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304/304L 1.4301/1.4307
S30400/S30403
Domestic sink
For 2014, the BSSA has selected 50 grades to illustrate the many useful properties of
stainless steel. The basis for the selection is the frequency with which a grade appears
in the Stainless Steel Advisory Services Enquiry Database.
What should the first grade be? Not surprisingly, 304 (1.4301) and its variants are the most common
grades in the SSAS database. This reflects the market as a whole.
Approximate Composition 18% Cr 8% Ni (exact composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM
standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good weldability
Hygienic surfaces
This combination of properties leads to the grade being used for a wide range of applications
including:
Sinks, pots and pans, catering surfaces, architectural cladding, handrails, food processing, water
treatment, pressure vessels, transport containers, surgical instruments, building support products,
refrigeration equipment, watch cases, automotive trim, street furniture, anaerobic digestion, chemical
plant, sanitaryware.
This is merely a sample of the applications for 304/304L (1.4301/1.4307). Despite the competition
from grades with a similar corrosion resistance, this grade is likely to continue to form the backbone
of the stainless steel market for some years to come.
316/316L 1.4401/1.4404
S31600/S31603
Pharmaceutical Isolator
Courtesy of White Bros
Grade 316 (1.4401) is the second in this series of articles about stainless steel grades.
It is the most common grade which highlights the benefits of molybdenum (Mo).
Extractor Unit
Grade 430 (1.4016) is the most common ferritic stainless steel grade in sheet form. It
features in many familiar everyday items.
Approximate Composition 17% Cr (exact composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM
standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Indoor conditions are usually compatible with the use of 430 (1.4016). Mild chemicals such as
detergents and cleaning fluids are safe to use with this grade.
Typical applications include:
Washing machine drums, cutlery, kitchen utensils, catering equipment, microwave oven liners, kick
plates, lifts, induction heated pots and pans, cooker hobs, air extraction units, automotive trim, hose
clamps, window hinges.
430 (1.4016) is a cost-effective material in many mild environments and will continue to be so for
many years.
2205 Duplex is a generic term for the most common of the duplex stainless steels. It
has become the grade of choice where 316/316L does not have adequate corrosion
resistance.
Approximate Composition 22% Cr 5% Ni 3% Mo 0.15% N (exact composition ranges vary
between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Many chemical and marine processes operate in very aggressive conditions. These push the more
familiar grades such as 316/316L (1.4401/1.4404) beyond their limits. 2205 Duplex (1.4462)
provides a significant improvement in corrosion resistance. The increased strength can also lead to
a reduction in section thickness which means that the overall cost can be comparable to that of
316/316L. Resistance to stress corrosion cracking is particularly important in chemical and food
processing above 50C. Although weldability is good, fabricators need to be trained in the specific
parameters required to produce sound welds.
Typical applications include:
Offshore oil and gas, chemical processing, desalination plant, pulp and paper, sculptures in coastal
locations, brewing, food processing, bridges, tensioning systems, nuclear reprocessing, tunnel
infrastructure, chemical tanker ships.
2205 Duplex (1.4462) is the natural choice for more aggressive environments.
420 1.4021/1.4028/1.4031/1.4034
S42000
Bearings
Surgical Instruments
Grade 420 is a descendant of the martensitic grade which was invented by Harry
Brearley in Sheffield in 1913. It is a hardenable stainless steel used for its basic
corrosion resistance, high strength and wear resistance.
Approximate Composition 12% Cr (exact composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM
standards). The EN system defines several grades which fit into 420 by narrow ranges of carbon
content whilst the ASTM system defines 420 with 0.15% minimum carbon only.
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Hydraulic Ram
Grade 431 (1.4057) is the all round engineering martensitic stainless steel, combining
fair corrosion resistance with good strength and impact toughness.
Approximate Composition 15% Cr 2% Ni (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and
ASTM standards). Old BS 970 431S29 still used for its higher Ni content.
This grade combines the following characteristics:
431 has one of the best combinations of corrosion resistance, high strength and good impact
toughness of all the stainless steels. This accounts for its popularity in a wide range of engineering
applications which include:
Drive shafts, propeller shafts, bearings, gears, hydraulic rams, valve stems, actuators, satellite parts,
conveyor drive systems, hi-fi equipment stands, packaging machinery, crane pins, seat dampers for
boats, mixing blades, golf clubs.
431 offers a cost-effective solution in many challenging engineering applications.
Superduplex 1.4410/1.4501/1.4507
S32750/S32760/S32550
Superduplex is a generic term covering a range of highly alloyed grades developed for
use in highly aggressive conditions, notably in sea water.
Approximate Composition 25% Cr 7% Ni 3.5% Mo 0.25% N (nitrogen) plus optional Cu
(copper) and W (tungsten). (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
The superduplex grades are used in extremely aggressive conditions notably in seawater and high
chloride or acidic chemical processes. Their complex metallurgy means that the process parameters
must be kept within narrow ranges to maintain the required microstructure, corrosion resistance and
impact toughness. This is especially true in welding. Therefore, fabricators require relevant training
and approvals to work effectively with this material.
Applications include:
Oil and gas subsea, desalination, chemical processing, pulp and paper, valves, pumps, fish stunning
electrodes, firewater systems.
Superduplex grades provide a combination of high corrosion resistance and strength in very
aggressive conditions.
1.4003 S40977
Developed originally as 3CR12 in South Africa, 1.4003 is a low cost stainless steel used
as a cost effective substitute for galvanised and painted carbon steels. It is sometimes
termed a utility ferritic grade.
