evolutionary, cyclical, functional, conflict theories studying the theories give insight into sociology of knowledge and belief timely theories widely accepted I. Evolutionary Theories assumption: societies gradually develop from simple beginnings into even more complex forms simple ----> complex A: unilinear evolution Auguste Comte: development is one recurring line Social change = positive progress colonial expansion & the start of anthropology On The Origin of Species (Charles Darwin, 1859) biological evolution tends toward greater complexity evolution as law (biological & social) Herbert Spencer: Social Darwinism late 19th century until WWI (Europe, U.S.A.) Western societies are better adapted to face the conditions of life o white > nonwhite, rich > poor, powerful > weak EVALUATION: - answers why are some societies more advanced? o flattering, convenient explanation for colonial rule o no concept of cultural relativity - ethnocentrism & white mans burden - problem: 1) describe (what?) explain (why, how?) 2) faulty interpretation of data -R.I.P. 1920s B: multilinear evolution evolution as tendency Steward (1956): change can take place in many different ways Greater social complexity =/= greater human happiness (Gerhard Lenski, 1966; Gerhard Lenski and Jean Lenski, 1978; Morton Fried, 1967; Talcott Parsons, 1966; Service, 1971) II. Cyclical Theories (Colleen)
III. Functionalist Theories
Advantage: statics before dynamics Mills, 1958; Dahrendorf, 1958: too much emphasis on order and stability Emile Durkheim: examined function of institutions (e.g. schools, religion) in maintenance of social order Talcott Parsons: general theory of social order based on functionalist perspective a. Parsons Theory of Social Order Parsons (1937, 1951): society has interdependent parts which help maintain stability of the system cultural patterns are inherently conservative, resist radical changes equilibrium / balance The Social System (1951): focus on statics; only one chapter on social change social change must be introduced into the system changes as dysfunctions popular in 1940s to 1950s major social conflict in late 50s to 60s raised doubts C Wright Mills; Lockwood (1956): is a theory of equilibrium and stability relevant to societies that are in a state of constant change and social conflict? b. Parsons Theory of Social Change Parsons (1961, 1966): change alters, not disturbs; results in new equilibrium 2 sources of change: 1) outside contact with other societies 2) inside adjustments to resolve strains within draws from evolutionary views increased complexity leads to differentiation & integration differentiation: specialization integration: link new institutions (e.g. new norms, bridging institutions) EVALUATION: Too much focus on statics scope does not cover all possible forms of social change institutional changes associated with modernization Robert Merton (1968) and other functionalists conclude that tensions may also cause social change strain, contradiction, and discrepancy between component parts of social structure