Malaysian Studies

Malaysian Studies MPW2133
Table of Contents
1.
Introduction.............................................................................................................3
1.1
History.............................................................................................................3
Cultures of Iban ethnic............................................................................................6

2.1
Traditional Food..............................................................................................6
2.2
Language.........................................................................................................7
2.3
Dance...............................................................................................................7
2.4
Music...............................................................................................................9
2.5
Textiles...........................................................................................................10
2.6
Clothes...........................................................................................................12
2.7
Architecture...................................................................................................12
2.8
Craftworks.....................................................................................................13
Conclusion............................................................................................................15
Works Cited..........................................................................................................17
Appendix...............................................................................................................18
5.1
Food...............................................................................................................18
5.2
Language.......................................................................................................18
5.3
Dances...........................................................................................................19
5.4
Music.............................................................................................................19
5.5
Textiles...........................................................................................................20
5.6
Clothes...........................................................................................................20
5.7
Architectures..................................................................................................21
5.8
Craftworks.....................................................................................................22
1. Introduction
The Iban is one of several proto-Malay ethnic groups living in the East of Malaysia at
the state of Sarawak. They were also known as the scariest headhunters on the island
of Borneo. Nowadays they are no longer headhunters but they practising shifting
agriculture or fishery so that they having a nick name as Sea Dayaks during British
colonial [1]. Until today, majority of them still maintain this subsistence economy.
Moreover, they are the largest communities group in Sarawak and are one of the main
components of people groups in Brunei. They are groups under the Iban cluster, in
addition to the Iban of Sarawak and Brunei, include the Balau, Remun and Sebuyau.
However, all of these Iban people speak different languages which are categorize as a
subgroup in the Malayic-Dayak family of languages.
Traditionally, the Iban lived in longhouses and practice their heritage and
culture. They maintain ties to their ancestral longhouses. Each area has two important
leader which are the tuah burong (religious head) and tuah rumah (village head). The
religious head takes care of all religious activities and event while the village head is
the administrator and custodian of Iban customary law and act as judges in
community conflict religious cases other than re. However, the Iban are a very
democratic and egalitarian people [1].
Todays, most of the Iban still live in longhouses, however their house are
equipped with modern facilities such as electricity and power supply, water supply,
telephone lines and even internet. Younger Ibans are mostly work or study in city or
town and visit their hometowns during the holidays. There are becoming increasingly
modernize but they still practice most of their traditional heritage and culture in order
to prevent their heritage and culture extinct.
1.1 History
The Iban arrived in Sarawak from Indonesia about 1675. After an initial phase of
colonising and settling the river valleys, displacing or absorbing the local populations
of Bukitans and Serus, there began a period of war.
The Iban in Sarawak follow their origins culture of the Kapuas Lake region of
Kalimantan, Indonesia [3]. Because of the growing population, causes pressures on

limited amounts of productive land, the Iban fought members of other tribes
aggressively, practicing headhunting and slavery. Slavery of captives contributed to
the necessity to move into new areas.
There is one of the largest indigenous ethnic groups on the island of Borneo.
More significantly they form the most numerous single ethnic group in Sarawak,
constituting almost one-third of the total population of the state [1]. In fact, unlike any
other indigenous people, the Iban now reside in all seven administrative divisions, a
consequence of their relatively recent migration from the southern parts of Sarawak.
They are thus geographically distributed the state. In addition, the number of Iban
who dwell in the state capital, Kuching, and other provincial towns is gradually
increasing. This situation should be taken into account even when we focus our
attention on the social circumstances under which rural inhabitants in up-river areas
lead their regionally confined lives. Although their daily communications and
transactions are conducted within a narrow local circle, extended networks of kinship
and friendship make those remoter areas and towns somewhat familiar to them. This
combines with the existing custom of bojalai or travelling to widen the experiential
world of the Iban.
The Iban were traditionally shifting agriculturalists, cultivating dry-rice on the
slopes of low, though often steep, and hill along river valleys. The majority of Iban
still maintain this subsistence economy, though it has been modified by the
introduction of cash crops, such as rubber and pepper. Up-river inhabitants rely
heavily for their daily diet on hunting, fishing, and gathering, which are carried out
individually or in groups within, or in the vicinity of their communal territory. Their
majority income basically is spent on clothes, kerosene, salt, sugar, tobacco, and
various utensils. Earnings from seasonal labour migration to Sabah and Brunei-termed bojalai, using a cultural idiom for `travelling' of all kinds-may be a source of
occasional income, though a high proportion of labour migrants return home almost
empty-handed [2]. Trading of jungle products has only marginal significance, except
for the selling of wild boar meat by some communities.
Iban agriculture has been fully studied by Derek Freeman, a New Zealand
anthropologist, for the pioneering area of the Baleh region (now in the Seventh
Division), and by Padoch [1982], for the long-settled area of the upper Batang Ai in