Approximate Composition 11% Cr 0.5% Ni (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and
ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Many applications require some degree of corrosion resistance without needing to maintain an
aesthetic appearance. The key property is to maintain section thickness rather than looking the
part. The grade was originally developed to serve the mining industry in South Africa where large
amounts were used for handling ores in the form of wagons, hoppers and chutes. The basic
corrosion resistance, wear resistance, weldability and low cost provided a winning combination. In
some applications the steel is painted to provide additional corrosion resistance.
Applications have expanded to a wide range since the initial development to include:
Coach frames, minibus chassis, sugar beet handling, malting vessels, electrical enclosures, fuel
tanks, chimneys, refuse vehicles, fertiliser storage, rail wagons, conveying equipment for dry
material, lintels, laboratory work surfaces
1.4003 is the lowest cost stainless steel. Provided aesthetic appearance is not an issue, it provides a
good solution. Care needs to be exercised in using it as a substitute for higher grades on cost
grounds alone.
6% Mo 1.4529/1.4547 N08926/S31254
6% Mo is a generic term for several highly alloyed austenitic grades. They have been
developed for highly aggressive seawater and chemical processing environments.
Approximate Composition 20% Cr, 18-24% Ni, 6% Mo, 0.2% N plus Cu (Exact composition
ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Excellent pitting and crevice corrosion resistance (PREN > 40, comparable to superduplex
Excellent resistance to strong acids
Excellent stress corrosion cracking resistance
Approved for use for structural components in swimming pools
Higher yield strength than standard austenitic stainless steels
Good impact toughness at sub-zero temperatures (better than superduplex)
Improved formability compared to superduplex
Careful control of welding parameters required
Viable alternative to expensive nickel base alloys
Courtesy of NeoNickel
310 is the workhorse high temperature steel. Its fully austenitic structure allows it to
double as a non-magnetic stainless steel at normal temperatures.
Approximate Composition 25% Cr 20% Ni (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and
ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
310 is the most common grade of heat resistant stainless steel. It is the most likely heat resistant
grade to be stocked in a wide range of product forms and will cope with a wide range of high
temperature conditions. The high Cr (25%) contributes to the general strength of the passive layer.
The high Ni (20%) reduces the differential in thermal expansion between the passive layer and the
base metal, thereby increasing resistance to spalling in thermal cycling conditions.
The high Ni content leads to a fully austenitic structure which gives a very low magnetic response.
The high alloy content also gives a high resistance to martensite formation on cold working.
Therefore, 310 is also used in specialised non-magnetic applications. It is more widely available than
the correct non-magnetic grades like 304LN and 316LN.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Heat treatment furnaces and accessories, power generation, cement production, burners, metal
sintering, waste incineration, refractory anchors, glass making, scientific instruments.
11
Load Cell
Grade 17-4 PH (1.4542) is perhaps the most common example of the precipitation
hardening stainless grades. It combines good corrosion resistance with high strength
and good impact toughness.
Approximate Composition 16% Cr, 4% Ni, 4% Cu plus Nb (niobium) (Exact composition
ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
12 Lean Duplex
1.4062/1.4162/1.4362/1.4482/1.4662
S32202/S32101/S32304/S32001/S82441
Footbridge
Courtesy of Outokumpu
Courtesy of Modersohn/Aperam
Lean Duplex is a generic term covering a range of stainless steel grades which are
designed to have corrosion resistance in the spectrum of 304 to 316 or slightly beyond
but with at least twice the design strength at lower cost.
Approximate Composition 20-24% Cr, 1.0-4.0% Ni, low Mo 0.1-0.25% plus N (Exact
composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
These grades combine the following characteristics:
Pitting and crevice corrosion resistance in range of 304 to just above 316
Good yield strength (450 MPa minimum up to 550 MPa). 2-2.5 times design strength of
304/316
Good weldability. Parameters less critical than standard duplex and superduplex grades
Moderate formability. Higher power required due to higher strength. Special formability
grades being developed
Lean duplex grades offer a cost effective alternative to standard austenitic grades like 304/304L and
316/316L. With the higher design strength, section thickness can often be reduced leading to
significant weight and cost reduction. Each grade in this category should be evaluated on its own
merits.
Applications include:
Storage vessels, domestic hot water tanks, structural sections, lintels, reinforcing bar, bridges,
building support products.
13
Yacht Rigging
Valves
Courtesy of AK Steel
Courtesy of AK Steel
XM-19, often known by its AK Steel brand name of Nitronic 50 , is a high strength
nitrogen-bearing austenitic stainless steel. It has superior corrosion resistance and
strength compared to 316/316L.
Approximate Composition 21% Cr, 5.0% Mn, 12.0% Ni, 2.0% Mo, 0.3% N plus Nb and V
(vanadium). Grade 1.3964 does not appear officially in the EN system but is found in SEW 390 as
Werkstoff Nummer (W Nr) 1.3964.
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Better pitting and crevice corrosion resistance than 316/316L and 317L depending on the
environment
Special hot working processes allow yield strength of up to 800 MPa dependent on section
size
Impact toughness down to cryogenic temperatures. Advantage over high strength duplex
grades
XM-19 offers an excellent combination of high strength and corrosion resistance. Its main advantage
over competitive materials like duplex grades is its much wider band of useful temperatures both at
the high and low end of the spectrum. Increased solubility of nitrogen for high strength is achieved
with the high manganese content. Its non-magnetic properties are vital in specialist applications like
submarine hulls and minesweepers.
Applications include:
Offshore oil and gas connectors and couplings, chemical storage vessels, marine drive shafts, pump
shafts, valves, yacht rigging, submarine hulls.
14
Exhaust Components
Catalytic Converter
409 is a low cost ferritic stainless steel. Its dominant use is in vehicle exhaust systems,
so much so that it is often referred to as muffler grade.
