Artificial intelligence

An Assignment
On
Artificial Intelligence, Its Future
Consequences
&
Change in the Field Of Acknowledgement

Submitted To
Mr. Syed Khalil
Lecturer

Submitted By
Zulqarnain Haider
Roll No. 169
MBA-B
1st Semester
Submission Date: 20-10-2009

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COMSATS institute of information technology

Index

Contents Page No.

1) ABSTRACT 1

2) INTRODUCTION TO AI 2

3) HISTORY OF AI 3

4) BRANCHES OF AI 4

5) AI IN OUR LIVES: 6

6) Artificial Intelligence & Robotics 8

7) AI! A Boon or a curse……? 9

8) Future enhancements of AI 10

1. Current state 11
2. Enhancements 14

9) Conclusion 22

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ABSTRACT

Artificial intelligence (AI) may be defined as branch of Computer Science that is

concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior. The principles of AI
includes the data structures used in knowledge representation, the algorithms
needed to apply that knowledge and the languages and programming techniques
used in their implementation.
AI has always been more concerned with expanding the capabilities of computer
science with defining its limits. Keeping this exploration grounded in sound
theoretical principles is one of the challenges facing AI researches at present.
Artificial intelligence in its very direct concern has been applied to all the areas of
legacy - medicine, psychology, biology, astronomy, and geology – and many
problems of scientific endeavors.
As AI research progressed and techniques for handling larger amounts of world
knowledge were developed, some progress was made on the tasks just described
and new tasks could reasonably be attempted. These include perception, natural
language understanding and problem solving in specialized domains such as
medical diagnosis and chemical analysis. Due to AI in medicine, programs have
been developed that analyze the disease symptoms, medical history, and laboratory
test results of a patient, and then suggest a diagnosis to the physician. The
diagnostic program is an example of so-called expert systems—programs designed
to perform tasks in specialized areas as a human would.
Expert systems take computers a step beyond straightforward programming, being
based on a technique called rule-based inference, in which pre-established rule
systems are used to process the data.

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INTRODUCTION TO AI
AI is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially
intelligent computer programs, which envisages the nature of human thoughts &
sophisticated computing systems. AI coordinates and correlates psychological and
physiological research in to the nature of human thoughts and technological
development of sophisticated computing systems. Artificial Intelligence, a term
that in its broadest sense would indicate the ability of an artifact to perform the
same kinds of functions that characterizes the human thought. The possibility of
developing some such artifact has intrigued human beings since ancient time. The
revised version of AI can be defined as ‗AI is the study of the mechanisms
underlying intelligent behavior through the construction and evaluation of
artifacts that attempt to enact those mechanisms.’ On this definition, Artificial
Intelligence is less a theory about the mechanisms underlying intelligence and
more on empirical methodology for constructing and testing possible models for
supporting such a theory.
In the latter sense, the term AI has been applied to computer systems and programs
capable of performing tasks more complex than straightforward programming,
although still far from the realm of actual thought. The most important fields of
research in this area are information processing, pattern recognition, game-playing
computers, and applied fields such as medical diagnosis. Current research in
information processing deals with programs that enable a computer to understand
written or spoken information and to produce summaries, answer specific
questions, or redistribute information to users interested in specific areas of this
information. Essential to such programs is the ability of the system to generate
grammatically correct sentences and to establish linkages between words, ideas,
and associations with other ideas.

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HISTORY OF AI

American computer scientist John McCarthy coined the term "artificial

intelligence" (AI). In 1959 he developed LISP (List-oriented computer
programming language), which becomes the standard language for AI research.
Alan Turing, He was the first to decide that AI was best researched by
programming computers rather than by building machines. He put forward a test
known as Turing Test; for determining whether or not machine intelligence can
converse like a human. The Turing test measures the performance of an allegedly
intelligent machine against that of a human being, arguably the best and only
standard for intelligent behavior, which he mentioned as an Imitation Game.
During the World War II, the need for intelligent automated machines which can
have a niche of applications paved path for the field of AI and the research on
intelligent machines started. Once thinking had come to be regarded as a form of
computation, its formalization and eventual mechanization were obvious next
steps. In the seventeenth century, Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz, with his
Calculus Philosophical introduced the first system of formal logic as well as
constructed a machine for automating its calculation. Euler in the eighteenth
century with his analysis of connectedness of bridges joining the river banks and
islands of the city Konigsberg introduced the study of representations that
abstractly capture the structure of relationships in the world.
In the 1990‘s information scientists developed an AI computer program that allows
non experts to use their own natural language to retrieve information from
databases that use more complicated programming languages. This allowed more
people to find information—such as business data or medical records—that
previously only a few computer experts could retrieve.

