Transformer - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

7/11/2016
TransformerWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Transformer
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Atransformerisanelectricaldevicethattransferselectricalenergy
betweentwoormorecircuitsthroughelectromagneticinduction.
Electromagneticinductionproducesanelectromotiveforcewithina
conductorwhichisexposedtotimevaryingmagneticfields.
Transformersareusedtoincreaseordecreasethealternatingvoltages
inelectricpowerapplications.
Avaryingcurrentinthetransformer'sprimarywindingcreatesa
varyingmagneticfluxinthetransformercoreandavaryingfield
impingingonthetransformer'ssecondarywinding.Thisvarying
magneticfieldatthesecondarywindinginducesavarying
electromotiveforce(EMF)orvoltageinthesecondarywindingdueto
electromagneticinduction.MakinguseofFaraday'sLaw(discoveredin
1831)inconjunctionwithhighmagneticpermeabilitycoreproperties,
transformerscanbedesignedtoefficientlychangeACvoltagesfrom
onevoltageleveltoanotherwithinpowernetworks.
Sincetheinventionofthefirstconstantpotentialtransformerin1885,
transformershavebecomeessentialforthetransmission,distribution,
andutilizationofalternatingcurrentelectricalenergy.[3]Awiderange
oftransformerdesignsisencounteredinelectronicandelectricpower
applications.TransformersrangeinsizefromRFtransformerslessthan
acubiccentimeterinvolumetounitsinterconnectingthepowergrid
weighinghundredsoftons.
Polemounteddistribution
transformerwithcentertapped
secondarywindingusedtoprovide
'splitphase'powerforresidential
andlightcommercialservice,
whichinNorthAmericais
typicallyrated120/240V. [1][2]
Contents
1 Basicprinciples
1.1 Idealtransformer
1.2 Realtransformer
2 Basictransformerparametersandconstruction
2.1 Effectoffrequency
2.2 Energylosses
2.3 Coreformandshellformtransformers
3 Construction
3.1 Cores
3.2 Windings
3.3 Cooling
3.4 Insulationdrying
3.5 Bushings
4 Classificationparameters
5 Types
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer
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6 Applications
7 History
7.1 Discoveryofinduction
7.2 Inductioncoils
7.3 Firstalternatingcurrenttransformers
7.4 Earlyseriescircuittransformerdistribution
7.5 Closedcoretransformersandparallelpower
distribution
7.6 Otherearlytransformerdesigns
8 Seealso
9 Notes
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 Externallinks
Basicprinciples
Idealtransformer
Forsimplificationorapproximationpurposes,itis
verycommontoanalyzethetransformerasanideal
transformermodelaspresentedinthetwoimages.An
idealtransformerisatheoretical,lineartransformer
thatislosslessandperfectlycoupledthatis,thereare
noenergylossesandfluxiscompletelyconfined
withinthemagneticcore.Perfectcouplingimplies
infinitelyhighcoremagneticpermeabilityand
windinginductancesandzeronetmagnetomotive
force.[5][c]
Avaryingcurrentinthetransformer'sprimary
windingcreatesavaryingmagneticfluxinthecore
andavaryingmagneticfieldimpingingonthe
secondarywinding.Thisvaryingmagneticfieldatthe
secondaryinducesavaryingelectromotiveforce
(EMF)orvoltageinthesecondarywinding.The
primaryandsecondarywindingsarewrappedaround
acoreofinfinitelyhighmagneticpermeability[d]so
thatallofthemagneticfluxpassesthroughboththe
primaryandsecondarywindings.Withavoltage
sourceconnectedtotheprimarywindingandload
impedanceconnectedtothesecondarywinding,the
transformercurrentsflowintheindicateddirections.
(SeealsoPolarity.)
Idealtransformerequations(eq.)
ByFaraday'slawofinduction:
...(1)[a]
...(2)
Combiningratioof(1)&(2)
Turnsratio
...(3)
where
forstepdowntransformers,a>1
forstepuptransformers,a<1
Bylawofconservationofenergy,apparent,
realandreactivepowerareeachconservedin
theinputandoutput
...(4)
Combining(3)&(4)withthisendnote[b]
yieldstheidealtransformeridentity
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AccordingtoFaraday'sLaw,sincethesamemagnetic
fluxpassesthroughboththeprimaryandsecondary
windingsinanidealtransformer,[7]avoltageis
inducedineachwinding,accordingtoeq.(1)inthe
secondarywindingcase,accordingtoeq.(2)inthe
primarywindingcase.[8]TheprimaryEMFis
sometimestermedcounterEMF.[9][10][f]Thisisin
accordancewithLenz'slaw,whichstatesthat
inductionofEMFalwaysopposesdevelopmentof
anysuchchangeinmagneticfield.
.(5)
ByOhm'slawandidealtransformeridentity
...(6)
ApparentloadimpedanceZ'L(ZLreferredto
theprimary)
Thetransformerwindingvoltageratioisthusshown
tobedirectlyproportionaltothewindingturnsratio
accordingtoeq.(3).[11][12][g][h]
.(7)
Accordingtothelawofconservationofenergy,any
loadimpedanceconnectedtotheidealtransformer's
secondarywindingresultsinconservationof
apparent,realandreactivepowerconsistentwitheq.
(4).
Theidealtransformeridentityshownineq.(5)isa
reasonableapproximationforthetypicalcommercial
transformer,withvoltageratioandwindingturns
ratiobothbeinginverselyproportionaltothe
correspondingcurrentratio.
IdealtransformerconnectedwithsourceVPonprimary
andloadimpedanceZLonsecondary,where0<ZL<
.
ByOhm'slawandtheidealtransformeridentity:
thesecondarycircuitloadimpedancecanbe
expressedaseq.(6)
theapparentload
impedance
referredtothe
primarycircuitis
derivedineq.(7)
tobeequaltothe
turnsratio
squaredtimesthe
secondarycircuit
load
impedance.[15][16]
Polarity
Idealtransformerandinductionlaw[e]
Adotconvention
isoftenusedin
transformer
Instrumenttransformer,with
polaritydotandX1markingson
LVsideterminal
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circuitdiagrams,nameplatesorterminalmarkingstodefinetherelativepolarityoftransformerwindings.
Positivelyincreasinginstantaneouscurrententeringtheprimarywinding'sdotendinducespositivepolarity
voltageatthesecondarywinding'sdotend.[17][18][19][i][j][k]
Realtransformer
Deviationsfromideal
Theidealtransformermodelneglectsthefollowingbasiclinearaspectsinrealtransformers.
Corelosses,collectivelycalledmagnetizingcurrentlosses,consistof[23]
Hysteresislossesduetononlinearapplicationofthevoltageappliedinthetransformercore,and
Eddycurrentlossesduetojouleheatinginthecorethatareproportionaltothesquareofthe
transformer'sappliedvoltage.
Whereaswindingsintheidealmodelhavenoresistancesandinfiniteinductances,thewindingsinareal
transformerhavefinitenonzeroresistancesandinductancesassociatedwith:
Joulelossesduetoresistanceintheprimaryandsecondarywindings[23]
Leakagefluxthatescapesfromthecoreandpassesthroughonewindingonlyresultinginprimaryand
secondaryreactiveimpedance.