Approximate Composition 11% Cr plus Ti (titanium). (Exact composition ranges vary between
EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Low cost and limited cost variation due to low alloy content
Automotive exhaust systems have to withstand aggressive conditions from high temperatures at the
manifold end, sulphuric acid condensate and de-icing salt. Given the severity of these conditions, it
can seem surprising that the 11% Cr 409 grade has met the challenge for many years. Exhaust
components are also required to be bent, expanded and pressed into all sorts of convoluted shapes.
The ability of a ferritic steel to meet these formability requirements is little short of amazing.
Other applications include:
Heat exchangers, gas boilers, fuel filters.
A380 Airbus
Heat Exchangers
Courtesy of Airbus
The stabilised austenitic grades 321 and 347 are similar to 304 but with Ti or Nb to
improve intergranular corrosion resistance. They also have superior high temperature
mechanical properties compared to 304/304L.
Approximate Composition 18% Cr, 9% Ni plus Ti (titanium) or Nb (niobium). (Exact
composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Improved high temperature 0.2% proof strength compared to 304L. 20% higher at 100C,
45% higher at 550C
In the early phase of the development of austenitic stainless steels like 304, the carbon content was
high around 0.1%. On welding, it was found that the chromium reacted with the carbon to produce
chromium carbide. This removes chromium from the matrix of the steel and effectively weakens the
passive film near to the weld leading to corrosion, known as weld decay. It was found that adding
titanium (321) or niobium (347) solved this problem by preferentially combining with the carbon
leaving the chromium to do its job of forming the passive layer. With the advent of low cost
steelmaking processes like AOD (argon oxygen decarburisation) and VOD (vacuum oxygen
decarburisation), low carbon grades like 304L, with a maximum carbon content of 0.030%, have
virtually eliminated intergranular corrosion. 321 and 347 are now mainly used for their improved high
temperature properties compared to 304L.
Applications include:
Heat exchangers, gas boilers, aerospace, exhaust systems, process plant, element tubing, power
generation, rocket engine parts.
16
Chimney Liners
904L was originally developed for sulphuric acid service, particularly in concentrations
from 20% to 85%. Its high chromium and molybdenum also makes it more resistant to
pitting corrosion than standard grades such as 316/316L.
Approximate Composition 20% Cr, 25% Ni, 4.0% Mo, 1.5% Cu plus N (Exact composition
ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good pitting and crevice corrosion resistance (PREN ~ 32 , comparable to 2205 duplex)
904L is a good example of the development of an alloy for a specific purpose. Sulphuric acid is one
of the most common basic chemicals. Chemical plants require the storage and transport of this acid
at a range of concentrations. In dilute acid, up to about 20%, and in concentrated acid greater than
85%, grade 316L can reasonably be used at ambient temperature. 904L plugs the gap in between
and reduces the corrosion rate compared to 316L at low and medium concentrations. It achieves this
by using the combined effects of chromium, nickel, molybdenum and copper.
The high chromium and molybdenum contents also give a good resistance to chloride pitting and
crevice corrosion, comparable to 2205 duplex. This is particularly useful when 2205 duplex is ruled
out on grounds of sub-zero impact toughness, formability, service above 300 deg C or magnetic
properties.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Pulp and paper, chemical processing, heat exchangers, flue gas desulphurisation (FGD), offshore oil
and gas, food processing, chimney liners.
904L is an excellent choice for sulphuric acid and other aggressive environments.
17
MRI Scanner
Courtesy of Siemens
304LN is used where an extremely low level of magnetic permeability is required. This
derives from its high nitrogen content.
Approximate Composition 18% Cr, 9% Ni, 0.15% N (Exact composition ranges vary between
EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Non-magnetic. Very low ferrite level and very resistant to martensitic transformation. Relative
magnetic permeability < 1.005
304LN was originally developed as a higher strength version of 304L using nitrogen. However, the
increase in strength is only modest and duplex grades are now mostly used for this purpose. The
grade is now used in specialised applications where a very low magnetic response is needed. In
standard 304L, a typical level of relative magnetic permeability is around 1.05-1.1 due to small
amounts of ferrite in the austenitic structure. A completely non-magnetic material would have a value
of 1.0. 304LN can achieve a maximum value of around 1.005, which is the lowest practical level of
any steel grade. It is also very resistant to transformation to the magnetic martensitic phase which
can occur on forming or cooling to very low temperatures. Therefore, its main uses are in specialised
equipment where magnetic interference needs to be avoided and/or for use in cryogenic
equipment.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners, reinforcing bar for structures surrounding MRI
scanners, pressure vessels, cryogenic applications.
304LN is the archetypal non-magnetic grade.
18
Solenoid Valve
430F is used where a high level of magnetic permeability is required. This derives from
its fully ferritic structure. Its high level of machinability allows volume throughput of
components.
Approximate Composition 17% Cr, 0.15% minimum S (sulphur) (Exact composition ranges
vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Excellent machinability
430F is the most common stainless steel grade used for electromagnetic devices. Although its
magnetic properties are not as good as the iron-silicon alloys, where corrosion resistance is
required, it provides an excellent combination of properties. The processing of the grade is also
important to ensure the optimum microstructure. The test certificate includes details of the magnetic
properties where applicable.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Magnetic cores, solenoid valves, relays, fuel injection systems, anti-lock braking systems,
electromagnetic pumps.
19
303 is the most common free-machining grade using sulphur to produce sulphides
allowing easier chip-breaking during machining. Basically it is 304 with sulphur.
Approximate Composition 17% Cr, 8% Ni, 0.15% minimum S (sulphur) (Exact composition
ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Poor weldability
303 is a basic stainless steel where high productivity is required. Normally, austenitic stainless steels
like 304 are difficult to machine. The high work hardening rate of austenitic stainless steels produces
greater tool wear and a tendency to produce stringy chips during machining. The situation is made
worse by the lower thermal conductivity and higher thermal expansion of these steels.
