l,, ir.r.!

Jl
lPr

otr].np/r?1') ..tD

.a.nrt.prtiturrq/),llr.r.,, )t) !or1 !sD) at4 stD1.1?!t)ut )!J11.ry.,.)/

-)n .tu,xtu ]D ,p)rs nnu rjtt stDDtu 4a. p til p.lDLr.dD ).h1DD.!r

xe-lun ruo+ Surlln scj se.mliDtl o] plr-rrjuoa

sr

',(luo
spsol.lrsual
arif ,r/rAi

lrldBqo lucsJld eq] ut apulu suorssn isrp

'rotalurl: tuisard cqt m

lrDtop iloru rII tpap sl q.tq^\, uottDBL)do!d :pu) pue uo4naLloI
1r?r.rr sdels o^\t sa^[o^ur ssrtrord aq];alntrlrlJJo ocl,{} cql.q,{LLr lr^eos}eq^\ i.[ernill uj
uroqs sr rr4 rr.y'all.r-lq ro ;*a.n1plltf tlu ) p.r.tltra {q p.zrr.}.etrqr ,{IrEru ors siru.r,.{ 3s.1rll
'alnlcljl JnirtpJ .e.ottarJl I erq s (olnl:r!.rj e,'\r ssorduroj ,aJnlau J Jli suJi
:410,'r\ol J -ala e'I]rlJn4 daala

sE polruileq.{eLLl cln:toe.{'(ssalts) ptolJo.d,(t.qt uo.ourpuadrcl .slEu.}r! iqt

Jo lutod Burt lclu
iql ,{\oleq scrnl8jrdroal lN 'ssejls psrlddlr uB ol asuodss r ur sJaatd alo!u lo o.r.u olur psltxrllJs sl
lrluclBrlr5rpurat:rq,{\'3.tnllp,J.Jouuo.+sepsqrrrs:t\pcqop.otnlrtllltrrjojlssldlrljsslruJ.rr_rll,]r.4-

$ tuuoaurtuc

pue oiuerJs sllrrjale!!lJo plJr+

c!t ur slcloruoa {al pue l!rcuocirur

lsalnr oql lL, eu( )

sunJlv'uJ
por{lBun ilesoia erour.glltr\

ded.!

7'c_

(",
t6
'po
p0

eql

pug )it31tD:/

'ar11por.4'^^ 'xrilrpJJt\ siporu tur.r].lodltlr lelql cql :a]drrlr tu.sird er0 ul .sltrnpord pun s
leLr:rtulu
alqBpued.f oroul pue la]?s doF^ep ot lsour8u:r slru.ttru cq] sdJerl slq.l, sltu.]lruJo etn[rl
n qSno.rotlt I eq ol srq oratll .[Boi slq] a^rjrplr ot rop.ro ul .elntnJ .ql ur srrnLrsJ
(arnID.l

.lo

.rl

Smpultsrip

uns ]ua^erd o] se os
erllJo osnea looj eql lucls.rcpunol st srs,{luui? elnJrp,J e.lo lm3 eqJ
slLI lu.oodrlroc .rJ),{q,41 puB,r!\oq euruuolJp ol q.roldcl8 Sutjolrn8ue uu sr srs,{1euc ernIu4

-pellr?J

u I sn pu1 a ) D d s o,D D e\l sJAIor\u stsiltuu cJnJip,J

to uortlarlclclD e$Jo sclduex? alqrsr^ tsotrl aql.Jo cuo .drnlrnjls .ro luouoduro3 .c.r^ap cq}.+o
:rauBuuoJrcd rqlo^oldlur ol.ro/p!o .JJuernaao arnllu lua orcl ol nI?,JJo osrur oll ar lt rlllclcp nIrI
ls
5uo'esDa,{uij ul cle'SulsscJojd uotlcnpold Su np to b-uunlrqnuBllr ruo.g fiutllnsil
JelletrurJql
ut t.ajep Ipus e uc^o ro 'uorlsl:do Su nppr^lo ur sesscls q8rqro.csn Suolor(l str o]anpeq,{nlu
pualltu orllJo olnlreJ oql uoDrunj ui^ri str uuoJjcd ol,{e,r aluos rn
sFuellrtll
ln1
[sluruoduoc)
3s3ql'csn po8uolordlotJV uo os pue lsJlntrxedurit palp^clo lEro semlel.dtrl.t
uL,4ruru
ol )pettterE eltos:scssetlsJo sed,{1Jar0o.Jo uoqnuqluor p Jo.sosscl}s }Jpduu .lo .sa^\ollD
ssa4s aqls ol
pilJr lqns oJe auos slue!uuolrr\uo ltlori llrp uI uollour! suotlra
Iclde ilntoaurBu: ur pasn s1ur.re1e11