Leakageflux
Theidealtransformermodelassumesthatallflux
generatedbytheprimarywindinglinksalltheturnsof
everywinding,includingitself.Inpractice,someflux
traversespathsthattakeitoutsidethewindings.[24]
Suchfluxistermedleakageflux,andresultsinleakage
inductanceinserieswiththemutuallycoupled
transformerwindings.[10]Leakagefluxresultsin
energybeingalternatelystoredinanddischargedfrom
themagneticfieldswitheachcycleofthepower
supply.Itisnotdirectlyapowerloss,butresultsin
inferiorvoltageregulation,causingthesecondary
Leakagefluxofatransformer
voltagenottobedirectlyproportionaltotheprimary
voltage,particularlyunderheavyload.[24]
Transformersarethereforenormallydesignedtohaveverylowleakageinductance.
Insomeapplicationsincreasedleakageisdesired,andlongmagneticpaths,airgaps,ormagneticbypass
shuntsmaydeliberatelybeintroducedinatransformerdesigntolimittheshortcircuitcurrentitwill
supply.[10]Leakytransformersmaybeusedtosupplyloadsthatexhibitnegativeresistance,suchaselectric
arcs,mercuryvaporlamps,andneonsignsorforsafelyhandlingloadsthatbecomeperiodicallyshort
circuitedsuchaselectricarcwelders.[25]
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Airgapsarealsousedtokeepatransformerfromsaturating,especiallyaudiofrequencytransformersin
circuitsthathaveaDCcomponentflowinginthewindings.[26]
Knowledgeofleakageinductanceisalsousefulwhentransformersareoperatedinparallel.Itcanbeshown
thatifthepercentimpedance[l]andassociatedwindingleakagereactancetoresistance(X/R)ratiooftwo
transformerswerehypotheticallyexactlythesame,thetransformerswouldsharepowerinproportionto
theirrespectivevoltampereratings(e.g.500kVAunitinparallelwith1,000kVAunit,thelargerunitwould
carrytwicethecurrent).However,theimpedancetolerancesofcommercialtransformersaresignificant.
Also,theZimpedanceandX/Rratioofdifferentcapacitytransformerstendstovary,corresponding
1,000kVAand500kVAunits'valuesbeing,toillustrate,respectively,Z5.75%,X/R3.75andZ5%,
X/R4.75.[28][29]
Equivalentcircuit
Referringtothediagram,apracticaltransformer'sphysicalbehaviormayberepresentedbyanequivalent
circuitmodel,whichcanincorporateanidealtransformer.[30]
Windingjoulelossesandleakagereactancesarerepresentedbythefollowingseriesloopimpedancesofthe
model:
Primarywinding:RP,XP
Secondarywinding:RS,XS.
Innormalcourseofcircuitequivalencetransformation,RSandXSareinpracticeusuallyreferredtothe
primarysidebymultiplyingtheseimpedancesbytheturnsratiosquared,(NP/NS)2=a2.
Corelossandreactance
isrepresentedbythe
followingshuntleg
impedancesofthe
model:
Coreoriron
losses:RC
Magnetizing
reactance:XM.
RCandXMare
Realtransformerequivalentcircuit
collectivelytermedthe
magnetizingbranchofthemodel.
Corelossesarecausedmostlybyhysteresisandeddycurrenteffectsinthecoreandareproportionaltothe
squareofthecorefluxforoperationatagivenfrequency.[31]Thefinitepermeabilitycorerequiresa
magnetizingcurrentIMtomaintainmutualfluxinthecore.Magnetizingcurrentisinphasewiththeflux,
therelationshipbetweenthetwobeingnonlinearduetosaturationeffects.However,allimpedancesofthe
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equivalentcircuitshownarebydefinitionlinearandsuchnonlinearityeffectsarenottypicallyreflectedin
transformerequivalentcircuits.[31]Withsinusoidalsupply,corefluxlagstheinducedEMFby90.With
opencircuitedsecondarywinding,magnetizingbranchcurrentI0equalstransformernoloadcurrent.[30]
Theresultingmodel,thoughsometimestermed'exact'equivalentcircuitbasedonlinearityassumptions,
retainsanumberofapproximations.[30]Analysismaybesimplifiedbyassumingthatmagnetizingbranch
impedanceisrelativelyhighandrelocatingthebranchtotheleftoftheprimaryimpedances.Thisintroduces
errorbutallowscombinationofprimaryandreferredsecondaryresistancesandreactancesbysimple
summationastwoseriesimpedances.
Transformerequivalentcircuitimpedanceandtransformerratioparameterscanbederivedfromthe
followingtests:opencircuittest,[m]shortcircuittest,windingresistancetest,andtransformerratiotest.
Basictransformerparametersandconstruction
Effectoffrequency
ByFaraday's
Lawof
induction
shownineq.
(1)and(2),
transformer
EMFsvary
accordingto
thederivative
offluxwith
respectto
Powertransformeroverexcitation
time.[33]The
conditioncausedbydecreased
ideal
frequencyflux(green),ironcore's
transformer's
magneticcharacteristics(red)and
corebehaves
magnetizingcurrent(blue).
linearlywith
timeforany
nonzerofrequency.[6][34]Fluxinarealtransformer's
corebehavesnonlinearlyinrelationtomagnetization
currentastheinstantaneousfluxincreasesbeyonda
finitelinearrangeresultinginmagneticsaturation
associatedwithincreasinglylargemagnetizing
current,whicheventuallyleadstotransformer
overheating.
TransformeruniversalEMFequation
Ifthefluxinthecoreispurelysinusoidal,the
relationshipforeitherwindingbetweenits
rmsvoltageErmsofthewinding,andthe
supplyfrequencyf,numberofturnsN,core
crosssectionalareaainm2andpeak
magneticfluxdensityBpeakinWb/m2orT
(tesla)isgivenbytheuniversalEMF
equation:[23]
Ifthefluxdoesnotcontainevenharmonics
thefollowingequationcanbeusedforhalf
cycleaveragevoltageEavgofanywaveshape:
TheEMFofatransformeratagivenfluxdensityincreaseswithfrequency.[23]Byoperatingathigher
frequencies,transformerscanbephysicallymorecompactbecauseagivencoreisabletotransfermore
powerwithoutreachingsaturationandfewerturnsareneededtoachievethesameimpedance.However,
propertiessuchascorelossandconductorskineffectalsoincreasewithfrequency.Aircraftandmilitary
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equipmentemploy400Hzpowersupplieswhichreducecoreandwindingweight.[35]Conversely,
frequenciesusedforsomerailwayelectrificationsystemsweremuchlower(e.g.16.7Hzand25Hz)than
normalutilityfrequencies(5060Hz)forhistoricalreasonsconcernedmainlywiththelimitationsofearly
electrictractionmotors.Consequently,thetransformersusedtostepdownthehighoverheadlinevoltages
(e.g.15kV)weremuchlargerandheavierforthesamepowerratingthanthoserequiredforthehigher
frequencies.
Operationofatransformeratitsdesignedvoltagebutatahigherfrequencythanintendedwillleadto
reducedmagnetizingcurrent.Atalowerfrequency,themagnetizingcurrentwillincrease.Operationofa
transformeratotherthanitsdesignfrequencymayrequireassessmentofvoltages,losses,andcoolingto
establishifsafeoperationispractical.Forexample,transformersmayneedtobeequippedwith'voltsper
hertz'overexcitationrelaystoprotectthetransformerfromovervoltageathigherthanratedfrequency.
Oneexampleisintractiontransformersusedforelectricmultipleunitandhighspeedtrainserviceoperating
acrossregionswithdifferentelectricalstandards.Theconverterequipmentandtractiontransformershaveto
accommodatedifferentinputfrequenciesandvoltage(rangingfromashighas50Hzdownto16.7Hzand
ratedupto25kV)whilebeingsuitableformultipleACasynchronousmotorandDCconvertersandmotors
withvaryingharmonicsmitigationfilteringrequirements.