303 uses sulphur (0.15/0.35%) to produce a large number of manganese sulphide inclusions. These
inclusions allow increased speeds and reduced tool wear.
The disadvantages of sulphide inclusions are reduced corrosion resistance, poor weldability and
greater propensity to leach chromium and nickel ions in contact with aqueous fluids. The last item
means that 303 is not authorised to be used in contact with drinking water nor for jewellery.
Nevertheless, 303 is used in many applications where basic corrosion resistance is required.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Threaded fasteners, shafts, valve bodies, precision measurement devices, pneumatic manifolds.
20
Springs
Courtesy of Gripple
301 is a low nickel, higher carbon variant of 304. Its dominant purpose is to increase the
work hardening capability of this austenitic grade of stainless steel to produce very high
strength thin strip and wire.
Approximate Composition 16.5% Cr, 7% Ni, 0.07% C (Exact composition ranges vary between
EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good pitting corrosion resistance but slightly lower than 304 due to lower Cr
Very high work hardening rate leading to very high strength. Minimum UTS of 1900 MPa
possible compared to 1300 MPa for 304 (1.4301) in the EN standards for springs
The high work hardening rate of 301 allows it to be used for a wide range of applications where
springiness is the primary requirement. The degree of springiness varies with the amount of cold
rolling for strip or cold drawing for wire products. In the EN spring steel standards, the cold worked
conditions are designated in the form +C700 up to +C1900 where the number stands for the
minimum UTS in MPa. The ASTM system uses designations such as hard, hard, hard and
full hard, which cover the range of minimum UTS from 860 to 1275 MPa for grade 301.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Springs, banding, clamps, clips, airframe sections, roll formed sections, wire mesh, seat belts, push
feed systems, sash windows.
21
Sink
201 is typical of the 200 series of stainless steels. These steels use manganese to
replace nickel in austenitic stainless steels, mainly in order to make them lower cost.
201 is broadly similar to 304 for corrosion resistance but with some important
differences in mechanical properties.
Approximate Composition 17% Cr, 6.0% Mn, 4.5% Ni, 0.10% N. (Exact composition ranges vary
between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Higher strength than 304. 350 MPa minimum 0.2% PS compared to 230 MPa for 304
Higher work hardening rate than 304 leading to different forming characteristics
201 is a typical austenitic manganese bearing stainless steel. The 200 series steels vary greatly
from one region to another. There is a very large market in India and China for kitchen utensils and
catering equipment. This is mainly due to the scarcity of nickel in those countries. The USA also has
a relatively high usage. In contrast, Europe has a much lower usage, preferring the nickel bearing
300 series. Although 201 and 304 are comparable in corrosion resistance, potential substitution
should be carefully considered particularly in the area of forming.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Pots and pans, sinks, catering equipment, banding, automotive trim, shipping containers, air bags,
window channel spacers.
22
S21800
Ball Valve
Bridge Bearing
S21800, often known by its AK Steel brand name of Nitronic 60 , is a galling and wear
resistant nitrogen-bearing austenitic stainless steel. It has superior corrosion resistance
to 316L.
Approximate Composition 17% Cr, 8.0% Mn, 4.0% Si, 8.0% Ni, 0.15% N. There is no equivalent
in the EN system.
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good pitting and crevice corrosion resistance (better than 316L) based on a wide range of
applications, despite its low Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN)
High wear resistance. Weight loss reduced by 80% compared to 304 in abrasion test
Cavitation erosion resistance better than standard austenitic and duplex grades
Excellent galling resistance in contact with itself and other stainless steels
0.2% PS 50% higher than standard austenitic grades 304 and 316 in annealed condition
High work hardening rate allows 0.2% PS of 600 MPa minimum by cold drawing
Good weldability
More difficult to machine than standard austenitic grades due to its high wear resistance
Stainless steels in general are prone to cold welding or galling when rubbed together under stress.
The typical situation occurs in the threads of a bolt and nut or tapped hole. This is due to local
breakdown of the passive film on the surface of the steel. S21800 was specifically developed to
combat this problem. It uses a combination of Mn, Si, Ni and N to produce a highly stable and
adherent passive oxide film. The high wear resistance is also a key feature of the grade.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Fasteners, bridge pins, bridge bearings, valve stems, bearings, chain drives, impellers, wear rings,
space research, surgical instruments.
23
Hydro-Electric Power
F6NM is a lowcarbon martensitic stainless steel with basic corrosion resistance, good
strength, good toughness and much better weldability than most martensitic grades of
stainless steel.
Approximate Composition 13% Cr, 4.0% Ni, 0.5% Mo 0.05% C (EN and ASTM standards vary
in chemical composition).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good yield strength (520 to 800 MPa minimum in EN standard depending on heat treatment)
Better toughness than most martensitic grades (one of only 2 martensitic grades with
guaranteed sub-zero impact toughness in EN pressure standards)
Good weldability compared to other martensitic grades. Still requires pre- and post-weld heat
treatment
F6NM is martensitic grade of stainless steel with several important enhancements. The molybdenum
addition gives an improved corrosion resistance. The low carbon gives much improved weldability
and along with the nickel produces excellent toughness. The dominant use of this grade is in the oil
and gas industry.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Valve bodies, flanges, valve seats, oil field equipment, hydro-electric turbine systems, pumps,
chemical process plant, pressure die casting.