BRANCHES OF AI
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Logical AI:

What a program knows about the world in general the facts of the specific
situation in which it must act, and its goals are all represented by sentences of
some mathematical logical language. The program decides what to do by inferring
that certain actions are appropriate for achieving its goals.

Pattern Recognition:

When a program makes observations of some kind, it is often programmed

to compare what it sees with a pattern. For example, a vision program may try to
match a predefined pattern of eyes and a nose in a scene in order to find a face.
More complex patterns, e.g. in a natural language text, in a chess position, or in the
history of some event are also studied. These more complex patterns require quite
different methods than do the simple patterns that have been studied the most.

Inference:

From some facts, others can be inferred. Mathematical logical deduction

is adequate for some purposes, but new methods of non-monotonic inference have
been added to logic since the 1970s. The simplest kind of non-monotonic
reasoning is default reasoning in which a conclusion is to be inferred by default,
but the conclusion can be withdrawn if there is evidence to the contrary. For
example, when we hear of a bird, we can infer that it can fly, but this conclusion
can be reversed when we hear that it is a penguin. It is the possibility that a
conclusion may have to be withdrawn that constitutes the non-monotonic character
of the reasoning. Ordinary logical reasoning is monotonic in that the set of
conclusions that can the drawn from a set of premises is a monotonic increasing
function of the premises. Circumscription is another form of non-monotonic
reasoning.

Learning from experience:

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Programs do that. The approaches to AI based on connectionism and

neural nets specialize in that. There is also learning of laws expressed in logic.
Programs can only learn what facts or behaviors their formalisms can represent,
and unfortunately learning systems are almost all based on very limited abilities to
represent information.

Ontology:

Ontology is the study of the kinds of things that exist. In AI, the programs
and sentences deal with various kinds of objects, and we study what these kinds are
and what their basic properties are. Emphasis on ontology begins in the 1990‘s.

Epistemology:

The development of AI has been shaped by a number of important

challenges and questions. Natural language understanding, planning, reasoning in
uncertain situations and machine learning are all typical of those types of problems
that capture some essential aspect of intelligent behavior. More importantly,
intelligent systems operating in each of these domains require knowledge of
purpose, practice and performance in situated and socially embedded contexts. To
accomplish this we must examine the epistemological commitment of a program
that is intended to be ―intelligent‖. In one sentence we can say that Epistemology
is study of the kinds of knowledge that are required for solving problems.

Heuristics:

A heuristic is a way of trying to discover something or an idea embedded in

a program. The term is used variously in AI. Heuristic functions are used in some
approaches to search to measure how far a node in a search tree seems to be from a
goal. Heuristic predicates that compare two nodes in a search tree to see if one is
better than the other, i.e. constitutes an advance toward the goal, and may be more
useful.

AI IN OUR LIVES:
In business:

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➢ Handwriting recognition in millions of PDA`S (Personal Digital Assistant);

speech recognition is widely deployed in business applications.
➢ A team of Robots beat human`s in stimulated financial trading.
➢ Computer Giant IBM `S BOTS made 7% more cash than humans in trading
commodities such as pork bellies and gold.
➢ Banks, brokerages and insurance companies have been relying on various AI
tools for over two decades.

Fraud Detection:

AI is the Key technology in banking systems, Credit card providers,

telephone companies, mortgage lenders and banks employ AI to detect fraud.
NASDAQ stock market monitor will identify potential insider trading and fraud
against investors.

