International

Journalof
Fatigue

International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

Fatigue testing under variable amplitude loading

C.M. Sonsino
Fraunhofer-Institute for Structural Durability and System Reliability LBF, Darmstadt, Germany
Received 22 May 2006; received in revised form 7 September 2006; accepted 4 October 2006
Available online 28 November 2006

Abstract
There are many publications about variable amplitude test results. However, very often information on loadtime histories, spectra
and testing details are missing. This fact does not allow the interpretation of test results with regard to fatigue ling and structural durability design. Therefore, this paper aims at presenting how spectra and test conditions should be clearly described and how statistics can
be applied when variable amplitude test results are presented.
2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Variable amplitude loading; Constant amplitude loading; Cumulative damage; Loadtime histories; Multichannel loading; Presentation of
spectrum; Level crossings; Range pairs; Rainow matrix; Safety; Risk

1. Introduction
The major reason for carrying out variable amplitude
loading (VAL) tests is the fact that a prediction of fatigue
life under this complex loading is not possible by any
cumulative damage hypothesis. Therefore, for the purpose
of fatigue ling, experiences must be gained by such tests
which allow to derive real damage sums by comparing
Woehler- and Gassner-lines, Fig. 1.
Applying the because of its simplicity still mostly used
PalmgrenMiner-Rule modied by Haibach [1], the damage content of a spectrum with the size Ls can be
determined
Xn
Dspec
1
N i
and with this value the real damage sum is calculated from
the experimental results:
Dreal

Dspec
 N exp
Ls

A broad investigation on cumulative fatigue [2] displays the

scattering of the real damage sum over almost three decades, Fig. 2. About 90% of all results are below the convenE-mail address: c.m.sonsino@lbf.fraunhofer.de
0142-1123/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2006.10.011

tionally used value D = 1.0, i.e. a fatigue life estimation

with D = 1.0 is in these cases at the unsafe side.
This knowledge justies the need of variable amplitude
testing, necessary on one hand for the investigation of
cumulative damage behaviour of components or structures
and on the other hand for the structural durability proof
[3]. For this, the most important prerequisite, the loadtime
history, must be given [1,4]. The cumulative frequency distribution of load amplitudes or ranges (spectrum) is
derived afterwards from the loadtime history.
Generally, loadtime histories applied in testing are
derived from service loadtime histories, Fig. 3, compiled
to load sequences corresponding to a dened mission,
e.g. wave spectrum for one year, a ight between two destinations or a dened driving distance.
The rst variable amplitude loading spectrum was introduced by Gassner for aeronautical structures, the historical
Eight-Block-Programme Test, Fig. 4 [5]. The reason of the
blocking was that random loading processes could not be
yet simulated by existing simple testing machines at that
time.
In the 1960s due to the access of servo hydraulic testing
machines random processes could be simulated fairly well
and the historical Eight-Block-Programme Test could be
substituted by a more realistic loadtime process, e.g. the
Gaussian random load distribution, Fig. 5.

C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

1081

Nomenclature
C
probability of condence
D
damage sum
F
load
Ls
sequence length
LT, LTR spectrum size, test, test prolonged by risk factor
N, N
number of cycles, constant and variable amplitude loading
Nk
fatigue life at knee point
Ps, Pf, Po probability of survival, failure, occurrence
Rx, Rx load, stress or strain ratio Rx = Xmin/Xmax for
constant and variable amplitude loading
TN, T N fatigue life scatter between Ps = 10% and 90%,
for constant and variable amplitude loading

r, r
stress, constant and variable amplitude
loading

Damagesum of the spectrum:

Stressamplitude a, a

N calc. =
Dreal =

Woehler curve

Cumulative frequency
distribution(spectrum)
a,max

l
m
n
sN
t
D

knee point of the SN curve

strain
amplitude
equivalent
frequency, failure
risk factor
safety factor
slope of the SN curve, slope of the prolongation
longitudinal
mean
number of tests, number of cycles, nominal
standard deviation (sN = 0.39 lg (1/TN))
time
range

ni
= D Spec.
Ni

i=1

rak
e
a
eq
f
jR,C
jN
k, k 0

slope
k

1
2

Ls
Dreal
D spec.
D spec.
Ls

Gassner curve

N1

k (knee point)

N calc .