24
1.4835 S30815
Exhaust Manifold
Radiant Tubes
Courtesy of Outokumpu
Courtesy of NeoNickel
Oxidation resistance better than grade 310 particularly in cyclic conditions at lower cost due
to reduced nickel content
Higher creep strength than 310 at typical operating temperatures (850-1150C) allowing
thinner sections
Good weldability
The high temperature resistance of 253MA derives from its combination of chromium, silicon, nickel
and cerium. In particular, the combination of cerium and silicon provides a tightly adherent oxide film.
Nitrogen is used to balance the austenitic microstructure allowing a reduction in nickel content and
therefore cost compared to the standard heat resistant grade 310. As an example of the higher
creep strength, it is 2.5 times higher than 310 at 900C.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Heat exchangers, furnaces, glass making, fans, flame tubes, refractory anchors, heat treatment
trays, incinerators, exhaust manifolds.
25
Oil Refining
Power Generation
12 Chrome Moly Van steels are a series of martensitic stainless steels designed for
use at moderately high temperatures. 1.4923 is a typical grade in this series. The
dominant application is steam power generating plant.
Approximate Composition 12% Cr, 0.5% Ni, 1.0% Mo, 0.30% V(vanadium), 0.20% C
Moderate strength 800 MPa UTS, 600 MPa 0.2% PS at room temperature
Good creep strength 137 MPa rupture stress at 550C at 100000 hours
Weldable with care. Requires pre and post weld heat treatment
The 12% CrMoV series of steels can be regarded as a development of the original Harry Brearley
cutlery grade. By adding nickel, molybdenum and vanadium to the basic 12% Cr grade, the strength
is improved especially at high temperature. The key property is creep strength. Creep is the
phenomenon where a material continues to deform with time under stress. For steels it is important
to take account of creep above about 450C. Typical steam temperatures for power generation are
approximately 550C which explains the extensive use of these grades in this application sector.
Further enhancements of the 12% CrMoV grades have been developed with additions of tungsten,
cobalt, niobium and nitrogen. These have often been known by brand names such as FV 448, FV
535, Jethete M152.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Pressure equipment, high temperature bolting, steam turbines, nuclear reactors, gas turbines,
petroleum refining.
26
A286 is an austenitic precipitation hardened (PH) stainless steel. It has excellent creep
strength and can be used at higher temperatures (up to 700C) than the 12% CrMoV
martensitic stainless steels.
Approximate Composition 15% Cr, 25.0% Ni, 1.3% Mo, 0.30% V, 0.05% C, 2.0% Ti, 0.15% Al
(Exact composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Moderate strength 900 MPa UTS, 600 MPa 0.2% PS at room temperature
Excellent high temperature strength 460 MPa 0.2% PS at 550C, 380 MPa at 650C
Excellent creep strength 415 MPa rupture stress at 550C at 100000 hours, 132 MPa at
650C
A286 is a metallurgically complex stainless steel. Its main purpose is to provide high temperature
creep strength. Creep is time dependent deformation at elevated temperatures. It does this using a
precipitation hardening mechanism involving a compound of nickel, titanium and aluminium. This
compound is formed in tiny particles by solution annealing at 980C followed by an ageing treatment
at about 720C. It is these particles which impart the very high strength to this grade. Although not
primarily designed for use at low temperatures, the combination of high strength, good toughness
and non-magnetic properties make it a candidate for cryogenic applications.
27
1.4886 N08330
Metals Processing
Radiant Tubes
1.4886, often known by its Rolled Alloys brand name RA330 , is a high temperature
austenitic stainless steel with superior performance to standard grades such as 310.
Approximate Composition 18% Cr, 35.0% Ni, Si 1.25%, 0.05% C (Exact composition ranges
vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good weldability
This grade is regarded as one the best all-round high temperature stainless steels due to its
chromium and high nickel content. Indeed, it is classed as a nickel alloy in the UNS system. The
addition of silicon gives it carburisation resistance. Its fully austenitic structure and the absence of
elements such as molybdenum give it a high resistance to forming embrittling sigma phase.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Muffles, retorts, heat treatment baskets, refractory fixings, salt pots, radiant tubes, conveyors,
furnace fans.
28
1.4418
Cement Plant
Hydrofoil Legs
Best pitting corrosion resistance of all martensitic stainless steel grades approaching that of
304
Good strength. 700 MPa 0.2%PS, 900 MPa UTS at room temperature
Good weldability, especially for a martensitic stainless steel. No preheating required. Post
weld tempering recommended
This grade is designed to achieve a good balance of corrosion resistant and mechanical properties.
The chromium and molybdenum provides corrosion resistance. The low carbon and increased nickel
content provides a high strength martensitic structure but with good toughness. There are also
significant amounts of austenite and ferrite in the steel. This structure also gives a much improved
weldability compared to normal higher carbon martensitic grades. It is proving to be a replacement
for grade 431 (1.4057) in some applications.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Mining, cement plants, hydrofoil legs, anti-seismic applications, helicopter landing grids, penstocks,
hydroelectric turbine blades, hardboard and chipboard press plate, propeller shafting, pulp and
paper.
29
Knives
X50CrMoV15 is a high hardness martensitic stainless steel. In strip form, its dominant
use is for high quality knife blades. This is a rare, possibly a unique, example of the EN
Name of a stainless steel grade being used for marketing purposes.
Approximate Composition 15% Cr, 0.7% Mo, 0.15% V, 0.50% C (EN composition range. No
ASTM equivalent).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Poor weldability
X50CrMoV15 uses the moderately high carbon content of 0.50% to develop a high hardness
martensitic microstructure. The higher chromium plus small molybdenum addition gives a greater
corrosion resistance than standard martensitic grades. Vanadium allows higher tempering
temperatures to be used and gives greater toughness.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
High quality knives, cutting tools.