the Second Division [2]. Despite the overall uniformity in technology and land tenure,
there is one crucial difference in land usage between these two historically and
ecologically divergent areas. In the pioneering area Iban cultivators show a marked
propensity towards opening new tracts of field in primary forests, whereas cultivators
in the long-settled area' rotate field sites on a fallow basis. The existence of this
regional difference is noteworthy in two respects. First, the up-river communities
along the Skrang River, with which we are concerned here, share basically the same
land usage pattern with the upper Batang Ai Iban, a pattern which stands in sharp
contrast with the much better-known Baleh Iban practice. In fact, there is virtually no
virgin forest in the Second Division as a whole which is easily accessible to local Iban
inhabitants, and utilization of secondary bush vegetation, at best, should be regarded
as typical of their agricultural method. The second difference is more profoundly
connected with the nature of shifting cultivation in general. The Iban are known in
anthropological literature as one of the most migration-oriented shifting and practising
the most wasteful use of land resources. This popular image of Iban agriculture is
derived from the practice predominant in the pioneering area. In this view, the
preference for opening virgin forest found among pioneer cultivators is regarded as
the cause of Iban expansion.
In the early of the 19th nineteenth century, emigration of Iban from those longsettled areas to the Rejang River Basin and its tributary valleys, and later to areas
further north has been almost incessant. They were well established in the two
divisions, First and Second Divisions. Reacting to the establishment of the Brooke Raj
in Sarawak in 1841, thousands of Ibans emigrated to the middle and upper area of the
Rejang River [2]. The most changes in the past three decades have been waiver of
longhouses and permanent settlement in Sarawaks towns and cities. Iban have started
to live near other ethnic groups with whom they have interacted and the most
important of these societies was the Malays, Chinese and Kayan during the period of
Brooke Raj and British colonialism, Europeans. The chrismatic relations between
Iban and these societies have created slight changes in Iban society and culture.
The traditional religion of the Iban was animism but in recent years most of
them have converted to Christianity and some convert to Islam. However, some of old
Iban are still maintain to their old religious. For the most part, the traditional Iban

religion revolves around the worship of their ancestors the maintenance of cosmic
order through the proper observance of rituals and taboos.
2 Cultures of Iban ethnic