N2

n1

i = 1: steel,
aluminium

n2

N exper.

n3

k' = 2k - i

N3
4
n4

Nk
Ls

N4

k' = k

i = 2: cast
and sintered
materials

Cycles N, N

Fig. 1. Modication of the SN curve and calculation of fatigue life (schematic).

As loadtime histories depend on the particular application (oshore, aeronautics, railways, automotive,
bridges etc.) and function of the components, in the past
65 years dierent application related standard spectra were
developed, Tables 1 and 2 [6], and are still under development. Thus, this paper will not address the methodologies
for deriving testing spectra, but the principles to be
respected, when tests have to be performed with a given
spectrum.
2. Documentation and presentation of the loading
A testing spectrum is characterized mainly by following
parameters, Fig. 6:
Maximum and minimum values,
load (stress) ratio R of the maximum values,

spectrum (sequence) length (size) Ls and

shape.
These parameters must be documented and presented by
a cut-out of the loadtime history, by the rainow matrix,
by the load ratio R of the maximum load values of the spectrum, the irregularity factor I, and by the conventional
cycle counting methods level crossings and range pairs.
The maximum value of the level crossings counting indicates the level of the maximum spectrum stress with regard
to the yield strength of the material as well as how far the
high-cycle fatigue strength is exceeded. The comparison of
the spectra accounting to both counting methods, level
crossings and range pairs, in term of ranges gives the information about present mean-load (stress) uctuations,
which have an additional damaging inuence [3]; this is displayed if the spectra for both counting methods are not

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C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

Fig. 2. Real damage sum distributions for steel and aluminium.

without mean-load uctuations has to be selected for a fatigue life assessment [3,4], e.g. Dreal = 0.2 versus 0.5 for
welded joints, 0.1 versus 0.3 for not welded components
basing on experiences. However, more research for a damage mechanics founded approach is necessary.
Figs. 7 and 8 present the documentation of two dierent
spectra, one without a mean-load uctuation (narrow
band) and the other one with a large mean-load uctuation
(wide band).
The load history for performing a variable amplitude
test is stored usually as a peak (turning point) sequence,
Fig. 9, and by the appertaining rainow matrix. (In the
past also the Markovian matrix was used.)
Generally, a spectrum does not contain the information
about the loading frequency. Often, the testing frequency
depends on the interaction between the testing machine
and the stiness of the test object, as well as on the electronical control possibilities of the frequency. However,
for variable amplitude tests of dynamic (swinging) as well
as non-linear systems, e.g. mass-damper-systems, where
the frequency content is required, the storage of the
loadtime history has to contain also the information

Fig. 3. Dierent loadtime histories.

identical. If in term of cycles or cumulative frequency the

ratio of 1:3 between the two counting methods is exceeded,
a much lower real damage sum Dreal than for a spectrum
a. Load sequence

b. Cumulative frequency distribution

Max. stress in individual steps

1.0

max

min

8.

7.

6.

5.

70000

23000

5000

7.

302500

6.

70000

4
70

5.
5000

4.

23000

2. 3.

680

3. 2.
70

1.
4.
680

Stress

(lin)

Mean stress
(is constant for all steps)

Step

4.

-1.0

Min. stress in individual steps

Sequence length Ls = 5 105 cycles

N (log)

Number of cycles

R=

min /

max

Fig. 4. Ernst Gassners Eight-Block-Programme sequence.

Ls = 5 105

C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

1083

Fig. 5. Gaussian load spectrum.