Largepowertransformersarevulnerabletoinsulationfailureduetotransientvoltageswithhighfrequency
components,suchascausedinswitchingorbylightning.[36]
Atmuchhigherfrequenciesthetransformercoresizerequireddropsdramatically:aphysicallysmalland
cheaptransformercanhandlepowerlevelsthatwouldrequireamassiveironcoreatmainsfrequency.The
developmentofswitchingpowersemiconductordevicesandcomplexintegratedcircuitsmadeswitchmode
powersuppliesviable,togenerateahighfrequencyfromamuchlowerone(orDC),changethevoltage
levelwithasmalltransformer,and,ifnecessary,rectifythechangedvoltage.
Energylosses
Realtransformerenergylossesaredominatedbywindingresistancejouleandcorelosses.Transformers'
efficiencytendstoimprovewithincreasingtransformercapacity.Theefficiencyoftypicaldistribution
transformersisbetweenabout98and99percent.[37][38][n]
Astransformerlossesvarywithload,itisoftenusefultoexpresstheselossesintermsofnoloadloss,full
loadloss,halfloadloss,andsoon.Hysteresisandeddycurrentlossesareconstantatallloadlevelsand
dominateoverwhelminglywithoutload,whilevariablewindingjoulelossesdominatingincreasinglyasload
increases.Thenoloadlosscanbesignificant,sothatevenanidletransformerconstitutesadrainonthe
electricalsupply.Designingenergyefficienttransformersforlowerlossrequiresalargercore,goodquality
siliconsteel,orevenamorphoussteelforthecoreandthickerwire,increasinginitialcost.Thechoiceof
constructionrepresentsatradeoffbetweeninitialcostandoperatingcost.[40]
Transformerlossesarisefrom:
Windingjoulelosses
Currentflowingthroughawinding'sconductorcausesjouleheating.Asfrequencyincreases,skin
effectandproximityeffectcausesthewinding'sresistanceand,hence,lossestoincrease.
Corelosses
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Hysteresislosses
Eachtimethemagneticfieldisreversed,asmallamountofenergyislostduetohysteresis
withinthecore.AccordingtoSteinmetz'sformula,theheatenergyduetohysteresisisgivenby
,and,
hysteresislossisthusgivenby
where,fisthefrequency,isthehysteresiscoefficientandmaxisthemaximumfluxdensity,
theempiricalexponentofwhichvariesfromabout1.4to1.8butisoftengivenas1.6for
iron.[40][41][42]
Eddycurrentlosses
Ferromagneticmaterialsarealsogoodconductorsandacoremadefromsuchamaterialalso
constitutesasingleshortcircuitedturnthroughoutitsentirelength.Eddycurrentstherefore
circulatewithinthecoreinaplanenormaltotheflux,andareresponsibleforresistiveheating
ofthecorematerial.Theeddycurrentlossisacomplexfunctionofthesquareofsupply
frequencyandinversesquareofthematerialthickness.[40]Eddycurrentlossescanbereduced
bymakingthecoreofastackofplateselectricallyinsulatedfromeachother,ratherthanasolid
blockalltransformersoperatingatlowfrequenciesuselaminatedorsimilarcores.
Magnetostrictionrelatedtransformerhum
Magneticfluxinaferromagneticmaterial,suchasthecore,causesittophysicallyexpandand
contractslightlywitheachcycleofthemagneticfield,aneffectknownasmagnetostriction,the
frictionalenergyofwhichproducesanaudiblenoiseknownasmainshumortransformerhum.[11][43]
Thistransformerhumisespeciallyobjectionableintransformerssuppliedatpowerfrequencies[o]and
inhighfrequencyflybacktransformersassociatedwithtelevisionCRTs.
Straylosses
Leakageinductanceisbyitselflargelylossless,sinceenergysuppliedtoitsmagneticfieldsisreturned
tothesupplywiththenexthalfcycle.However,anyleakagefluxthatinterceptsnearbyconductive
materialssuchasthetransformer'ssupportstructurewillgiverisetoeddycurrentsandbeconvertedto
heat.[44]Therearealsoradiativelossesduetotheoscillatingmagneticfieldbuttheseareusually
small.
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Mechanicalvibrationandaudiblenoisetransmission
Inadditiontomagnetostriction,thealternatingmagneticfield
causesfluctuatingforcesbetweentheprimaryandsecondary
windings.Thisenergyincitesvibrationtransmissionin
interconnectedmetalwork,thusamplifyingaudible
transformerhum.[45]
Coreformandshellformtransformers
Closedcoretransformersareconstructedin'coreform'or'shell
form'.Whenwindingssurroundthecore,thetransformeriscore
formwhenwindingsaresurroundedbythecore,thetransformeris
Coreform=coretypeshellform=
shellform.Shellformdesignmaybemoreprevalentthancoreform
shelltype
designfordistributiontransformerapplicationsduetotherelative
easeinstackingthecorearoundwindingcoils.[46]Coreformdesign
tendsto,asageneralrule,bemoreeconomical,andthereforemoreprevalent,thanshellformdesignfor
highvoltagepowertransformerapplicationsatthelowerendoftheirvoltageandpowerratingranges(less
thanorequalto,nominally,230kVor75MVA).Athighervoltageandpowerratings,shellform
transformerstendtobemoreprevalent.[46][47][48][49]Shellformdesigntendstobepreferredforextrahigh
voltageandhigherMVAapplicationsbecause,thoughmorelaborintensivetomanufacture,shellform
transformersarecharacterizedashavinginherentlybetterkVAtoweightratio,bettershortcircuitstrength
characteristicsandhigherimmunitytotransitdamage.[49]
Construction
Cores
Laminatedsteelcores
Transformersforuseatpoweroraudiofrequenciestypicallyhave
coresmadeofhighpermeabilitysiliconsteel.[50]Thesteelhasa
permeabilitymanytimesthatoffreespaceandthecorethusserves
togreatlyreducethemagnetizingcurrentandconfinethefluxtoa
pathwhichcloselycouplesthewindings.[51]Earlytransformer
developerssoonrealizedthatcoresconstructedfromsolidiron
resultedinprohibitiveeddycurrentlosses,andtheirdesigns
mitigatedthiseffectwithcoresconsistingofbundlesofinsulated
ironwires.[52]Laterdesignsconstructedthecorebystackinglayers
ofthinsteellaminations,aprinciplethathasremainedinuse.Each
laminationisinsulatedfromitsneighborsbyathinnonconducting
layerofinsulation.[53]Theuniversaltransformerequationindicatesa
minimumcrosssectionalareaforthecoretoavoidsaturation.
Laminatedcoretransformershowing
edgeoflaminationsattopofphoto
Theeffectoflaminationsistoconfineeddycurrentstohighlyellipticalpathsthatencloselittleflux,andso
reducetheirmagnitude.Thinnerlaminationsreducelosses,[54]butaremorelaboriousandexpensiveto
construct.[55]Thinlaminationsaregenerallyusedonhighfrequencytransformers,withsomeofverythin
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steellaminationsabletooperateupto10kHz.
Onecommondesignoflaminated
coreismadefrominterleavedstacks
ofEshapedsteelsheetscappedwith
Ishapedpieces,leadingtoitsname
of'EItransformer'.[55]Suchadesign
tendstoexhibitmorelosses,butis
veryeconomicaltomanufacture.The
cutcoreorCcoretypeismadeby
windingasteelstriparounda
rectangularformandthenbonding
thelayerstogether.Itisthencutin
two,formingtwoCshapes,andthe
Laminatingthecoregreatly
coreassembledbybindingthetwoC
reduceseddycurrentlosses
halvestogetherwithasteelstrap.[55]
Theyhavetheadvantagethattheflux
isalwaysorientedparalleltothemetalgrains,reducingreluctance.