2.1 Traditional Food
The Iban ethnic is one of the native from Sarawak, Borneo and the food has becoming
popular not just among the Iban people but also to the Sarawakians. Their traditional
foods are known as Pansuh food. In other words, Pansuh food means the cooking of
food in a bamboo stem. It is clean and simple. All the foods like meat, chicken,
vegetables, rice, etc. are mixed together with the spices and insert them into the
bamboo stem. Then, the bamboo stems with food inside it are cooked by directly
placed over an open fire. It is a unique way to use bamboo stem to cook the food and
it gives an unexpected effects to the food by releasing a special aroma and texture to
the food [4]. It makes some different when compare to the modern tools such as woks,
frying pan, etc.
Tuak is a type of wine made from rice. It is made by using fermented rice with
yeast and sugar. It is normally used to serve guests. Nowadays, there are various kinds
of tuak, made with rice alternatives such as ginger, sugarcane and corn. Nyibur temuai
is a ceremony to serve drinks to visitors with several rounds such as ai basa (respect
drink), ai aus (thirst quenching drink), ai untong (profit drink) and ai basu kaki (feet
washing drink) [5].
Apart from that, Iban tribe live at the rural areas surrounded by rainforest so it
becomes the natural market for them where they looking for their natural resources
include plants and animals, medicine, raw materials, etc. Midin and pucuk paku are
the most popular ferns that are being used as one of the delicacy. Midin has curly
fronds and after it has been cooked it will become crunchy. Some of the leaves from
trees have the aromatic function to flavour the food [4]. Hinava, Umai, cakar ayam,
midin belacan and pekasam ensabi are the most popular traditional food within the
ethnic.

Basically forests and rives are the place where they sustain their live and
greatly influence the way they live. This could be the reason why the Iban people still
live by the river and forest fringe.
2.2 Language
The Iban language (or known as jaku Iban) is spoken by the Iban. Due to its variety of
ethnic groups, they speak in different dialects. Saribas is the most formal and
intermediate dialect as a medium of communication other than Remuns, Sebuyaus,
Balaus, Rejangs and Ulu Ai. Even though they may speak with different dialects but
they can still understand each other.
The Iban language is written using the Latin alphabet and consists of 26
characters. There are some similarity between Iban and Malay language in term of
wording. For instance, jalai is walk in Iban language while jalan is in Malay language.
Before a sentence or words to be speak out, it must follow the correct grammars
rules. There is no exception for any languages so do Iban language [6]. For example,
Iban
English
Jalai
Walk
Bejalai
Walking
Dijalai
Be walked
Tejalai
Was walked
Table 1.1: Ibans Grammar
2.3 Dance
Iban, they not only know how to hunt, agriculture or fishery, they also talented in
musician and dance. During the main festivals of Hari Gawai Dayak (Harvest
festival), Hari Gawai Kenyalang (Hornbill festival) and Hari Gawai Antu (Festival of
the Dead), the Iban will bring out their traditional instruments to celebrate by playing
music and dancing. Their most unique and famous dance, Ngajat will be dance during
these festival.
According to Iban culture, the Ngajat dance will be perform by warriors when
they successful return from battles [5]. However, this dance is now used to perform to
celebrate their most important festival, or to welcome important guests to visit their
longhouses. Traditionally, this dance is only performed my man, but today woman
also involve in performing the dance. Today, he dance symbolize the ending of