Table 1
Overview of existing uniaxial variable amplitude loading standards
Name

Purpose

Structural detail

Year

Eight-Block
Programme
Twist
Gaussian
Falsta
MiniTwist
Helix, Felix
Helix/32, Felix/28
Cold turbistan
Wisper
Wash I
Wawesta
Carlos

General purpose, block-wise variable amplitude

loading
Transport aircraft wing
General purpose random sequence
Fighter aircraft
Shortened version
Helicopters, hinged and xed rotors
Shortened versions
Tactical aircraft engine discs
Wind turbines
Oshore structures
Teel mill drive
Car loading standard Sequence (uniaxial)

Components of transportation vehicles, heavy machinery

components, etc.
Wing root bending moment
Narrow-band, medium-band, wide-band random
Wing root
As above
Blade bending
As above
Bore
Blade out-of-plane bending
Structural members of oil platforms
Drive train components
Vertical, lateral, longitudinal forces on front suspension parts

1939
1973
1974
1975
1979
1984
1984
1985
1988
1989
1990
1990

Table 2
Overview of existing multi-channel variable amplitude loading standards
Name

Purpose

Structural detail

Year

Eurocycle I
Eurocycle II
Ensta
Hot turbistan

passenger car wheels

truck wheels
Alsta + temperature
Tactical aircraft engine discs Cold
turbistan + temperature
Car loading standard (multiaxial)
Car power train (manual shift)
torques + speeds + gear pos.
Car power train (autom. shift)
torques + speeds + gear pos.
Car trailer coupling (multiaxial)

Vertical and lateral loads wheels, wheel/hub/bearing units

Vertical and lateral loads wheels, wheel/hub/bearing units
Wing root
Rim (hot section)

1981
1983
1987
1989

4-Channel load components for front suspension parts

Power train components, e.g. clutch, gear-wheels, shafts,
bearings, and universal joints
Ower train components e.g. gear-wheels, shafts, bearings,
and universal joints
Trailer coupling device and vehicle supporting structure

1994
1997

Carlos multi
Carlos PTM
Carlos PTA
CarloS TC

about the frequency spectrum, e.g. the power spectral density (PSD) [4], Fig. 10.
The sequence length Ls of a test spectrum may be a
value obtained after an omission of small, as non-damaging assumed amplitudes. However, in case of an omission
it must be noted that the obtained test cycles to failure correspond to service cycles to failure given by
N service N test 

Ls;before omission
Ls

3. Performance of variable amplitude loading tests

Variable amplitude loading (VAL) tests are principally
carried out like constant amplitude loading tests (CAL)

2002
2003

on dierent load levels, Fig. 11. The only dierence is that

in case of VAL a given sequence must be continuously
repeated until a failure is obtained, while under CAL the
amplitude (or range) remains unchanged. For a valid
VAL test, the sequence must be repeated at least 510 times
in order to achieve a service-like load mixing [7]. There are
dierent failure criteria which must be dened according to
the particular application: a crack with a dened depth, a
dened decrease of stiness, a total rupture etc.
The dierence between the load levels is only a linear
amplication of the amplitudes (or ranges) of the spectrum;
shape and length Ls of the spectrum remain independent of
the load level.
As long as the frequency does not aect the fatigue life,
or particular attention of the frequency content is not

C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

Load or (stress) amplitupe (linear)

1084

Preload (prestress) Fp(p) and load (stress)

values Fmax (max ) and Fmin (min ) from
which the maximum load (stress) amplitude
Fa (a ) and the load(stress) ratio
R = Fmin / Fmax = min / max are derived

F ( )
a a

Amplitude distribution (shape)

R, Po

Spectrum size Ls
(total number of cycles N),
probability of occurance Po

Cycles N (log)

Ls

Fig. 6. Main parameters of a spectrum.

Fig. 7. Gaussian spectrum with constant mean load.

