, 3=1.00. tage slightly below the minimum voltage at which meas- turable corona loss is detected. Above this voltage, the imerease in the RI is very rapid. ‘The rate of inerense in RT is influenced by conductor surface and diameter, being, higher for smooth conduetors and large-diameter con= ductors. Above a certain voltage, the magnitude of the RI field begins to level off. For practical conductors, the leveling off value is much too high to be acceptable, and where EI isa factor, lines must be designed to operate be- low the voltage at which the rapid incroase starte during fair weather. Figures 32 and 33 are characteristic RI curves. ‘The relation between fair and foul-weather corona per- formanee is shown in Fig, 82. An evaluation of RI in the design of e high-voltage line ‘must consider not only its magnitude, but its effect on the various communication sorviees which require protection, Amplitude-modulated broadcasting and power-line earrier are the most common services encountered but other serv- ices such as aviation, marine, ship-to-shore SOS calls, po- fice and a number of government services might also have to be considered. In determining the RI performance of a proposed line, the magnitude of the RI factors for the entire frequency range of communication services likely to be encountered, should be known, An evaluation of these factors in terms of their effect on various communication services must take into consideration many things. These are available signal intensities along the line, setisiactory signal-to-noise ra- tios, effect of weather on the RI factors and on the imm- portance of particular communication services, number and type of receivers in vieinity of the line, proximity of articular receivers, transfer of RI to lower-voltage ci cits, the general importance of particular communication services, and means for improvement of reception at indi- ‘vidual receiver locations! For extea-high-voltage and double-cireuit high-voltage lines the tolerable limits of RI might be higher because the number of receivers affected, the coupling to lower voltage circuits, and the coupling to receiver antennas is reducesl. Also fewer lines are required for the sume power handling ability, and wider right-of- ‘ways are used which tend to reduce the RI problem, Although RI increases very rapidly with increased gradi- ent at the surface of a conductor, theoretical considerations of the radietion characteristics of a transmission line as spacing ie reduced, indicate that the RT froma transmission line will not be seriously affected by reduced epacing.®60 33 30 tee as - y | 5 | | ¥ | $20) Lt}. S | | | > po cvean e {ih ‘5 ‘veReaST, 1 Neatoy woanenost,—‘] poe | -pmouean , . | -cuekr ole aR ToS BS 800-4 BOT Bo0 We Fig. 30—Corona Loss on 1.09 Inch Stranded Aluminum-Steel Ing per-phase measurements to three hhaving 32-foot flat spacing, 50-foot average height. No cor- rection made for air density factor. Ret. 22, App. Ax ‘The conductor configuration, the number of cixeuits, and the presence of ground wites afivet the radiation from the line with a given RT voltage on the conductors. Very little is known about the radiation characteristics of transmis: sion lines and caution should be exercised in applying data not tuken on fine configuration elosely approximating the design under consideration, ‘The RI field from a transmission tine varies somewhat as the inverse of the radio frequeney measured. ‘Thus serv- ices in the higher-frequoney bands, (tolevision®, frequency- modulated broadcasting, microwave relay, radar, ete.) are less upt to be affected. Directional antennas which are gencrally used at these frequencies, on the average, in- crease the signal-to-noise ratio, The lower signal strengths, and wider bandawidths generally found ia the high-tre- queney bands ean alter this pieture somewhat. Frequency modulated broadcast is inherently less sensitive to RI because of its type of modulation, Characteristics of Aerial Lines Chapter 3 Standard radio-noise meters!#% ean measure the aver age, quasi-peak, and peak values of the RI field. The aver- age value is the amplitude of the RI field averaged continu ously over 3g second. For quasi-peak measurements, a cit- cuit having a short time constant (0.001-0.01 sec.) for charging and a long time constant (0.3 to 0.6 see.) for dis- charging is used, with the result that the meter indication car the peak value of the RI field. Aural tests of radio reception indieate that quasi-peak readings interpreted in terms of broadeast-station ficld strengths represent: more accurately the “nuisance” value of the RI field. ‘The peale value is the maximum instantaneous value during # given period. ‘The type of measurements made must be known before evaluating published RI information or misleading conclusions can be drawn. ‘The lateral attenuation of RI from # transmission line ‘depends on the line dimensions and is independent of volt- tgs. At distancos between 40 and 150 feot from the outer ‘conductor, the attenuation at 1000 ke varies from 0.1 00.3 db per foot, with the lower values applying generally to high-voltage lines. ‘Typical lateral attenuation eurves are shovn in Fig. 34, Lateral attenuation is affected by loeat conditions, Because of the rapid attenuation of RI Iater- ally from a line, a change of a few hundred feet in the loca tion of a right-of-way can materially aid in protecting a ‘communication serviee, 9, Selection of Conductor Tn the selection of « satisfactory conductor from the standpoint of its corona performance for voltages up to 230 kv, operating experience and current practice are the best guide. Experience in this country indicates that the corona performance of a transmission line will be satisfac- tory when a line is designed so that, the fair-weathor corona loss according to Peterson's formula, is less than fone kw per three-phase mile. Unsatisfactory corona per- formance in areas where RI must be considered has been reported for lines on whieh the calculated corona loss is in ‘excess of this value, or even less in the case of medium high- voltage lines. Figure 31 is based on Peterson's formula and indicates satisfactory conductors which can be used on high-voltage lines. For medium high-voltage lines (138 kv) considerably more margin below the one kw curve is neces sary Leciuse of Lhe increased probability of exposure of re ceivers to RI from the line, and a design approaching 0.1 Jw should be used. 10, Bundle Conductors A “bundle conductor’ is a conduetor made up of two or more “'sub-conduetors”, and is used a9 one phase conduc tor, Bundle conductors are also called duplex, triples, conductors, referring to the number of sub-conductors and are sometimes referred to as grouped or multiple con ductors. Considerable work on bundle conductors has bbeen done by the engineers of Siemens-Schuckertwerke™™ who concluded that bundle conductors were not economic eal al 220 ky, but for rated voltages of 400 kv or more, are ‘the best solution for overhead transtaission, Rusck and Rathsmoan'™ state that the inerease in transmitting eapac- ily justifies economically dhe use of two-conduetor bun des on 220-Kv lines.