another cycle of padi planting season as well as welcoming the God of Farming to the
feast to celebrate with them and giving thanks for the successful of harvest.
In the dance, the male dancers wear large feathers on his head; hold an ornate
and long shield in their hand [7]. However, the female dancers wear an elaborate
headdress, chains, beads and a dress that length long below their knees with intricate
weaving. Both male and female dancer wear traditional clothing like mesh, gagung
or dress the bird. Gagung is a unique clothes with no sewn up the left and right side
and it is made from animal skin like leather bears. Nagajat can be separated into few
more type, like Ngajat Induk, Ngajat Bebunoh, Ngajat Lesong, Ngajat Semain, Ngajat
Berayah and Ngajat Ngemai Antu Pala [8].
The basic ideal for the dance is imitated the situation when the Iban warriors
fight with enemy. The dancers make slow motion movements, like stalking the enemy.
This is interspersed with dramatic prances as though they are leaping forward to
attack and defence. Moreover, the dance is performed accompanied by the music from
traditional tribal musical instruments including the dumbak or ketebong, enkeromong,
bendai and canang.
The dance Ngajat Semain is performed by young Ibans who have just
completed their Ngajat lessons which taught to them after working hard for the
clearing the forest and burning season [8]. For the young girls, the tempo of this
Ngajat is slow in order for them to displaying the unique design pattern of the freshly
completed Pua Kumbu woven by them during the farming cycle.
On the other
hand, tempo is also slow for the young boy to displaying their aggressive martial
artistic and balancing skills in preparation to enter their adulthood life. This indicates
that they will take more responsibility as adult in the coming farming season. Besides,
this is also a chance for them to show off their unique costumes, headgears, amulets
such as Tumpa Bala, Engkerimok, Simpai as well as their new decorated swords [8].
2.4 Music
Iban music is percussion oriented and its musical heritage consists of various kinds of
agung ensembles. The ensembles comprised by large hanging, suspended, knobbed
gongs and act as drones without the combination of other melodic instrument.
Engkerumings, bendai, tawak and ketebung are the typical Iban agung ensemble.
Each of the instruments plays its own role as shown in the following:
Instrument
Engkerumings
Bendai
Tawak
Ketebung
Description
Played like a xylophone which arranged together side by side
Acts as a snare
Acts as a bass
A single sided drum
Table 1.2: Set of Agung Ensemble
Taboh, the Iban music is played using the four instruments mentioned above.
Each of the instruments is played by a person in synchronized manners; otherwise, it
will break the feeling of harmony of the music. The variety of the taboh is largely
depends on the purpose of Ngajat, the Iban dance.
Apart from that, Sape, an instrument like the flute originated from Orang Ulu
and now is played by Iban ethnic. It is the official musical instrument for the Sarawak.
It is played just the way as the rock guitarists that perform guitar solos but the playing
speed is slower. Normally Sape is used to accompany the traditional dance such as
nganjak lansan, Datun Jalut, etc. [8].
Gendang Rayah is the most important traditional music in Iban ethnic so it is
only allowed to be played during several occasions. The music is played with by
following the sequences where the music from a first bendai gong till the third are
called pampat, kaul and kura respectively. As soon as the three bendai gongs is being
played together, the first tawak gong is beaten and followed by beating another tawak
gong to make the music [9].
In addition, Gendang Rayah is known as the music of the Gods and should be
played during the rituals and religious festivals. It is known as music of the Gods by a
myth; an Iban mythical hero named Keling of Panggau Libau taught his cousins to
play the Gendang Rayah music before he migrated to the spiritual world. He told the

Iban people to play this music whenever they wish to call the people from the spiritual
world to attend the festival held by them (humankind) [9].
2.5 Textiles
Pua textile is one of Ibans famous artworks. It is a kind of traditional cloth weaving
for Iban women. There are many types of pua textile that were made by them, namely
Pua Kumbu and Pua Sungkit. Besides Pua textile, Mariak Empang, Bemban mats and
some colorful craft also the traditional textile for Iban.
Pua Kumbu
Pua Kumbu is a traditional ceremonial cloth made by Iban people living in the Upper
Kapuas river region (Indonesia) and Sarawak (Malaysia).The Pua Kumbu is a unique
hand-woven textile. The word pua means blanket and the word kumbu means wrap
[10].
Pua Kumbu is a textile with a hand-woven on a back-strap loom, represented
the spirit of the Iban culture. It is a woven mythological narrative about the weaver
and her bond with the spirit world. The weaving is considered as a holy work. It is
believed that it can mediate between man and the spirit world when spiritual power is
woven into it with its designs conceived [10]. Although dreams according to their
weaving status and are thus limited in expressions until she is spiritually matured.
Weaving a complete Pua Kumbu will be a great honour for the Ibans woman. A
woman who weaved a spiritually superb Pua Kumbu would achieve a social status
which is equivalent to the achievement of a great warrior in Iban society [10].
Pua Kumbu is normally used during their significant celebrations like Hari
Gawai. On the other hand, the sacred textile is also used for the new born baby, come
of age celebrations or to cover a corpse laid out in a longhouse prior to burial [10].
The complexity of the patterns of Iban textile can represent a womans status
in the community. The more complex the pattern, the higher the status of a woman.
Traditionally, only the wives and daughters of the chief can weave motifs with
humanoid figures or anthropomorphic. Most common patterns woven the them were
animals, plants, natural view or daily activities, from simple drawings to complex and
abstract patterns inspired by the environment and the Ibans rituals and beliefs [10].