30
1.4828
Good weldability
This grade can be regarded as a development of standard grade 304. Its increased chromium and
nickel give it better oxidation resistance whilst silicon gives improved carburisation resistance. It is
sometimes said to be equivalent to grade 309 but in fact, 309 has a higher Cr content and no Si. The
31
440A/440B/440C 1.4109/1.4112/1.4125
S44002/S44003/S44004
Bearings
Knife Blade
The 440 grades form a series of high carbon martensitic stainless steels. They have
basic corrosion resistance and extremely high hardness and wear resistance.
Approximate Composition 16% Cr, 0.60-1.0% C plus Mo and V in EN grades (Exact
composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards. Equivalents much looser than for most
grades).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Basic corrosion resistance. Lower than other martensitic grades like 431
Very high hardness increasing with carbon content. 440C capable of 60 Rockwell HRC
(~700 HV)
Low elongation 4%
Difficult to weld
Difficult to machine
This series of grades give the highest level of strength/hardness in any martensitic stainless steel.
Consequently, they are used where a basic level of corrosion resistance is required coupled with
high wear resistance or blade sharpness. They are usually supplied in the annealed condition for
improved machinability and then hardened and tempered to develop the high hardness.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Bearings, valves, knife blades, surgical instruments, tools, moulds, dies.
Pump Shaft
Moderate corrosion resistance, better than standard martensitic grades. Can be better than
17-4 PH depending on environment
High 0.2% proof strength from 720 MPa minimum to 1030 MPa minimum dependent on heat
treatment condition
Difficult to machine
FV 520B, like 17-4 PH, develops its high strength from the precipitation of copper particles in its
martensitic matrix. The supply of this grade is complicated by the mismatch between the traditional
heat treatment conditions and those laid down in the EN standard. For example, age hardening at
450C has long been considered to give the maximum strength in this grade. Yet, no such heat
treatment is recognised in EN 10088-3. The aerospace standards S143/144/145 are closer to
established heat treatments. The combination of high strength and good corrosion resistance finds
uses in:
Pump shafts, impellers, fasteners, fans, valves, hydraulic equipment, turbine blades, aerospace,
nuclear transport flask, medical devices.
33
Pressure Transducers
Very high strength up to 1700 MPa minimum UTS in EN 10151 or 1655 MPa minimum in
ASTM A693
17-7 PH provides a combination of very high strength and moderate corrosion resistance. Its
metallurgy is complex involving several stages of processing to develop the necessary
microstructure. The highest level of strength is achieved by cold working to produce martensite
followed by an ageing treatment at about 480C. This restricts the use of the grade to thin sheet and
wire products. Other heat treatment conditions are also available to produce softer and more ductile
material.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Springs, Belleville washers, aerospace, orthodontic wire, strain gauge, load cell, pressure
transducer.
34
304Cu is based on the familiar grade 304 with a significant addition of copper. This
reduces the work hardening of the steel to allow operations such as cold heading,
thread rolling and improved machining.
Approximate Composition 18% Cr, 9%Ni, 3.5% Cu, 0.03% C(Exact composition ranges vary
between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good corrosion resistance similar to 304. Better than 304 in sulphuric acid due to copper
addition
Easier machining than 304 due to lower work hardening. Approximately 25% improvement
304Cu is one of several grades that falls into the fastener grade A2. A2 is often thought of as
equivalent to 304. However A2 has a maximum Cu of 4% which allows 304Cu to be included.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Fasteners, intricate machined components, automotive industry, electronics, chemical processing,
food and drink, double glazing pins, water meter disc spindles.
35
Sugar Evaporators
Lift
Courtesy of Outokumpu
A series of grades which compete with 304/304L in corrosion resistance. The absence
of nickel produces a lower cost alternative. The ferritic structure gives excellent deep
drawability and stress corrosion cracking resistance but disadvantages in welding of
thick sections and stretch forming.
Equivalent EN and UNS grade designations: 1.4510 1.4509 1.4621 1.4622 1.4611 S43035 S43940
S44500
Approximate Composition 17-21% Cr plus combinations of stabilising elements like Ti and
Nb (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
These grades combine the following characteristics:
Excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking, better than standard austenitic grades 304
and 316
Reduction in ridging and roping during forming compared to unstabilised ferritic grades like
430
Lower thermal expansion and higher thermal conductivity than austenitic grades
Limit on welding to about 5 mm due to poor weld toughness from rapid grain growth
This series of grades has been used extensively over the years for a number of familiar applications
such as exhaust systems and washing machine tubs. They are being targeted at competing with 304
in applications where the limitations on weld thickness and stretch forming are not an issue. The
stainless steel mills are frequently introducing new grades of this type so it is worth checking for an
up to date list of available grades.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Exhaust systems, washing machine tubs, cladding, wall panels, roofing, handrails, catering
equipment, water tubing, sugar processing, fuel cells, portable pizza ovens, lifts.
36
Uffingham Church
Grades which compete with 316/316L in corrosion resistance. The absence of nickel
produces a lower cost alternative. The ferritic structure gives excellent deep drawability
and stress corrosion cracking resistance but disadvantages in welding of thick sections
and stretch forming.
Equivalent EN and UNS Grades - 1.4526 1.4521 1.4613 S43600 S44400
Approximate Composition 17-20% Cr, 1.0-2.0% Mo, plus combinations of stabilising
elements like Ti and Nb. 470LI uses 24% Cr instead of Mo additions to achieve comparable
corrosion resistance to 316. (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
These grades combine the following characteristics:
Excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking better than standard austenitic grades 304
and 316
Reduction in ridging and roping during forming compared to unstabilised ferritic grades like
430
Lower thermal expansion and higher thermal conductivity than austenitic grades
Limit on welding to about 5 mm due to poor weld toughness from rapid grain growth
These grades have been used extensively over the years for a number of familiar applications such
as exhaust systems. They are being targeted at competing with 316 in applications where the
limitations on weld thickness and stretch forming are not an issue.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Cladding, wall panels, exhaust systems, roofing, handrails, catering equipment, domestic plumbing,
hot water tanks, sugar processing, electrical motor housings.