(r)

'

(t)

(z

NOI.LJNOOUJNI

dsf8J

ry

(r)

I''

ancrrvc'aunrJvud

(
u

llun

Matenal Science and MetallutgY

88

'-u
Fractured

+
(a) Hiqhly ductile fracture in

n
I

b) Moderately ductile f racture

which

Fracture, Fi
Stage

Cr

Thc srnallcl
matcrial

iI1 a

to note that

..1

the specimen lsofr mtals lile

Pb. Au, etc I necl s down to a Pornr
in atea
showrnq vrtuallv lO006 'eduction

Figure

3.3

3'

Dttctile and brittle fiactute

TY}ESOFFRACIURE

fracture' two fracturc

undergo plastic deformation before
Depending on the abiliiy ofa material to
modes can be dcfined. TheY are:
iiacture)
Moderately ductile fiacture (oup and core

.
.

4l

Brittle liacture

Ductile Fracture

3.3.1

tnaductilefracture,thcmaterialabsorbslargequrntitiesUfcnergybefoJefaiLure'lnothtrwolds.
bcfore failurc The \driousstages
i;"';r"nald;;;;"i".lu.g" urnoontt of itu''rc dcfonnltion
in fi gurc I 2 a1d e\pla'ned a' iouows:
rnvoh ed m a ductile lracrure l' illusl rdled
Stage

When

Neck formation or Necking

ductile

;J;;;ililtt""'
,r""

up to a limiling stress ' and lurther

aterial is loadcd ;n tension, it bchaves elastically
the cross-settional
plastic deformation occurs As the stress is incrcascd'
produced as showfl h figure J 2 (a)
a*.eirscs rapiclly, and a neckecl region is

"iti.J-"L.i"r

Stage

CaYity formation (Micro-cracks)

Voids or
are formcd as shown in figurc 32 (bJ
Within the neck region, small cavitics or voids
pafticles of imr"urilies or othcr
.""nJ, ,r"""r"p ai a iesult of the shess. which causes srncll
or 5epalJle lrom 'ne meralrlli-rr rrr '
di\conlinutlics ln Ihe malendl to either li?rl'lre

Stage

Cn

'fhe crack thu

whichis appr
Sfage

Fra

The fnal shir

con.shapeor

'arry)D.tf alt oc puD dl1c'rlxeu eql eoueq 5a"Jns 3Jnlap.g trurauuoa lue:)elpe eql uo edeqs aro,
e pue 'oaejrns porUaD.LI ouo uo edlqs ad.{l d,r, E soanpord uomraods oqlJo SuuDoqs puU eqJ

arnl'erd s

o8als

'(p)Z ernfr$ releu sixl] sso,qs afsuol aql ol ogt te trloteunxordde sr rJcq^\
'uoqce.{ptur Suueoqs,{q leuolelu 6qllo oce.ilns oq} ()1 sc}6?dold,{tEu!} 'pcnuo.} snqt lcprJ oqJ
uoFa8edo.rd

oml.e{ ol!.np

ur

IrerJ t

e8els

s.3e1s z't erntlJ

uoQe0Edord I5er3 (p)

"t

).erc

urot

o1

raqraool )ult salrr^e3 (.)

uoDeurroJ

Ilr^P3

(q)