In Medical field:

➢ Breakthrough for Alzheimer`s patients

➢ Alerts and remainders: ECG or Pulse Oximeter
➢ Diagnostic assistance: diagnoses based on the patient‘s data presented to it.
➢ Prescribing decision support systems (PDSS): Drug-drug interactions and
dosage error.
AI Helpmate robot will independently navigate through hospital corridors,
delivering meal trays, paperwork, and supplies. In the absence of doctor; even it
behaves as a doctor in some situations. The robot employs multiple sensors to
safely navigate and work in close proximity to people.

Game Playing:
You can buy machines that can play master level chess for a few hundred
dollars. There is some AI in them, but they play well against people mainly
through brute force computation--looking at hundreds of thousands of positions.

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To beat a world champion by brute force and known reliable heuristics requires
being able to look at 200 million positions per second. It can be best seen through
the animated figures in action battling with brain and brawn. Doom, Duke Nukem,
Grand PRIX, Half life are games that have unique AI features.

Speech Recognition:

In the 1990‘s, computer speech recognition reached a practical level for

limited purposes. Thus United Airlines has replaced its keyboard tree for flight
information by a system using speech recognition of flight numbers and city
names. It is quite convenient. On the other hand, while it is possible to instruct
some computers using speech, most users have gone back to the keyboard and the
mouse as still more convenient.

Understanding Natural Language:

Just getting a sequence of words into a computer is not enough. Parsing

sentences is not enough either. The computer has to be provided with an
understanding of the domain the text is about, and this is presently possible only
for very limited domains.

Computer Vision:

The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to the

human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional. Some useful
programs can work solely in two dimensions, but full computer vision requires
partial three-dimensional information that is not just a set of two-dimensional
views. At present there are only limited ways of representing three-dimensional
information directly, and they are not as good as what humans evidently use.

Artificial Intelligence & Robotics:

Since the 1980‘s artificial intelligence (AI) has been the primary focus of research
activity for information scientists. Artificial intelligence refers to a machine's
capacity to mimic human thought and behavior. Using findings of information
science research, scientists have created Robots with AI that can understand

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spoken language and can make logical decisions. Perhaps the most dramatic
changes in future robots will arise from their increasing ability to reason. The field
of artificial intelligence is moving rapidly from university laboratories to practical
application in industry, and machines are being developed that can perform
cognitive tasks, such as strategic planning and learning from experience.
Increasingly, diagnosis of failures in aircraft or satellites, the management of a
battlefield, or the control of a large factory will be performed by intelligent
computers.

One of the most controversies of AI is that it will open the door to computers that
think faster than the human brain, giving machines a superior edge. As AI, robotics
and nanotechnology combine to relieve humans of doing tasks that machines can
do better, faster and cheaper, some believe we may be paving the way to our own
destruction. Will nations secretly create armies of AI-enhanced, nano-augmented
(think bionic) super soldiers to fight wars? Will politicians opt for AI-
enhancements, Nano-augmentation? Who will it be available to, and are we as a
race headed towards total dependency on machinery to the extent it becomes part
of our biology? If we do not embrace AI-enhancement and nano-augmentation will
intelligent machines ultimately decide we are unnecessary?

An inventor plays a duet with his robotic creation, Wabot-2, at the Tokyo
Exposition. Building this kind of robot is a challenging task because the dexterity
of the human hand is perhaps the most difficult function to recreate mechanically.
Although Wabot-2‘s performance may not be emotional, with an electronic
scanning eye and quality components, the technical accuracy will be extremely
high.

AI! A Boon or a curse……?

There are probably as many opinions about the ultimate goal of artificial
intelligence research as there are AI researchers. The answer to this question has
been controversial for decades within the field of AI research. The ultimate answer

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to our question is that there is no single answer. Each researcher indeed, each
observer of the field of AI research is likely to answer our question differently.
There are those who believe sometimes with great passion that technologists will
one day be able to build a computer with all the cognitive, memory, and emotional
capabilities of the human brain. These people are sometimes called the strong AI
proponents. A few of these strong advocates believe that computers will someday
be more intelligent than human beings. It is common to hear such researchers say
that this is the ultimate frontier of science.
On the other hand, there are other AI researchers who think that research into how
human minds work can be useful in building better computer systems, regardless
of whether we pursue a goal of full machine intelligence. In other words, these
weak AI proponents believe that human cognition and its applicability to
computers is an interesting research field in itself, and a field that may help make
computers easier to use, more useful to people, and better at what computers are
good at doing. The products of this research may not resemble human intelligence.
Some weak AI proponents say that computers are obviously superior to human
beings at some tasks, and it‘s the job of AI research to figure out how to optimize
those capabilities, instead of making computers more like people.