37
Fuel Filter
Pen
Courtesy of AK Steel
305 is essentially a high nickel version of 304. Its high nickel content reduces the work
hardening of the grade and imparts much improved deep drawing properties.
Approximate Composition 17.5% Cr 11.0% Ni (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and
ASTM standards).
This grades combines the following characteristics:
Excellent deep drawing, spinning and cold heading properties compared to 304
The dominant application for this grade is highly deep drawn components. This can often be
achieved in one stage without intermediate annealing.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Deep drawn components, pen barrels, automatic eyelet machines, electrical components, cold
headed fasteners, automotive components
38
Heat Exchangers
A380 Airbus
Courtesy of Airbus
The stabilised austenitic grades 316Ti and 316Cb are similar to 316 but with Ti or Nb to
improve intergranular corrosion resistance. They also have superior high temperature
mechanical properties compared to 316/316L.
Approximate Composition 17% Cr, 11% Ni, 2% Mo plus Ti (titanium) or Nb (niobium). (Exact
composition ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grades combines the following characteristics:
Improved high temperature 0.2% proof strength compared to 316L. 11% higher at 100C,
30% higher at 550C
In the early phase of the development of austenitic stainless steels like 316, the carbon content was
high around 0.1%. On welding, it was found that the chromium reacted with the carbon to produce
chromium carbide. This removes chromium from the matrix of the steel and effectively weakens the
passive film near to the weld leading to corrosion, known as weld decay. It was found that adding
titanium (316Ti) or niobium (316Cb) solved this problem by preferentially combining with the carbon
leaving the chromium to do its job of forming the passive layer. With the advent of low cost
steelmaking processes like AOD (argon oxygen decarburisation) and VOD (vacuum oxygen
decarburisation), low carbon grades like 316L, with a maximum carbon content of 0.030%, have
virtually eliminated intergranular corrosion. 316Ti and 316Cb are now mainly used for their improved
high temperature properties compared to 316L.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Heat exchangers, process plant, power generation, aerospace.
Increasing strength due to increased alloy content especially nitrogen. 0.2% PS of 290 MPa
for 1.4439 compared to 240 MPa for 1.4404
High nitrogen grades like 1.4429 have very low magnetic permeability
These grades show the significant effect of adding molybdenum and nitrogen to increase the
corrosion resistance of austenitic stainless steels. This effect is measured by the pitting resistance
equivalent (PREN):
PREN = %Cr + 3.3x%Mo + 16x%N
This series of grades spans a range of 23-34 from 1.4404 to 1.4439. The top end is about the same
as the 2205 duplex grade 1.4462.
As the Cr and Mo contents increase, the Ni content has to increase to maintain the correct amount
of austenite in the steel. In one special case, the grade 1.4435 has an even higher nickel content
than the minimum specified at about 14%. This guarantees a maximum ferrite content of 0.5% which
is vital in certain chemical and pharmaceutical processes.
The increased alloy content, in particular nitrogen, reduces the tendency for magnetic martensite to
form on cold working and/or sub-zero temperatures. Grades such as 1.4429 are therefore used for
low magnetic permeability applications notably in nuclear fusion research.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Chemical, pharmaceutical, oil and gas, nuclear fusion, cryogenics, surgical implants.
Expansion Joint
The H grade versions of familiar grades like 304, 316 and 321 have a minimum carbon
content to produce increased high temperature strength, particularly creep strength.
They must also meet a minimum grain size.
Approximate Compositions: As 304, 316 and 321 but with 0.04-0.08% C (Exact composition
ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
Compared to 304, 316 and 321 these grades combine the following characteristics:
Carbon is an important element in stainless steels. It is usually kept low in order to aid weldability,
especially in the avoidance of chromium carbide, which gives rise to intergranular corrosion.
However, carbon is an important strengthening element. In certain cases, notably at high
temperature, strength may take precedence over the risk of intergranular corrosion. The minimum
carbon level of 0.04% in the H grades provides this extra strength. Creep strength is enhanced with
a large grain size. Therefore, it is usual for standards to specify an ASTM grain size of 7 or coarser
for the H grades. H grades are now something of a rarity in general stockholders.
Applications which illustrate these features include:
Heat exchangers, gas boilers, aerospace, exhaust systems, process plant, element tubing, power
generation, rocket engine parts, seals, expansion joints.
41
Courtesy of Outokumpu
309 is a heat resisting stainless steel, lying somewhere between 304 and 310 in the
heat resisting spectrum. It is also used as a welding electrode for welding austenitic
stainless steel to carbon steel.
Approximate Composition: 23% Cr 13% Ni (Exact composition ranges vary between EN and
ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Chromium is an important element in determining the heat resistance of stainless steel. With 23%
Cr, 309 is significantly better than 304 with only 18% Cr. The nickel content of 13% means that the
steel contains a significant amount of ferrite. The comparatively low nickel content makes it better
than 310 (20% Ni) for resistance to reducing sulphur-bearing atmospheres.
Its second, quite different application as 309L, is as a welding consumable for joining grades like
304L to carbon steel. The dilution of the 23% Cr 13% Ni composition by the mild steel still gives a
satisfactory metallurgical structure quite close to that of grade 304L. It is also routinely used for
welding the low Cr ferritic grade 1.4003 to ensure toughness in the weld.