"t

"{

poseercur sr ssrls PaIddB aqt sselun uo$uelxo Jeqlnj slsrscl :olqets surgrucl 1.er3 eqt ]eql elou 01
}llzuodlm $ tI (c)Z g ern8U $lou sscls elrsu4 porldde eqt ot sol8u 3u t? uorperp ! ur luelillr
oql ssorce spolds qcrq,r ')cDr. IDuletul ue turoJ ot reqlaSol {ull rFql spro^ -ro sar}^b IIeLus orll

uolteuuol

]lrurl t

eSuN

daar3 E nOtlej'arnlcerl

68

Material Science and I\/etallurgY

90

Refer figure 3.2 (c). lt is clcar fiom figure J 2 (e) that, the central intenor region olthe cup and
cone suJacc has zur irregular and fibrous appearancc, which is the indication ofp lastic deformation.
Figure 3.3 (a) shows the photograph ol'the cup and cone fracture

(a) Photograph ofcup and cone

(ductile) fracture

TI

(b) Pholograph of brittle

fracture

'

Figure

3.3

Photographs ofductile and brittle liacture

3.3.2 Brittle Fracture

a brittle liacture. the small cavjtics or voids join together to lonn a crack that spreads very
rapir.lly rvlth little oI no plastic deformation. The cracks usuallytr?velso fasl. that it is diIlidrlr to lell
rvhen the matenalis aboutto blcak. l he ctack propagates through ihe material to cause fracture'

ln

brittlc lrachlre, the direction o1'cmck motion is very ncarly perpend icu lar to lhc applied tensile
strcss. This pcrpendicular Iiacture lcaves a relatively flal surfbce al the Lrrcak as shown il figure
3.4 (a). Figurc 3.4 (lr) s hows the pssibleforu ot'brittle tensile fracture in metals.
ln brittlc fiacture, the broken pads ofthe materialcan hc assembled togedier lo get the unbroken
shapc ancl size. Figure3.3 (b) shows thc photograph ofthe britile fracture. Brittle fracnrre is tbc

In

mainmode offailurc lbrcold metals, glass and ceramics

=a
orntcr{ eplr8
,t

::

E
E

=
=
=

s/ oluinc t f slqeJ
'aaurtedde snorqg

qlootus
'3uru.te.^\ {ue
lnoqtr,{\,{lpcqdorlsetm pu
,{lprd!-l,{16^ snrao ainlcurrl

pu? ft]n33!r ue seLI cle.I-rns

auoa pue dn3 eql Jo uorSej
louolur Irlluaa oqJ qSnol

'ernlcs{

ecelns
polnlcerl

'/,

elo.}eq

uorle8uolo lucuedrod s,roqs

6ulurPy'A

'9

'5Jn1a3{

XSrcuc

'ornlar.g elrlsnp esnec o]

pepoou s! xSrauo urcl}s ejol^l

r]crDdLUoJ

FurlJ:N

c|lonp ur sceld so)el SuqaoN

'ec?ld se)pt Buqcru oN

'rJ,\1ol

{[J

=
==
.-=

'poleqlur are .{3qt e.uo

,{lprder fte^ sperds lcerJ
'0n1r?.4 oloJeq

=
-=-

=
=

'parldde sr ssajls peseejcur

uB ssclun puolYe lou ,{Jlensn
Ilr,$ pue 'll,{{ols se^our IserJ
-arnpe{ erojcq uorltuuoJop

slunouP
uoteulroJ.p cuseld ou lo arlsld Jo
elurl
sl!qo]?u olt:]lrg egrel ,\\oqs slstclu elnan(l

^\olls
'erntae{

elDr-rq oSrepun

' c16 'scrLuloc 'ssel8 'sJ4etll

crnlcr{ ollanp o3]opun (plo.

ool lou eJP 13ql slr]lcur lsolu

plo. reqlo pue uon lsu] pu? 'Plo; 'umurLunlr

ernlrE4 eIDIrg

'I

elqu1lI ruroJ uosrnduroa

\e01s

(ernlrBJt euor pus dnr)

crnlJE4 0l$rn(J
e ur uc^r8 olD

Jo

urcl]S
uorleSedord

IlerJ

's

.,

't

uorleuuoJep

.rlseld

slr?ualeu

lo od-{f

I
'oN

uolldlriso(J

'ts

olnpe{l alluq pu! alnanp.lo sarlsuola!&qc oqI

ETINJJYUd S'IJJrug
.rnr)c,j Jllluq

suuoj JLqissod

t'I

T S'IILJNO

t'E

Jrn8r:l

(e)