Powertransformerinrushcurrent
causedbyresidualfluxatswitching
instantflux(green),ironcore's
magneticcharacteristics(red)and
magnetizingcurrent(blue).
Asteelcore'sremanencemeansthatitretainsastaticmagneticfieldwhenpowerisremoved.Whenpower
isthenreapplied,theresidualfieldwillcauseahighinrushcurrentuntiltheeffectoftheremaining
magnetismisreduced,usuallyafterafewcyclesoftheappliedACwaveform.[56]Overcurrentprotection
devicessuchasfusesmustbeselectedtoallowthisharmlessinrushtopass.Ontransformersconnectedto
long,overheadpowertransmissionlines,inducedcurrentsduetogeomagneticdisturbancesduringsolar
stormscancausesaturationofthecoreandoperationoftransformerprotectiondevices.[57]
Distributiontransformerscanachievelownoloadlossesbyusingcoresmadewithlowlosshigh
permeabilitysiliconsteeloramorphous(noncrystalline)metalalloy.Thehigherinitialcostofthecore
materialisoffsetoverthelifeofthetransformerbyitslowerlossesatlightload.[58]
Solidcores
Powderedironcoresareusedincircuitssuchasswitchmodepowersuppliesthatoperateabovemains
frequenciesanduptoafewtensofkilohertz.Thesematerialscombinehighmagneticpermeabilitywith
highbulkelectricalresistivity.ForfrequenciesextendingbeyondtheVHFband,coresmadefromnon
conductivemagneticceramicmaterialscalledferritesarecommon.[55]Someradiofrequencytransformers
alsohavemovablecores(sometimescalled'slugs')whichallowadjustmentofthecouplingcoefficient(and
bandwidth)oftunedradiofrequencycircuits.
Toroidalcores
Toroidaltransformersarebuiltaroundaringshapedcore,which,dependingonoperatingfrequency,ismade
fromalongstripofsiliconsteelorpermalloywoundintoacoil,powderediron,orferrite.[59]Astrip
constructionensuresthatthegrainboundariesareoptimallyaligned,improvingthetransformer'sefficiency
byreducingthecore'sreluctance.Theclosedringshapeeliminatesairgapsinherentintheconstructionof
anEIcore.[25]Thecrosssectionoftheringisusuallysquareorrectangular,butmoreexpensivecoreswith
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circularcrosssectionsarealsoavailable.Theprimaryandsecondary
coilsareoftenwoundconcentricallytocovertheentiresurfaceofthe
core.Thisminimizesthelengthofwireneededandprovides
screeningtominimizethecore'smagneticfieldfromgenerating
electromagneticinterference.
Toroidaltransformersaremoreefficientthanthecheaperlaminated
EItypesforasimilarpowerlevel.OtheradvantagescomparedtoE
Itypes,includesmallersize(abouthalf),lowerweight(abouthalf),
lessmechanicalhum(makingthemsuperiorinaudioamplifiers),
lowerexteriormagneticfield(aboutonetenth),lowoffloadlosses
(makingthemmoreefficientinstandbycircuits),singlebolt
Smalltoroidalcoretransformer
mounting,andgreaterchoiceofshapes.Themaindisadvantagesare
highercostandlimitedpowercapacity(seeClassificationparameters
below).Becauseofthelackofaresidualgapinthemagneticpath,toroidaltransformersalsotendtoexhibit
higherinrushcurrent,comparedtolaminatedEItypes.
Ferritetoroidalcoresareusedathigherfrequencies,typicallybetweenafewtensofkilohertztohundredsof
megahertz,toreducelosses,physicalsize,andweightofinductivecomponents.Adrawbackoftoroidal
transformerconstructionisthehigherlaborcostofwinding.Thisisbecauseitisnecessarytopasstheentire
lengthofacoilwindingthroughthecoreapertureeachtimeasingleturnisaddedtothecoil.Asa
consequence,toroidaltransformersratedmorethanafewkVAareuncommon.Smalldistribution
transformersmayachievesomeofthebenefitsofatoroidalcorebysplittingitandforcingitopen,then
insertingabobbincontainingprimaryandsecondarywindings.
Aircores
Aphysicalcoreisnotanabsoluterequisiteandafunctioningtransformercanbeproducedsimplyby
placingthewindingsneareachother,anarrangementtermedan'aircore'transformer.Theairwhich
comprisesthemagneticcircuitisessentiallylossless,andsoanaircoretransformereliminateslossdueto
hysteresisinthecorematerial.[10]Theleakageinductanceisinevitablyhigh,resultinginverypoor
regulation,andsosuchdesignsareunsuitableforuseinpowerdistribution.[10]Theyhavehoweververy
highbandwidth,andarefrequentlyemployedinradiofrequencyapplications,[60]forwhichasatisfactory
couplingcoefficientismaintainedbycarefullyoverlappingtheprimaryandsecondarywindings.They're
alsousedforresonanttransformerssuchasTeslacoilswheretheycanachievereasonablylowlossinspite
ofthehighleakageinductance.
Windings
Theconductingmaterialusedforthewindingsdependsupontheapplication,butinallcasestheindividual
turnsmustbeelectricallyinsulatedfromeachothertoensurethatthecurrenttravelsthroughoutevery
turn.[61]Forsmallpowerandsignaltransformers,inwhichcurrentsarelowandthepotentialdifference
betweenadjacentturnsissmall,thecoilsareoftenwoundfromenamelledmagnetwire,suchasFormvar
wire.Largerpowertransformersoperatingathighvoltagesmaybewoundwithcopperrectangularstrip
conductorsinsulatedbyoilimpregnatedpaperandblocksofpressboard.[62]
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Cutviewthroughtransformerwindings.
White:insulator.Greenspiral:Grain
orientedsiliconsteel.Black:Primary
windingmadeofoxygenfreecopper.Red:
Secondarywinding.Topleft:Toroidal
transformer.Right:Ccore,butEcore
wouldbesimilar.Theblackwindingsare
madeoffilm.Top:Equallylow
capacitancebetweenallendsofboth
windings.Sincemostcoresareatleast
moderatelyconductivetheyalsoneed
insulation.Bottom:Lowestcapacitancefor
oneendofthesecondarywindingneeded
forlowpowerhighvoltagetransformers.
Bottomleft:Reductionofleakage
inductancewouldleadtoincreaseof
capacitance.
Highfrequency
transformers
operatinginthetens
tohundredsof
kilohertzoftenhave
windingsmadeof
braidedLitzwireto
minimizetheskin
effectandproximity
effectlosses.[63]
Largepower
transformersuse
multiplestranded
Windingsareusuallyarranged
conductorsaswell,
concentricallytominimizefluxleakage.
sinceevenatlow
powerfrequencies
nonuniformdistributionofcurrentwouldotherwiseexistin
highcurrentwindings.[62]Eachstrandisindividuallyinsulated,
andthestrandsarearrangedsothatatcertainpointsinthe
winding,orthroughoutthewholewinding,eachportion
occupiesdifferentrelativepositionsinthecompleteconductor.
Thetranspositionequalizesthecurrentflowingineachstrandof
theconductor,andreduceseddycurrentlossesinthewinding
itself.Thestrandedconductorisalsomoreflexiblethanasolid
conductorofsimilarsize,aidingmanufacture.[62]
Thewindingsofsignaltransformersminimizeleakage
inductanceandstraycapacitancetoimprovehighfrequency
response.Coilsaresplitintosections,andthosesections
interleavedbetweenthesectionsoftheotherwinding.