Applications include:
Annealing covers, waste incinerators, glass blowing equipment, nuclear transport flasks, rotary kilns,
calciners, furnace anchor bolts.
42
SiCromAl grades are a series of ferritic heat resisting stainless steels with varying
amounts of silicon, chromium and aluminium. They are useful for temperatures up to
1150C depending on grade.
Approximate Composition:
Loss of toughness above 900C due to grain coarsening of fully ferritic structure
This series of grades depends on the combined effects of chromium, silicon and aluminium. All of
these metals give benefits to the passive oxide layer on the surface of the steel: chromium and
aluminium - resistance to oxidation, silicon resistance to oxidation and carburisation. The absence
of nickel leads to better sulphidation resistance than austenitic grades. The lower thermal expansion
and higher thermal conductivity compared to austenitic grades makes them more resistant to
thermal shock.
Applications include:
Heat exchangers, furnaces, molten metal baths, high temperature nozzles, heat treatment boxes.
43
416 is the most common free-machining martensitic grade using sulphur to produce
sulphides allowing easier chip-breaking during machining.
Approximate Composition - 12% Cr, 0.10% C, 0.25/0.35% S (Exact composition ranges vary
between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Excellent machinability index approximately 90 compared to 100 for free cutting mild steel
416 is the preferred free machining grade where higher strength than 303 is required. It is essentially
grade 410 (1.4006) with sulphur for free machining. It is ideal for high throughput, intricate
components.
Applications include:
Shafts, axles, gears, valves, fasteners, golf club heads, sensors, precision machined components,
gun barrels, washing machine parts, dowel pins, clamps, collars.
44
1.4122
Retaining Ring
Drive Shafts
Good strength, 550 MPa minimum 0.2% PS coupled with basic toughness 20 J Charpy
impact test
1.4122 offers the high strength of a martensitic grade combined with enhanced corrosion resistance
due to its higher Cr and Mo addition.
Applications include:
Automotive, pump shafts, drive shafts, food processing, mechanical engineering, cutting tools,
construction, control valves, freshwater boat shafts, retaining rings.
45
Heat Exchanger
Hyperduplex grades offer significantly improved resistance to pitting, crevice and stress
corrosion cracking and increased strength compared to super duplex grades.
Approximate Composition - 27-32% Cr, < 0.030% C, 7.0% Ni, 3.5-5% Mo, 0.4-0.5% N
These grades combine the following characteristics:
These grades are used in extreme sea water conditions e.g. high temperatures and high chlorination
levels.
Applications include:
Offshore oil and gas e.g. deep water umbilicals, desalination plants, heat exchangers, process
industries.
46
Rail Carriage
Wheel Covers
301LN is an austenitic stainless steel with a high work hardening rate. Nitrogen is used
to provide increased strength.
Approximate Composition - 17.0% Cr, 0.030% C, 7.0% Ni, 0.12% N (Exact composition ranges
vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Good toughness
The dominant use of this high strength austenitic grade is in railway carriages. The high strength
allows the use of thinner sections and therefore lower weight which in turn gives more economical
running costs. The high toughness offers excellent crash resistance.
Applications include:
Rail carriages, springs, airframe sections, wiper blades, automotive wheel covers.
47
Urea Plant
310 MoLN is a highly alloyed austenitic stainless steel grade. It is based on 310 with
additions of molybdenum and nitrogen and a lower carbon content. In contrast to 310,
which is used for heat resistance, it is used for its corrosion resistance especially in the
production of urea.
Approximate Composition - 25% Cr, 22% Ni, 2.0% Mo, < 0.030% C, 0.12% N (Exact composition
ranges vary between EN and ASTM standards).
This grade combines the following characteristics:
Slightly higher 0.2% PS compared to standard austenitic grades due to high alloy content
especially nitrogen 255 MPa minimum
Fully austenitic structure (< 0.5% ferrite) requires care in welding to avoid hot cracking.
This grade is an example of a development aimed at a specific chemical production process, namely
urea. Its high level corrosion resistance (PREN ~34) allows it to be used in other highly corrosive
environments.
Applications include:
Urea production, pulp and paper, flue gas desulphurisation.
48
Moderate corrosion resistance lower than grade 304 but acceptable in typical nuclear
environments
Higher levels of boron facilitated by powder metallurgy due to loss of hot ductility in
conventional melting plus hot rolling
Applications include:
Nuclear transport flasks, nuclear storage, glove boxes, nuclear reactor shielding.
49
Copper Processing
Applications include:
Glass making (float glass), metallurgical plant (copper processing), burners, annealing boxes, kiln
linings, thermocouple tubes, injection nozzles
50
Calcium is used to improve the machinability of many stainless steel grades without
significantly affecting corrosion resistance.
These grades combine the following characteristics:
Can be applied to austenitic, martensitic and PH grades, for example 304, 316, 420, 431, 174 PH
One of the major disadvantages for all stainless steels compared to carbon and alloy steels is their
machinability. This is particularly true for the austenitic type where the high work hardening rate
leads to difficulty in producing chips during machining. Machining rates are lower and tool wear is
higher than for carbon and alloy steels. High levels of sulphur can be used to improve machinability
in grades like 303 and 416. However, this reduces the corrosion resistance and weldability. Calcium
treated steels contain a sulphur level at the higher end of the range for the normal grade, typically
0.015/0.030%. Calcium at very low levels < 0.001% produces modified non-metallic inclusions in the
steel matrix which make it easier to produce chips in machining and lowers tool wear. The treatment
is mostly applied to bar products but can also be applied to plate. Stainless steel mills typically use
brand names to promote the improved machinability, for example IMCO, MAXIVAL, ROLDAMAX,
PRODEC and UGIMA,
Applications include:
All sectors where machined components are used.