Kasparov Garry Kimovich (man sitting in the left) v/s Deep Blue (AI computer), In
1997 Russian chess master Garry Kasparov lost a highly publicized series of
matches to an IBM computer named Deep Blue. The computer used artificial
intelligence to process 200 million chess moves per second in developing its
strategy. This was the first time that an international grand master of chess had lost
a series to a computer.

AI Future Effects
In the next 10 years technologies in narrow fields such
as speech recognition will continue to improve and
will reach human levels. In 10 years AI will be able to
communicate with humans in unstructured English
using text or voice, navigate (not perfectly) in an
unprepared environment and will have some
rudimentary common sense (and domain-specific
intelligence).
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We will recreate some parts of the human (animal) brain in silicon. The
feasibility of this is demonstrated by tentative hippocampus experiments.
There are two major projects aiming for human brain simulation, Cortex and
IBM Blue Brain.
There will be an increasing number of practical applications based on digitally
recreated aspects human intelligence, such as cognition, perception, rehearsal
learning, or learning by repetitive practice.
Robots take over everyone’s job.
The development of meaningful artificial intelligence will require that
machines acquire some variant of human consciousness. Systems that do not
possess self-awareness and sentience will at best always be very brittle.
Without these uniquely human characteristics, truly useful and powerful
assistants will remain a goal to achieve. To be sure, advances in hardware,
storage, and parallel processing architectures will enable ever greater leaps in
functionality. But these systems will remain mechanistic zombies. Systems
that are able to demonstrate conclusively that they possess self awareness,
language skills, surface, shallow and deep knowledge about the world around
them and their role within it will be needed going forward. However the field
of artificial consciousness remains in its infancy. The early years of the 21st
century should see dramatic strides forward in this area however.
During the early 2010's new services can be foreseen to arise that will utilize
large and very large arrays of processors. These networks of processors will be
available on a lease or purchase basis. They will be architected to form parallel
processing ensembles. They will allow for reconfigurable topologies such as
nearest neighbor based meshes, rings or trees. They will be available via an
Internet or WIFI connection. A user will have access to systems whose power
will rival that of governments in the 1980's or 1990's. Because of the nature of
nearest neighbor topology, higher dimension hypercube, enterprising concerns
will make these systems available using business models comparable to
contracting with an ISP to have web space for a web site. Application specific
ensembles will gain early popularity because they will offer well defined and
understood application software that can be recursively configured onto larger
and larger ensembles. These larger ensembles will allow for increasingly fine
grained computational modeling of real world problem domains. Over time,

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market awareness and sophistication will grow. With this grow will come the
increasing need for more dedicated and specific types of computing
ensembles.
NEED EXPANDING
Timeline:
➢ Invention
➢ first AI laboratory
➢ chess champion
➢ speech recognition
➢ autonomous humanoid robots
➢ Turing test passed (won't happen in our lifetimes, Turing test is flawed)
Don't know what examples are good...

Conclusion

THE CONCLUSION NOW DIRECTLY COMES TO OUR MIND IS THAT; AI IN

COLLABORATION WITH NANOTECHNOLOGY AND ROBOTICS WILL
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CREATE A COMPLEX IMPROVED REVOLUTION IN THE WORLD VERY

SOON ’.

Bibliography

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Books “Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing” By-Ami Konar

“Advances in Applied Artificial intelligences” By-John Fulcher,
Websites www.encarta.msn.com
www.Wikipedia.com
www.answers.yahoo.com

American Association for Artificial Intelligence

AI wiki - for general AI study

Web search Artificial Intelligence

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