Powerfrequencytransformersmayhavetapsatintermediatepointsonthewinding,usuallyonthehigher
voltagewindingside,forvoltageadjustment.Tapsmaybemanuallyreconnected,oramanualorautomatic
switchmaybeprovidedforchangingtaps.Automaticonloadtapchangersareusedinelectricpower
transmissionordistribution,onequipmentsuchasarcfurnacetransformers,orforautomaticvoltage
regulatorsforsensitiveloads.Audiofrequencytransformers,usedforthedistributionofaudiotopublic
addressloudspeakers,havetapstoallowadjustmentofimpedancetoeachspeaker.Acentertapped
transformerisoftenusedintheoutputstageofanaudiopoweramplifierinapushpullcircuit.Modulation
transformersinAMtransmittersareverysimilar.
Drytypetransformerwindinginsulationsystemscanbeeitherofstandardopenwound'dipandbake'
constructionorofhigherqualitydesignsthatincludevacuumpressureimpregnation(VPI),vacuumpressure
encapsulation(VPE),andcastcoilencapsulationprocesses.[64]IntheVPIprocess,acombinationofheat,
vacuumandpressureisusedtothoroughlyseal,bind,andeliminateentrainedairvoidsinthewinding
polyesterresininsulationcoatlayer,thusincreasingresistancetocorona.VPEwindingsaresimilartoVPI
windingsbutprovidemoreprotectionagainstenvironmentaleffects,suchasfromwater,dirtorcorrosive
ambients,bymultipledipsincludingtypicallyintermsoffinalepoxycoat.[65]
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Cooling
Toplacethecoolingprobleminperspective,theacceptedruleofthumbis
thatthelifeexpectancyofinsulationinallelectrics,includingall
transformers,ishalvedforaboutevery7Cto10Cincreaseinoperating
temperature,thislifeexpectancyhalvingruleholdingmorenarrowlywhen
theincreaseisbetweenabout7Cto8Cinthecaseoftransformer
windingcelluloseinsulation.[66][67][68]
Smalldrytypeandliquidimmersedtransformersareoftenselfcooledby
naturalconvectionandradiationheatdissipation.Aspowerratings
increase,transformersareoftencooledbyforcedaircooling,forcedoil
cooling,watercooling,orcombinationsofthese.[69]Largetransformersare
filledwithtransformeroilthatbothcoolsandinsulatesthewindings.[70]
Transformeroilisahighlyrefinedmineraloilthatcoolsthewindingsand
insulationbycirculatingwithinthetransformertank.Themineraloiland
paperinsulationsystemhasbeenextensivelystudiedandusedformore
than100years.Itisestimatedthat50%ofpowertransformerswillsurvive
50yearsofuse,thattheaverageageoffailureofpowertransformersis
about10to15years,andthatabout30%ofpowertransformerfailuresare
duetoinsulationandoverloadingfailures.[71][72]Prolongedoperationat
elevatedtemperaturedegradesinsulatingpropertiesofwindinginsulation
anddielectriccoolant,whichnotonlyshortenstransformerlifebutcan
ultimatelyleadtocatastrophictransformerfailure.[66]Withagreatbodyof
empiricalstudyasaguide,transformeroiltestingincludingdissolvedgas
analysisprovidesvaluablemaintenanceinformation.Thisunderlinesthe
needtomonitor,model,forecastandmanageoilandwindingconductor
insulationtemperatureconditionsundervarying,possiblydifficult,power
loadingconditions.[73][74]
Cutawayviewofliquid
immersedconstruction
transformer.Theconservator
(reservoir)attopprovides
liquidtoatmosphereisolation
ascoolantleveland
temperaturechanges.The
wallsandfinsproviderequired
heatdissipationbalance.
Buildingregulationsinmanyjurisdictionsrequireindoorliquidfilledtransformerstoeitherusedielectric
fluidsthatarelessflammablethanoil,orbeinstalledinfireresistantrooms.[37]Aircooleddrytransformers
canbemoreeconomicalwheretheyeliminatethecostofafireresistanttransformerroom.
Thetankofliquidfilledtransformersoftenhasradiatorsthroughwhichtheliquidcoolantcirculatesby
naturalconvectionorfins.Somelargetransformersemployelectricfansforforcedaircooling,pumpsfor
forcedliquidcooling,orhaveheatexchangersforwatercooling.[70]Anoilimmersedtransformermaybe
equippedwithaBuchholzrelay,which,dependingonseverityofgasaccumulationduetointernalarcing,is
usedtoeitheralarmordeenergizethetransformer.[56]Oilimmersedtransformerinstallationsusually
includefireprotectionmeasuressuchaswalls,oilcontainment,andfiresuppressionsprinklersystems.
Polychlorinatedbiphenylshavepropertiesthatoncefavoredtheiruseasadielectriccoolant,though
concernsovertheirenvironmentalpersistenceledtoawidespreadbanontheiruse.[75]Today,nontoxic,
stablesiliconebasedoils,orfluorinatedhydrocarbonsmaybeusedwheretheexpenseofafireresistant
liquidoffsetsadditionalbuildingcostforatransformervault.[37][76]PCBsfornewequipmentwerebanned
in1981andin2000foruseinexistingequipmentinUnitedKingdom[77]LegislationenactedinCanada
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between1977and1985essentiallybansPCBuseintransformersmanufacturedinorimportedintothe
countryafter1980,themaximumallowablelevelofPCBcontaminationinexistingmineraloiltransformers
being50ppm.[78]
Sometransformers,insteadofbeingliquidfilled,havetheirwindingsenclosedinsealed,pressurizedtanks
andcooledbynitrogenorsulfurhexafluoridegas.[76]
Experimentalpowertransformersinthe500to1,000kVArangehavebeenbuiltwithliquidnitrogenor
heliumcooledsuperconductingwindings,whicheliminateswindinglosseswithoutaffectingcore
losses.[79][80]
Insulationdrying
Constructionofoilfilledtransformersrequiresthattheinsulationcoveringthewindingsbethoroughlydried
ofresidualmoisturebeforetheoilisintroduced.Dryingiscarriedoutatthefactory,andmayalsobe
requiredasafieldservice.Dryingmaybedonebycirculatinghotairaroundthecore,orbyvaporphase
drying(VPD)whereanevaporatedsolventtransfersheatbycondensationonthecoilandcore.
Forsmalltransformers,resistanceheatingbyinjectionofcurrentintothewindingsisused.Theheatingcan
becontrolledverywell,anditisenergyefficient.Themethodiscalledlowfrequencyheating(LFH)since
thecurrentusedisatamuchlowerfrequencythanthatofthepowergrid,whichisnormally50or60Hz.A
lowerfrequencyreducestheeffectofinductance,sothevoltagerequiredcanbereduced.[81]TheLFH
dryingmethodisalsousedforserviceofoldertransformers.[82]
Bushings
Largertransformersareprovidedwithhighvoltageinsulatedbushingsmadeofpolymersorporcelain.A
largebushingcanbeacomplexstructuresinceitmustprovidecarefulcontroloftheelectricfieldgradient
withoutlettingthetransformerleakoil.[83]
Classificationparameters
Transformerscanbeclassifiedinmanyways,suchasthefollowing:
Powercapacity:Fromafractionofavoltampere(VA)tooverathousandMVA.
Dutyofatransformer:Continuous,shorttime,intermittent,periodic,varying.
Frequencyrange:Powerfrequency,audiofrequency,orradiofrequency.
Voltageclass:Fromafewvoltstohundredsofkilovolts.