=z

-E

il

E
=
E

=E

E
E

daar] E an6rlel 'arnloerl

L6

Material Science and MetallurgY

92

3.5

DUC'|TLE-TO-BRITTLE TRANSITION

to stress Manymatcrials'
The temperature ofa materialcal] affectiis behaviour when subjected
and vice-versa Fol
*hich u.e du.tite ut trigh ten)perattlrijs, bccomo brittlc at low tenperatures
but
tlftuve as a ductile malerial (fi act$e is ductile in nature) above' say 0oC'
u .t""f

-uy
"*"-pi",
l.f"r^iifri, t"-p"t*.",
,fr" au.iil" a
i. ii.".ii"

Tn otller words'
'rer (fraiiture is brittle in nalure)
This trarrsition
has hken place at a particular rango oftempetatures
,i" tcmperature deiendency of thc impact encrgy absorbed during the impact
a "rr.tltior
S The reason fbrtlris transiiion is tlat' athighertemperatures' the atoms in the

it behaves in a brittle

ma

t;nf.

J*a
i." ii.i".itgtt":

,"""tJiuU."**i*g-aterfreqLrencyandamplitude'lhisincreasedvjbmtionallowslheaioms
olhel
places in the materiil (i e , break bords ard fonn new ones with
i" .f;p t"
plarlic
"rJ.r.ti"t,
i.,ft" -""a"l "ewThis slippage ofatoms is seefl on the outsidc ofthe material as
decrcases'
tempdatrre
"ii-,
iir,ii^.rit" o r.r'^on feanrre ofductile fracturc However' whenthe

noi wani
."".ta"
,n
nf"*, where thc atorns due to dccreascd vibrirtion do
efough'
high
"O*-ut",iut So, when the stress on the matcrial becomes
iolutlo* irt rtt"

to slip io new

the atomsjust

in slippage causes /?o /lastic

b;;ak theif bonds, but do not form new ones. This decrcase
in
little plastic deformation bcfore fiactdre Thus thc matcrialh'ha.i:s
;;;;r;;;r, ;;;-".
a

brittlc mannel at low lemperatures

TI
fb

de

ml

C(

Ier

(n

Figure

3.5

Ductile-io-Brillletransition

HC?
having BCC
Ductile to brittle tansition or vice-versa' is comnonly observcd in metals
'nd
and copper based alloys etc.)
sttucture. but is al,nost missing h mosi ofthe FCC netals (alurniiLrin
range ofiempcratures that
wide
It is imp;rtant to note that, \;th most materials there is a lairly
p:"di:]t't)
supportductileto-brifJe transition (vice-versa) Herrce rt is imf o:siblc lo
asiire tm,rsition ternperature. F igure 3 6 show s ! Frp h thilt detennine
through an irnpact test fbr a 1018 hoi rolled steel

sd

uctilc

:":.:'ll"l"y:
tmns ltron

o- h r rtlLe

eueluc sqUUuDJo srslFue roj

I.el'

pclldrllaqr^\

oleld

l'' e.rnBld

uo
o.r

Icer. a6p. llrrM 6leld

le

(.

le.rrd!tl

'(sseDlcrql 8tnlcelSeu)

qfuet

srul lo ounto^ elPurlxo.rdde eql , aln8gjEoU 'o1'J2llrl e10 le O =

e $plsuoJ
ouo3i-17 atr.lJo )JErr IpJqalIllo erIJ e qr.tl ssetqor$ olq8rl3e Jo 6pld

,1rl $ )cerc

:!"*",.ip"

o:il*"i;