Fig. 8. Truck spectrum with uctuating mean load.

required, the frequency can be increased for shortening the

testing time. However, depending on the interaction
between the testing machine and the stiness of the specimen, the overall testing frequency can be limited. In such
cases, especially low load amplitudes can be accelerated

by an amplitude and frequency adaptive control, Fig. 12

[8].
During the testing, control and real signals must be
compared and registered with regard to turning points,
amplitude distribution, rainow matrix and if required

C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

1085

For the durability proof of components or structures

tests are carried out usually only on the serviceload level.
4. Statistics and required amount of tests
The statistics applied to VAL tests is principally the
same as the statistics applied to CAL tests [1,4,10,11].
The mostly assumed distribution type is the Gaussian
Log-Normal-Distribution, but other distributions, e.g.
according to Student [10] or Weibull [12,13] can be applied,
too, for dening the course of the Gassner curve with the
probability of survival Ps = 50% and the scatter band with
Ps = 10% and 90% or 2.5% and 97.5%. (Within Ps = 10%
and 90% the type of distribution does not inuence the
position of the curves signicantly, but an extrapolation
to much lower or higher probabilities results signicant differences [13].)
As VAL tests are more complicated and often more time
consuming than CAL tests, at least two levels with each
ve tests or three levels with each three tests can be considered to be sucient, to determine the slope k, the scatter T
and the standard deviation s:

Fig. 9. Cut-out of a peak (turning point) sequence from a load time

history.

the power spectral density. In case of multichannel VAL,

especially of dynamic or/and of non-linear systems, e.g.
automotive suspensions or car body structures, also the
time order and the phase dierences between the particular
channels must be controlled, Fig. 13 [9].

Fig. 10. Power spectral density and joint density distribution.

Repeated constant
amplit udes

2.0

+1.0
+0.5

1.0

0
-0.5

amplitude

Amplit ude a/ a,max(normalized) (log)

Constantamplitude loading-Woehler curve-

Variable amplitude loading

-Gassner curve -

Rectangular
spectrum

k
0

+1.0

N1

+0.5

-0.5
-1.0

+0.5
0

Ls

-1.0

0.5

Repeated sequence
(linear amplitude
distribution)

Repeated loadtime history

+0.5

N2

Ls

t
0

-0.5

-0.5

N 1 = x Ls

N 2 = y Ls

Ls : sequence lengt h

0.2

x, y : number of
repetit ions

0.1
N1

N2

N1

N2

Cycles to failure

Fig. 11. Principles of constant and variable amplitude loading tests.

Nf , N f (log)

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C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

For the durability proof of big structures the amount of

test objects is very restricted; in the worst case an assessment may be required by only one test. In such cases the
risk given by a few amount of tests must be covered by statistics; the mean value of fatigue lives obtained by few tests
must be reduced by the risk factor jR, C to obtain the real
mean value [1]:

f = const.

F
0

t1

t2
t

F
0

t
f2 > f
Fig. 12. Acceleration of tests by frequency adaptation.

lgN 2 =N 1
lgD
r1 =D
r2
xP s 10%
Tx 1 :
xP s 90%

a ; D
r or N
xr
1
1
lg
sx
2:56 T x

4
5

N mean;tests
jR;C

 1=p
4n
1

TN

N P s 50%

jR;C

while n is the amount of tests performed and TN is the scatter which would be obtained for a high amount of tests (basic population); it is not the scatter resulting from few tests.
It can be estimated by testing experiences with a larger
number of specimens manufactured in a comparable way.
The risk factor in Eq. (8) is valid for a probability of condence Pc = 90%.
To calculate a fatigue life for an allowable probability of
survival Ps > 50%, the real mean value must be reduced
by the safety factor jN [1,14]:
N P s >50%

6
7

In Fig. 14 Woehler- and Gassner-curves are displayed

with their mean values (Ps = 50%), the appertaining scatter
bands between Ps = 10% and 90% and the particular slopes
k.


jN

N P s 50%
jN
"


1
exp
TN

10
2:36

p
jlg1  P s j
1
2:56

#
11

In case of few testing objects, the durability proof can also

be conducted on such a way that the spectrum for the required life cycle (the spectrum can be composed by a high
amount of repeated sequences, e.g. for 25 years life of an

Fig. 13. Documentation example of a multichannel variable amplitude loading.