Coolingtype:Dryandliquidimmersedselfcooled,forcedaircooledliquidimmersedforcedoil
cooled,watercooled.
Circuitapplication:Suchaspowersupply,impedancematching,outputvoltageandcurrentstabilizer
orcircuitisolation.
Utilization:Pulse,power,distribution,rectifier,arcfurnace,amplifieroutput,etc..
Basicmagneticform:Coreform,shellform.
Constantpotentialtransformerdescriptor:Stepup,stepdown,isolation.
Generalwindingconfiguration:ByEICvectorgroupvariouspossibletwowindingcombinationsof
thephasedesignationsdelta,wyeorstar,andzigzagorinterconnectedstar[p]otherautotransformer,
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ScottT,zigzaggroundingtransformerwinding.[84][85][86][87]
Rectifierphaseshiftwindingconfiguration:2winding,6pulse3winding,12pulse...nwinding,
[n1]*6pulsepolygonetc..
Types
Variousspecificelectricalapplicationdesignsrequireavarietyoftransformertypes.Althoughtheyallshare
thebasiccharacteristictransformerprinciples,theyarecustomizeinconstructionorelectricalpropertiesfor
certaininstallationrequirementsorcircuitconditions.
Autotransformer:Transformerinwhichpartofthewindingiscommontobothprimaryandsecondary
circuits.[88]
Capacitorvoltagetransformer:Transformerinwhichcapacitordividerisusedtoreducehighvoltage
beforeapplicationtotheprimarywinding.
Distributiontransformer,powertransformer:Internationalstandardsmakeadistinctionintermsof
distributiontransformersbeingusedtodistributeenergyfromtransmissionlinesandnetworksfor
localconsumptionandpowertransformersbeingusedtotransferelectricenergybetweenthe
generatoranddistributionprimarycircuits.[88][89][q]
Phaseangleregulatingtransformer:Aspecialisedtransformerusedtocontroltheflowofrealpower
onthreephaseelectricitytransmissionnetworks.
ScottTtransformer:Transformerusedforphasetransformationfromthreephasetotwophaseand
viceversa.[88]
Polyphasetransformer:Anytransformerwithmorethanonephase.
Groundingtransformer:Transformerusedforgroundingthreephasecircuitstocreateaneutralina
threewiresystem,usingawyedeltatransformer,[85][90]ormorecommonly,azigzaggrounding
winding.[85][87][88]
Leakagetransformer:Transformerthathaslooselycoupledwindings.
Resonanttransformer:Transformerthatusesresonancetogenerateahighsecondaryvoltage.
Audiotransformer:Transformerusedinaudioequipment.
Outputtransformer:Transformerusedtomatchtheoutputofavalveamplifiertoitsload.
Instrumenttransformer:Potentialorcurrenttransformerusedtoaccuratelyandsafelyrepresent
voltage,currentorphasepositionofhighvoltageorhighpowercircuits.[88]
Pulsetransformer:Specializedsmallsignaltransformerusedtotransmitdigitalsignalingwhile
providingelectricalisolation,commonlyusedinEthernetcomputernetworksas10BASET,
100BASETand1000BASET.
Applications
Transformersareusedtoincrease(orstepup)voltagebeforetransmittingelectricalenergyoverlong
distancesthroughwires.Wireshaveresistancewhichlosesenergythroughjouleheatingatarate
correspondingtosquareofthecurrent.Bytransformingpowertoahighervoltagetransformersenable
economicaltransmissionofpoweranddistribution.Consequently,transformershaveshapedtheelectricity
supplyindustry,permittinggenerationtobelocatedremotelyfrompointsofdemand.[92]Allbutatiny
fractionoftheworld'selectricalpowerhaspassedthroughaseriesoftransformersbythetimeitreachesthe
consumer.[44]
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AnelectricalsubstationinMelbourne,Australia
showingthreeoffive220kV66kVtransformers,
eachwithacapacityof150MVA[91]
Transformersare
alsoused
extensivelyin
electronic
productsto
decrease(or
stepdown)the
supplyvoltageto
alevelsuitable
forthelow
voltagecircuits
theycontain.The
TransformerattheLimestone
transformeralso
GeneratingStationinManitoba,
electrically
Canada
isolatestheend
userfromcontact
withthesupplyvoltage.
Signalandaudiotransformersareusedtocouplestagesofamplifiersandtomatchdevicessuchas
microphonesandrecordplayerstotheinputofamplifiers.Audiotransformersallowedtelephonecircuitsto
carryonatwowayconversationoverasinglepairofwires.Abaluntransformerconvertsasignalthatis
referencedtogroundtoasignalthathasbalancedvoltagestoground,suchasbetweenexternalcablesand
internalcircuits.
History
Discoveryofinduction
Electromagneticinduction,theprincipleoftheoperationof
thetransformer,wasdiscoveredindependentlybyMichael
Faradayin1831,JosephHenryin1832,and
others.[94][95][96][97]TherelationshipbetweenEMFand
magneticfluxisanequationnowknownasFaraday'slawof
induction:
.
where
isthemagnitudeoftheEMFinVoltsandBisthe
magneticfluxthroughthecircuitinwebers.[98]
Faraday'sexperimentwithinductionbetween
coilsofwire[93]
PrecededbyFrancescoZantedeschiin1830,Faraday
performedearlyexperimentsoninductionbetweencoilsof
wire,includingwindingapairofcoilsaroundanironring,thuscreatingthefirsttoroidalclosedcore
transformer.[97][99]Howeverheonlyappliedindividualpulsesofcurrenttohistransformer,andnever
discoveredtherelationbetweentheturnsratioandEMFinthewindings.
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Inductioncoils
Thefirsttypeoftransformer
toseewideusewasthe
inductioncoil,inventedby
Rev.NicholasCallanof
MaynoothCollege,Irelandin
1836.[97]Hewasoneofthe
firstresearcherstorealizethe
Inductioncoil,1900,Bremerhaven,
moreturnsthesecondary
Germany
windinghasinrelationtothe
primarywinding,thelarger
theinducedsecondaryEMFwillbe.Inductioncoilsevolvedfrom
scientists'andinventors'effortstogethighervoltagesfrombatteries.
Sincebatteriesproducedirectcurrent(DC)ratherthanAC,induction
Faraday'sringtransformer
coilsrelieduponvibratingelectricalcontactsthatregularly
interruptedthecurrentintheprimarytocreatethefluxchanges
necessaryforinduction.Betweenthe1830sandthe1870s,effortstobuildbetterinductioncoils,mostlyby
trialanderror,slowlyrevealedthebasicprinciplesoftransformers.
Firstalternatingcurrenttransformers
Bythe1870s,efficientgeneratorsproducingalternatingcurrent(AC)wereavailable,anditwasfoundAC
couldpoweraninductioncoildirectly,withoutaninterrupter.