.4grouo Bureprsuoc {q o,n]eu lecqdrrle .*Jo {.s," eJo uoqessdold .}o ^"^"uto "u'
pflelnolloJ
sldocuoc,{8ieuo ders allsele Susn srnpal elluq 3:o '4toeql u'{{o srq

,ftoeql

srH

oq,r q1gu5 .tq peurelOxe ueaq stq Fuolul olllrq

tr{nIJYUd g'IJJlu{
Ioels uoq$c

e uI

lcsl'

UOJI

ueld I I0I loJ o^rn. oml"ldLlral

Sulsrxe erd ejo uoqeSedord eq1

,fUOSHI

S'HIII'iIIdJ 9't

uolllsus{ 9'taJn8rd
tll

{lo) arnreradu6l

atz aoz 08

?g

0t

IsN

v4

la
nu

ep

(r) poqrosqP iorsua

':e
m

P
rnq
s{
\E
',\ler^Jo ltnod ufisop eql ulog sno$3up e]lnb sI

(es5^+cn)

uoqlsu?'u eluPq-ol-olllcnC

deeJ3

a'oN

an6r]l 'orn]reJl

16

Material Science and tuletallurgy

At the initial stages of loading, i.e-, bcfore the formation ofcrack, strain energy is stored in the
material due to the applied stress- When the stress is increased, cmckresults from smallcavities
or voids, and when this crack begins to propagate, the elelstic shain energry stored in the material is
releasd. In other wolds, the surface area ofthe propagating crack increases resulting in decrease

in lhe elastic str4in energr

fUJ

stored in thc rnatcrial.

lfthe elastic suface energy per unit area ofthe material is

gained by the creation oftwo crack surfaces* is given by

'y. then the lold I

slrJdce enetg) (U")

U":yx2xSufacearea
: y.\ 2x (2Cx t)

U":4C\.

-----(1)

The maglitude of strain oncrgy released per unit volume for propagating a crack is given by:

u,: ]("c')
where o =
-E =
C=

applied tensile stress

Youngs modulLrs ofelasticity

One halfthe lcngth ofan intemal crack

(Negative sign indicates release (decrease) ofsbain enerry).

.. Net energy

= U=U"+Ue

-----(l)

Substitutine equation (1) and (2) in (3),

, = to.r.l.[*("..)]
u=

+cy, lfuc')

-----(4)

According to Grillilh criteiia, a cmck propagates under a constant applied s1r'ess (o), ifan incremcntal
increase in the crack length produces no change in thc total energy oI the system, i.e., the increased
surlace energy is compensated by a dccrease in elastic strain encrgy.

i.e.,

,f

dU

_ll+cy.
i(nc,)l
4LL
t1
|

Prcpaeation af a crack resuks in he ctedtion ofnew uack suiac4. Ne\| fiee

the f.lces of the .:rut:k, #ich oloe.des the $tface eneryy al lie sysknt.

suihcer are cteated al

'.!2rr7,? s

td4tnu rrrr ,r//ts r trt .tl

3u1PDo I

oi

s.12.1>.1

3u

tplot )t l){} )o

s'!!r

1,^

)1t)1,) *

'pos.re^er 0q

plno,r lurod e uo sssrls 3q1 re e,\\ eurs .r$.'o ess. cql ur

'rAo ue rn oq ppo,lr oia,(c sser}sJo eallt srqgo eldurexe

sD

pouodJlq ro tunlJleq {F^o Lneraq,\..

orez sr ('b) ssers eSr;rele rtl Lrs3Lu

rV

or0 pu 'sserls umtulrctll eqt ot pnbe sr ('o) epnlrldurs ss]lls cqJ 'apntruSLlr lDnboto (." ) ssarts
o,lssuduroc runur:"rur e ot (.+) sse,4s alrsuol um ul\?u e u:lo{ sa}p,uJole ssrj]s eql '3l3lJ s sols Jo
tcl{l srql roJ (!)3 t6rn3$$JoU Lu-roj JepiosnlrlsJo sr pue'ei.,{. sssrts.Jo ad,'q tsoldruls rrl sI lI
alrdr ssirls prsrr^cd (t:
'seli),4i) ssols enttql p.rd ieqtsets]]snlll g'f ornSr{ (Supueq)
/r./rxarl pue '(lp.uoisrot) rra?s
'(e^rsserdruoo ro olrsuo, /rl$ reqtro cq dEur (ssorls) peol otJl_ pcqdde eq,{eul speol qcq,{ qtl^\
scp,(r ssrls eolrll elu oreq,L enFIlE esnec ue. qclq,{\ sessrls Burluluolle Jo BLrqen}anllJo sed,{]
aug.p ol llrelrlolll snll le snocSnlus,^p oq lll.& lI le^el pclluc e q.ser,{lFu!}