C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

1087

Fig. 14. Woehler- and Gassner-curves of a laserbeam welded hat prole.

oshore rig 25 repetitions of the 1 years sequence) has to be

repeated according to the risk factor [15,16], Fig. 15. If a
failure is not caused, the durability is proved.
5. Documentation and presentation of test results
As mentioned before, test results must be documented in
following way:
 Description of the spectrum by its rainow matrix,
sequence length, visualization by level crossings and
range pairs counting; for dynamic or/and non-linear
behaving test objects additionally the power spectral
density.
 Storage of the peak (turning point) sequence.
 Tabulation of applied maximum load levels of the
sequence (all other amplitudes or ranges are related linearly to the maximum value) and the number of cycles
to failure or the number of repetitions of the spectrum.
 Denition of the failure criterion, e.g. crack, break
through, total failure, and stiness loss.

 Testing frequency.
 Environmental conditions, e.g. temperature, corrosion.
For the graphical presentation of the test results in the
double-logarithmic plot the maximum load (stress) of the
spectrum versus the number of cycles to failure should be
preferred [35,17,18]. This is justied by following arguments which are important for the design of structures:
 Distance between the maximum spectrum stress and the
structural yield strength can be evaluated. However, this
requires the determination of the local stress in the critical area of the component.
 Exceedance of the Woehler-curve can be evaluated with
regard to exploitable light-weight design potential in
dependency of the spectrum applied [3], Fig. 16.
In case of a spectrum with a Gaussian distribution of the
amplitudes for achieving a fatigue life of e.g. N 1  108
cycles the constant amplitude high-cycle fatigue strength
can be exceeded by a factor of 1.50, in case of a straight line

Fig. 15. Testing requirement for covering the risk of a low number of determining fatigue life with few tests.

1088

C.M. Sonsino / International Journal of Fatigue 29 (2007) 10801089

Fig. 16. Inuence of spectrum shape on fatigue life and component dimensions.

distribution even more, 1.90. Light-weight design can be

performed by allowing higher-stresses in the structure
and thus reaching the required fatigue life: compared to
constant amplitude design of a steering rod with a diameter
of d = 22 mm, by considering the spectrum shape a diameter of d = 18 mm for a Gaussian distribution, and
d = 16 mm for a straight-line distribution is obtained. This
diameter reduction renders a weight decrease of 50%.
In some design codes or recommendations [19,20] the
calculation of an equivalent stress or load of the spectrum
is suggested:
v
u h
u
X ni Drki
k
Dreq t
12
Ls
1

 Description of the load spectrum (maximum values,

shape, sequence length) and documentation by storage
of the peak (turning point) sequences as well as by the
rainow matrix; in case of systems with dynamic
response or/and non-linear testing objects additionally
the power spectral density (frequency content).
 Denition of the failure criterion (crack length, total
failure, stiness loss, etc.).
 Description of the experimental devices and conditions
(frequency, environment).
 Presentation of the maximum spectrum loads versus
cycles to failure or/and number of repetitions of the
sequence length in a double-logarithmic plot as well as
in a table.

This kind of presentation for comparing the VAL

results with the CAL results assumes on one hand a damage sum of D = 1.0 which is mostly on the unsafe side,
Fig. 2, [17,18] and on the other hand it does not allow to
recognize at one glance the light-weight design potential
(exceedance of the Woehler-curve) as well as the risk of global plastication (distance of the maximum value of the
spectrum from the yield strength). The equation assumes
also the same slope for the Woehler- and Gassner-curves,
which is seldom the case.

In comparison to an already existing ISO-draft [23], this

paper gives more information, especially on testing details
and presentation of results.

6. Summary
The lack in fatigue life assessment despite more then 70
cumulative damage hypothesis [21] necessitates experimentally based knowledge for the design practice [22]. However, as the performance of variable amplitude fatigue
tests are not as simple as constant amplitude tests, a guidance on the particular testing principles, the documentation
of testing details and results and nally the presentation of
the results is needed.
The major points to be respected in variable amplitude
loading (VAL) tests are:

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