In1876,RussianengineerPavelYablochkovinvented[100]alightingsystembasedonasetofinductioncoils
wheretheprimarywindingswereconnectedtoasourceofAC.Thesecondarywindingscouldbeconnected
toseveral'electriccandles'(arclamps)ofhisowndesign.[101][102]ThecoilsYablochkovemployed
functionedessentiallyastransformers.[101]
In1878,theGanzfactory,Budapest,Hungary,beganequipmentforelectriclightingand,by1883,had
installedoverfiftysystemsinAustriaHungary.TheirACsystemsusedarcandincandescentlamps,
generators,andotherequipment.[97][103]
LucienGaulardandJohnDixonGibbsfirstexhibitedadevicewithanopenironcorecalleda'secondary
generator'inLondonin1882,thensoldtheideatotheWestinghousecompanyintheUnitedStates.[52]They
alsoexhibitedtheinventioninTurin,Italyin1884,whereitwasadoptedforanelectriclightingsystem.[104]
However,theefficiencyoftheiropencorebipolarapparatusremainedverylow.[104]
Earlyseriescircuittransformerdistribution
Inductioncoilswithopenmagneticcircuitsareinefficientattransferringpowertoloads.Untilabout1880,
theparadigmforACpowertransmissionfromahighvoltagesupplytoalowvoltageloadwasaseries
circuit.Opencoretransformerswitharationear1:1wereconnectedwiththeirprimariesinseriestoallow
useofahighvoltagefortransmissionwhilepresentingalowvoltagetothelamps.Theinherentflawinthis
methodwasthatturningoffasinglelamp(orotherelectricdevice)affectedthevoltagesuppliedtoallothers
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onthesamecircuit.Manyadjustabletransformerdesignswereintroducedtocompensateforthis
problematiccharacteristicoftheseriescircuit,includingthoseemployingmethodsofadjustingthecoreor
bypassingthemagneticfluxaroundpartofacoil.[104]Efficient,practicaltransformerdesignsdidnotappear
untilthe1880s,butwithinadecade,thetransformerwouldbeinstrumentalintheWarofCurrents,andin
seeingACdistributionsystemstriumphovertheirDCcounterparts,apositioninwhichtheyhaveremained
dominanteversince.[105]
Closedcore
transformersand
parallelpower
distribution
Intheautumnof1884,
KrolyZipernowsky,Ott
BlthyandMiksaDri
(ZBD),threeengineers
associatedwiththeGanz
Coreform,frontshellform,back.
factory,haddeterminedthat
EarliestspecimensofZBDdesigned
Shellformtransformer.Sketchused
opencoredeviceswere
highefficiencyconstantpotential
byUppenborntodescribeZBD
impracticable,astheywere
transformersmanufacturedattheGanz
engineers'1885patentsandearliest
incapableofreliably
factoryin1885.
articles. [104]
regulatingvoltage.[107]In
theirjoint1885patent
applicationsfornovel
transformers(latercalled
ZBDtransformers),they
describedtwodesignswith
closedmagneticcircuits
wherecopperwindingswere
eithera)woundaroundiron
wireringcoreor
TheZBDteamconsistedofKroly
b)surroundedbyironwire
Zipernowsky,OttBlthyandMiksa
core.[104]Thetwodesigns
Dri
werethefirstapplicationof
Stanley's1886designforadjustable
thetwobasictransformer
gapopencoreinductioncoils[106]
constructionsincommonusetothisday,whichcanasaclassallbe
termedaseithercoreformorshellform(oralternatively,coretype
orshelltype),asina)orb),respectively(seeimages).[46][47][97][108][109]TheGanzfactoryhadalsointhe
autumnof1884madedeliveryoftheworld'sfirstfivehighefficiencyACtransformers,thefirstofthese
unitshavingbeenshippedonSeptember16,1884.[110]Thisfirstunithadbeenmanufacturedtothe
followingspecifications:1,400W,40Hz,120:72V,11.6:19.4A,ratio1.67:1,onephase,shellform.[110]
Inbothdesigns,themagneticfluxlinkingtheprimaryandsecondarywindingstraveledalmostentirely
withintheconfinesoftheironcore,withnointentionalpaththroughair(seeToroidalcoresbelow).The
newtransformerswere3.4timesmoreefficientthantheopencorebipolardevicesofGaulardand
Gibbs.[111]TheZBDpatentsincludedtwoothermajorinterrelatedinnovations:oneconcerningtheuseof
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parallelconnected,insteadofseriesconnected,utilizationloads,theotherconcerningtheabilitytohave
highturnsratiotransformerssuchthatthesupplynetworkvoltagecouldbemuchhigher(initially1,400to
2,000V)thanthevoltageofutilizationloads(100Vinitiallypreferred).[112][113]Whenemployedinparallel
connectedelectricdistributionsystems,closedcoretransformersfinallymadeittechnicallyand
economicallyfeasibletoprovideelectricpowerforlightinginhomes,businessesandpublicspaces.[114][115]
Blthyhadsuggestedtheuseofclosedcores,Zipernowskyhadsuggestedtheuseofparallelshunt
connections,andDrihadperformedtheexperiments[116]
Transformerstodayaredesignedontheprinciplesdiscoveredbythethreeengineers.Theyalsopopularized
theword'transformer'todescribeadeviceforalteringtheEMFofanelectriccurrent,[114][117]althoughthe
termhadalreadybeeninuseby1882.[118][119]In1886,theZBDengineersdesigned,andtheGanzfactory
suppliedelectricalequipmentfor,theworld'sfirstpowerstationthatusedACgeneratorstopoweraparallel
connectedcommonelectricalnetwork,thesteampoweredRomeCerchipowerplant.[120]
AlthoughGeorgeWestinghousehadboughtGaulardandGibbs'patentsin1885,theEdisonElectricLight
CompanyheldanoptionontheUSrightsfortheZBDtransformers,requiringWestinghousetopursue
alternativedesignsonthesameprinciples.HeassignedtoWilliamStanleythetaskofdevelopingadevice
forcommercialuseinUnitedStates.[121]Stanley'sfirstpatenteddesignwasforinductioncoilswithsingle
coresofsoftironandadjustablegapstoregulatetheEMFpresentinthesecondarywinding(seeimage).[106]
Thisdesign[122]wasfirstusedcommerciallyintheUSin1886[123]butWestinghousewasintenton
improvingtheStanleydesigntomakeit(unliketheZBDtype)easyandcheaptoproduce.[122]
Westinghouse,Stanleyandassociatessoondevelopedaneasiertomanufacturecore,consistingofastackof
thin'Eshaped'ironplates,insulatedbythinsheetsofpaperorotherinsulatingmaterial.Prewoundcopper
coilscouldthenbeslidintoplace,andstraightironplateslaidintocreateaclosedmagneticcircuit.
WestinghouseappliedforapatentforthenewlowcostdesigninDecember1886itwasgrantedinJuly
1887.[116][124]
Otherearlytransformerdesigns
In1889,RussianbornengineerMikhailDolivoDobrovolskydevelopedthefirstthreephasetransformerat
theAllgemeineElektricittsGesellschaft('GeneralElectricityCompany')inGermany.[125]
In1891,NikolaTeslainventedtheTeslacoil,anaircored,dualtunedresonanttransformerforproducing
veryhighvoltagesathighfrequency.[126][127]
Seealso
Compensationwinding
Inductor
Loadprofile
Magneticcore
Magnetization
Paraformer
Polyphasesystem
Rectiformer
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Switchedmodepowersupply
Notes
a.WhereVsistheinstantaneousvoltage,Nsisthenumberofturnsinthesecondarywinding,andd/dtisthe
derivativeofthemagneticfluxthroughoneturnofthewinding.Withturnsofthewindingoriented
perpendicularlytothemagneticfieldlines,thefluxistheproductofthemagneticfluxdensityandthecorearea,
themagneticfieldvaryingwithtimeaccordingtotheexcitationoftheprimary.Theexpressiond/dt,definedas
thederivativeofmagneticfluxwithtimet,providesameasureofrateofmagneticfluxinthecoreandhenceof
EMFinducedintherespectivewinding.ThenegativesignisdescribedbyLenz'slaw.