Basically, intricate patterns are passed on from mother to daughter. A ladys
matrimonial worth increases as she is talented in weaving, and the best pieces of
woven are given as dowry during betrothal ceremonies [10].
According to the concept of the Pua Kumbu, warp (longitudinal threads) and
the weft (lateral threads), called the weft, are cross together on the back-strap loom.
The general method use for dyeing and weaving the Pua Kumbu is call ikat, or tie-dye
method. The threads are tied and selectively dyed to create wrap patterns, after that it
will be woven with a plain weft to make the patterns looks more fuzzy and indistinct.
Dyes used are made by using roots, bark leaves and other vegetation, often taking
months in the process. Getting the correct tones requires proficient immense skills and
is closely guarded ingredient and recipe among them.
Pua Sungkit
Nowadays, among all Pua textile series, only Pua Sungkit is totally not available in
the market. The reason behind is no any Ibans are willing to go through the tedious
process of its weaving journey that take from few month to a few year to complete its.
In fact, the function of this scarf is exactly the same as Pua Kumbu, but the only
differences between these two are the weaving technique and process during the
making, where Pua Kumbu is much easier to weaving than Pua Sungkit. However
most of the Pua Sungkit is made in small in size due to the difficulties in making
process. It also were made into higher value items such as costume as the featured as
skirt and only be worn by specific dancers of higher status during their ceremony [11].
Mariak Empang
This ornament of art is intricately stringed and is one of the most iconic components
in Iban traditional costume. To show how the unique of Iban Heritages, the bead of
different colours and different shape are perfectly assembled to create patterns and
designs. Marik Empang is actually an elaborate beaded collar worn by Iban girls in
most dances and ceremonies or festival. In additions, it is believed that the Mariak
Empang have been created as a replacement of wearing layers of chunky beads which
were very heavy and uncomfortable to wear during their festival. This evolution took
place around twenty century when foreign traders to the village of Santubong brought
about an influx of smaller and colorful beads. The beaded collar improves richer and
vibrant of the culture of Iban texture [11].

Bemban Mats
The standard Iban mat is made of bemban, a white-flowering reed of the arrowroot
family that grows in swampy places. The Ibans women tend the plants, and allocate
appropriate harvesting rights to the mat-makers. The working material is obtained by
cut the suitable length and then strip off the shiny outer skin from the root.
Bemban is harvested by the Iban women themselves it same as most mat-making
materials, but it only available to harvest during the new moon. Through scientific
approach, the basis for this superstition as the plants contain less sap at this time, so
they will dry better, and be less immunes to fungus and insect attack when they are
stored for long time [11].
Clean mats were place on the floor to welcome visitors. Therefore, most of the Iban
families have a very large mat for the purpose of gatherings and festivals so that they
can sit on the mat. However, most of the mats today are not used for sleeping but for
further processing into a variety of innovative products for sell [12]. So, many young
designers are getting into the act. They transform sheets of finely patterned mat fabric
into bags, briefcases, writing pad and other book covers.
2.6 Clothes
Sirat
There is a forgotten Iban cloth which is called Sirat. Sirat is the loincloths was once of
the most basic markers of cultural identity, is now distinctively ignored among
modern Ibans. The reasons of SIRAT did not attracts any attention of the modern
Ibans is because the purpose of the loincloth only use to cover the male genitals, it
leaves the buttocks bare. Todays people feel it is shame about only part of the
genitals is covered. But it seems to be a peculiarly western trait to feel equal shame
about the buttocks, probably from a fear of homosexuality [10].
2.7 Architecture
There are some differences between Iban people and other races. Iban prefer to live
together with their familys members instead of living separately. Therefore,
longhouse will be the best shelter to them as all familys member are able to live
together. That is the reason why longhouse contains a lot of people. One of the Iban
races called Sea Dayaks, build their longhouses in a period of fifteen to twenty