lerouoS oql

^uoi.rq
,{eq} iqun
,{llenpElB slacn aq} q.rq,{\ UI 'eturuo pouJcl oluos ro] potldde sI ssei}s tln}?nFn$
^\o$
ro e qllcclcl D csnsrJq sr I 'roqleU .{\or8 ot )opr. r 3lrsnec poqdde sr }eqt peol snoeue}@tsul
ur lo esn?aeq ]ou srnoao ieuetPu.r E lo omlcll lltqi\ ln 3lnlleJ.Io puDl frrtcds t sr onStlec

(Sulp?ol onille.{) +srss lS rJIJ,{J ro

iullu.ratlY I'L't

'.la sjeo8 'spor Suqreurroa 'Eleqs sE qans sU?d tuqelor IIs uI uouruo, sr pue'atn[Dfan8uD,l'
se u^\oul sr srnIJEqrns TuolatueqlJo ssols plor.{ 3rl1ue^e ro ssolls ollsuelaluluqln oql.{\ol5q
r te slrcJ pue pr./4 ssuoceq lruolBLu E leql ldoa oa eql uo p.sq sl rrS4ry'ruu aLII
la^olssa.us

InOIIVTI
)11

'/o:

rGv
pu 'sscrts

ol

rrnlcs!

crnl.e{

eqt stueserd.r uol]unbo oql

eql ro+ IEuctBrx

elluqDul )icel.

L'E

:se uol]rj,\\ sr uollenbe peglpoul eql ocuarl

ppoqs 1J eoeld e:pl
se^ (9) uoqunbg

ur o Lluel aql teql poloo

oq

e alDSEdord ol po'llnbar ssolls eqt

is)----'Lit v

'',{.

)!,92

0:

ro

l)z )x a

'It

dear3

anoltel 'ernlcerl

Material Science and lletallurgy

1t2

- --(4)

(r

1)o.'

Substiluting equation (4) in (3) we hare'

(,,

-rl

BD(t) _. ;_
(n - r)o,'
' =.

l)o'

l1

: o!i+
"' ;fu
3.I8

Pr

If

t(n-r)t

,re
fo

So

PROBLEMS

Dr

Problcm I

fi'

for l! com ponentis26 MPa

The critical stress tensity factor 1(/c o[ a matcrial used
coltains itn internal
What is fhe applied stress that wil c;usc frtcture ifthe component
Old scheme MQP-II
crack of lengih l.?2 ornt. Assumc the geomctric conslanf J'

N(

- l'

To

Solution :

X,,

Drta:

Cracklength:2C
Geomeiric constant

26 MPa .,Ci
l :72 mm

0 86 mm

0 86 x 10

rn

= Y= I

To hlrd : Fracture stress or fracture strength

w.k.l. crilicdl qlre\s inlen.:ly

f,rclor

",=

(o/):

Pr

K/. u g lGi

#fu:,#

:soo.2oMPa

thick maferi of
Dctermine the critical crack length for a through thickness crack in a
Assume size factor'l': t"
which is un<lcr a stress of 350
MPa

ri6,

al

So

Problem 2

K,.24.2

ha

D.

'tlPa'

Fb 2004 - 04 nl

To

Solution:
Data:

Fmcture
To

= Krc=24.2 MPa Jn
sbcss:o. : 350 MPa, Size factor -y: I

Stress intensity lactor

find : Crack length = 2C

N(

Ddn

et'totz=

()l.9z]\
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