years, or until the farm land in the surrounding area was exhausted. Then they packed
up their goods and chattels and moved inland, upriver, along the coast, wherever fresh
farm lands looked promising. This kind of sifting activity produce bad impact to the
environment, so this kind of activities is seldom practices by the modern Iban today.
About one-third of all Sarawakians are Iban, some of them live in towns but a large
number of Iban still prefer to live at longhouses [11].
A traditional longhouse is built of axe-hewn timber, tied with creeper fibre,
roofed with leaf thatch. Longhouse has a special feature different with modern house
which is the floor of longhouse is not build on the ground, it is few meters higher than
ground, this is used to prevent attack by animals at that time. Several doorways lead
from the outer to the inner verandah under the roof. This is the village street of the
longhouse; the individual family rooms or doors front the common walkway [11].
2.8
Craftworks
Today, the Iban are renowned for their craftsmanship. Inside the longhouse, it exhibits
ranging from antique brass work, exquisite woven fabrics, carving of tropical
hardwoods, ceramics, rattan weaving and basketry. Curios of a unique Iban style,
culture and craftsmanship can be bought in the souvenir shop and marketplace around
Sarawak, Malaysia.
Ceramics
When think of Sarawak pottery, we are likely to picture the beautiful ceramic vases
created by the Chinese potters who brought over the crafting techniques and
knowledge of their forefathers when they immigrated to Kuching during the British
colonial era. By center of 1800's when immigrant Chinese artisans arrived in
Sarawak, the skillful Chinese pottery makers and ceramic artisans combine both
Chinese and Ibans design themes to build an absolutely unique and vibrant Ibanese
style of pottery. Currently, these white-clay vases painted with Sarawak motifs and
designs are much sought after as decorative and souvenirs items. These designs are
very popular among the local market during that time. Besides that, these designs on
the vase are cut out of the pot when it still damp and then painted in various colours.
However, just like a number of other traditional native handcrafts, the Iban pottery is
struggling to justify its values and relevance in a world when compared to the cheaper
factory-made or mass produced items.

Setawak (big Gong) and bebendai (small gong)
Gong is made by brass in late 18th/early 19th century. The gong surface is decorated
with stylized flowers and animals. Gongs provide the foundation for ceremonial and
entertainment music across Southeast Asia. The Iban have a gong ensemble tradition
comprising different types of gongs, gong chimes, and drums, depending upon the
ensembles
function.
Sumpit
Sumpit is a long blow pipe used during the head-hunting days to kill an enemy. When
blow into the pipe a poison dart (laja) with sharp (ipoh) tip will shoot on enemy.
Terabai
Terabai is type of shield used to protect warrior's body from the attack by an enemy
during the head-hunting days in the past.
Iban Pua series
As discuss on above textile part, Pua is one of Ibans unique artworks. It is normally
produced by Iban women. There are many types of pua like Pua Kumbu and Pua
Sungkit. The status of women is depending on their talent of producing pua.
Burung Kenyalang (the Ceremonial Hornbill carving)
In Iban society, the carving of Burung Kenyalang symbolizes as the God of War, is the
most sacred carving used to commemorate and honor the leaders and warriors in the
Iban community. Burung Kenyalang, or called another name, Hornbill bird is also
Sarawaks official animal which we can clearly see in the state badges. Besides that,
the statues of the hornbills are displayed as centerpiece during the Gawai Kenyalang
ceremonies. In early time, only a proven warriors is allowed to fell the tree to be used
for the carving the hornbill statue while the wood for the hornbill crest can only be cu
by a warriors who has killed a great number of enemies in a single expedition. After it
has been consecrated in the Gawai Kenyalang ceremony, the statue becomes sacred
and respectfully displayed and receive offering in other ceremonies.

3 Conclusion
The Ibans are a branch of the Dayak peoples of Borneo. In Malaysia, majority of
Ibans populations are located in Sarawak, a very small portion in Sabah and some in
west Malaysia too. They were formerly known as Sea Dayaks during the colonial
period of the British [13]. A long time ago, Ibans being a very successful and strong
warring tribe, the Ibans were a much feared tribe but now they were renowned for
practicing headhunting and territorial expansion.
Today, the days of headhunting and piracy are long gone and now the time had
changed to modern era of globalization and technology. Even though they live in
longhouses also known as rumah panjang, still, they are equipped with the modern
facilities such as water supply and electricity and other facilities such as roads,
internet and telephone lines. The Ibans today are becoming increasingly urbanized
and open-minded while on the same time retaining most of their traditional heritage
and culture. Younger Ibans generations are found in urban areas and probabilities visit
their hometowns during the holidays.
Although the majority of the Iban people are Christian plus some of them are
Muslim but still many of them choose to observe both Christian and traditional
ceremonies. In the past, the Ibans were animist. Gawai Dayak festival is the main
festival for the Ibans to worship the Lord Sempulang Gana. Other festivals include the
spirit festival Gawai Antu and the bird festival Gawai Burong. The significant
festivals, Gawai Dayak festival is celebrated every year on the 1st of June which
located at the end of the harvest season. On this day, the Ibans will get together to
celebrate and visiting each other. They will perform the traditional dance, the Ngajat,
accompanied by the taboh and gendang, the Ibans traditional music. They will use the
Pua Kumbu, the Iban traditional cloth to decorate houses and serve the guest with
Tuak, which is a wine originally made of rice.
Despite living on fertile land with adequate rainfall, the food production is
insufficient to meet their requirement. They can no longer rely on the rainforests
resources to survive. Moreover, younger Ibans are becoming qualified professionals
and started migrating to major cities and towns for a better environment and live.

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Ethnological Studies 13.
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http://sarawakfestival.wordpress.com/festival/gawais-day/cuisine/
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Sarawak. Klasik Publishing House: Kuching, 1999.
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bhd, i. s. (n.d.). Ngajat Iban. Retrieved from

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Yeo, J. (n.d.). Music and dancing.
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Joshua, J. (15 June, 2009). Gendang Rayah. Retrieved from

http://jamesjg.com/tag/tawak
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Munan, H. (26 May, 2009). Craft Sarawak- Iban sleeping mats. Retrieved
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[13]
J. D. Freeman, M. J. (n.d.). Iban agriculture: a report on the shifting cultivation

of hill rice by the Iban of Sarawak. Society-IBAN.

5 Appendix
5.1
Food
Figure 5.1a: Pansuh ayam
5.2
Figure 5.1b: Paku
Language
Figure 5.2: Alphabetical and Syllabic Logograms

5.3
Dances
Figure 5.3a: Ngajat (men)
5.4
Music
Figure 5.4a: Engkerumings
5.5
Figure 5.3b: Ngajat (women)
Figure 5.4b: Bendai
Textiles
Figure 5.5a: Pua Kumbu
Figure 5.5b: Pua Kumbu
Figure 5.5c: Mariak Empang
5.6
Clothes
Figure 5.6a: Sirat
Figure 5.6b: Tango

5.7
Architectures
Figure 5.7a: Long house
Figure 5.7b: Interior architecture

5.8
Craftworks
Figure 5.8a: Ceramics
Figure 5.8b: Setawak
Figure 5.8c: Sumpit
Figure 5.8d: Burung Kenyalang

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Cultures of Iban ethnic............................................................................................6