b.Althoughidealtransformer'swindinginductancesareeachinfinitelyhigh,thesquarerootofwindinginductances'
ratioisequaltotheturnsratio.[4]
c.Thisalsoimpliesthefollowing:Inputimpedanceisinfinitewhensecondaryisopenandzerowhensecondaryis
shortedthereiszerophaseshiftthroughanidealtransformerinputandoutputpowerandreactivevoltampere
areeachconservedthesethreestatementsapplyforanyfrequencyabovezeroandperiodicwaveformsare
conserved.[6]
d.Windingsofrealtransformersareusuallywoundaroundveryhighpermeabilityferromagneticcoresbutcanalso
beaircorewound.
e.DirectionoftransformercurrentsisaccordingtoRighthandrule.
f.SectionLeakagefactorandinductanceofLeakageinductancederivesatransformerequivalentintermsofvarious
measurableinductances(winding,self,leakage,magnetizingandmutualinductances)andturnsratio,whichare
collectivelyessentialtorigorouscounterEMFunderstanding.
g."Theturnratioofatransformeristheratioofthenumberofturnsinthehighvoltagewindingtothatinthelow
voltagewinding",[13]commonusagehavingevolvedovertimefrom'turnratio'to'turnsratio'.However,some
sourcesusetheinversedefinition.[14]
h.Astepdowntransformerconvertsahighvoltagetoalowervoltagewhileastepuptransformerconvertsalow
voltagetoahighervoltage,anisolationtransformerhaving1:1turnsratiowithoutputvoltagethesameasinput
voltage.
i.ANSI/IEEEStandardC57.13definespolarityintermsoftherelativeinstantaneousdirectionsofthecurrents
enteringtheprimaryterminalsandleavingthesecondaryterminalsduringmostofeachhalfcycle,theword
'instantaneous'differentiatingfromsayphasorcurrent.[20][21]
j.TransformerpolaritycanalsobeidentifiedbyterminalmarkingsH0,H1,H2...onprimaryterminalsandX1,X2,
(andY1,Y2,Z1,Z2,Z3...ifwindingsareavailable)onsecondaryterminals.Eachletterprefixdesignatesa
differentwindingandeachnumeraldesignatesaterminationortaponeachwinding.Thedesignatedterminals
H1,X1,(andY1,Z1ifavailable)indicatesameinstantaneouspolaritiesforeachwindingasinthedot
convention.[22]
k.Whenavoltagetransformerisoperatedwithsinusoidalvoltagesinitsnormalfrequencyrangeandpowerlevelthe
voltagepolarityattheoutputdotisthesame(plusminusafewdegrees)asthevoltagepolarityattheinputdot.
l.Percentimpedanceistheratioofthevoltagedropinthesecondaryfromnoloadtofullloadandishere
representedwiththevariableZ.[27]Insometexts,Zisusedforabsoluteimpedanceinstead.
m.AstandardizedopencircuitorunloadedtransformertestcalledtheEpsteinframecanalsobeusedforthe
characterizationofmagneticpropertiesofsoftmagneticmaterialsincludingespeciallyelectricalsteels.[32]
n.Experimentaltransformersusingsuperconductingwindingsachieveefficienciesof99.85%.[39]
o.Transformerhum'sfundamentalnoisefrequencyistwotimesthatofthepowerfrequencyasthereisanextension
andacontractionofcorelaminationsforeverycycleoftheACwaveandatransformer'saudiblehumnoiselevel
isdominatedbythefundamentalnoisefrequencyanditsfirsttriplenharmonic,i.e.,bythe100&300Hz,or120
&360Hz,frequencies.[43]
p.Forexample,thedeltawyetransformer,byfarthemostcommoncommercialthreephasetransformer,isknown
astheDyn11vectorgroupconfiguration,Dyn11denotingDfordeltaprimarywinding,yforwyesecondary
winding,nforneutralofthewyewinding,and11forrelativephasepositionontheclockbywhichthesecondary
windingleadstheprimarywinding,namely,30leading.
q.Whiletheaboveformaldefinition,derivedfromstandardssuchasIEEEC57.12.80,appliestolargetransformers,
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itisnotuncommonincolloquial,oreventrade,parlanceforsmallgeneralpurposetransformerstobereferredto
as'power'transformers,fordistributiontransformerstobereferredtoas'powerdistribution'transformers,andso
on.
References
1.Knowlton,A.E.(Ed.)(1949).StandardHandbookforElectricalEngineers(8thed.).McGrawHill.p.597,Fig.
642.
2.Mack,JamesE.Shoemaker,Thomas(2006).Chapter15DistributionTransformers(PDF)(11thed.).New
York:McGrawHill.pp.151to1522.ISBN0071467890.
3.Bedell,Frederick."HistoryofACWaveForm,ItsDeterminationandStandardization".Transactionsofthe
AmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers61(12):864.doi:10.1109/TAIEE.1942.5058456.
4.Brenner,EgonJavid,Mansour(1959)."18.1'SymbolsandPolarityofMutualInductance'inChapter18
CircuitswithMagneticCircuits".AnalysisofElectricCircuits.McGrawHill.pp.598599.
5.Brenner,pp.598600
6.Crosby,D.(1958)."TheIdealTransformer".IRETransactionsonCircuit.Theory5(2):145145.
doi:10.1109/TCT.1958.1086447.
7.Hameyer,Kay(2001)."2.1.2'SecondMaxwellEquation(Faraday'sLaw)'inSection2Basics".ElectricalsI:
Basics,Design,Function,Operation.RWTHAachenUniversityInstituteofElectricals.pp.1112,eq.212to
215.
8.Heathcote,Martin(Nov3,1998).J&PTransformerBook(12thed.).Newnes.pp.23.ISBN0750611588.
9.Rajput,R.K.(2002).Alternatingcurrents(3rded.).NewDelhi:LaxmiPublications.p.107.
ISBN9788170082224.
10.Calvert,James(2001)."InsideTransformers".UniversityofDenver.RetrievedMay19,2007.
11.Winders,JohnJ.,Jr.(2002).PowerTransformerPrinciplesandApplications.CRC.pp.2021.
12.Hameyer,Kay(2001)."3.2'DefinitionofTransformerRatio'inSection3Transformers".ElectricalsI:
Basics,Design,Function,Operation.RWTHAachenUniversityInstituteofElectricals.p.27.
13.Knowlton,613,p.552
14.Miller,WilhelmC.Robbins,AllanH.(2013).Circuitanalysis:theoryandpractice(5thed.).CliftonPark,NY:
CengageLearning.p.990.ISBN9781133281009.Retrieved25September2014.
15.Flanagan,pp.12
16.Tcheslavski,GlebV.(2008)."Slide13ImpedanceTransformationinLecture4:Transformers".ELEN3441
FundamentalsofPowerEngineering.LamarUniversity(TSUsystemmember).
17.Parker,M.RUla,S.Webb,W.E.(2005)."2.5.5'Transformers'&10.1.3'TheIdealTransformer' ".In
Whitaker,JerryC.TheElectronicsHandbook(2nded.).Taylor&Francis.pp.172,1017.ISBN0849318890.
18.Kothari,D.P.Nagrath,I.J.(2010).3.7'TransformerTesting'inChapter3Transformers(4thed.).Tata
McGrawHill.p.73.ISBN9780070699670.
19.Brenner,pp.589590
20."PolarityMarkingsonInstrumentTransformers"(PDF).Retrieved13April2013.
21.ANSI/IEEEC57.13,ANSRequirementsforInstrumentTransformers.NewYork,N.Y.:IEEE.1978.p.4(3.26).
ISBN0738142999.(superseded,1993)
22."ConnectionsPolarity"(PDF).Retrieved13April2013.
23.Say,M.G.(1984).AlternatingCurrents(5thed.).HalstedPress.ISBN0470274514.
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WikimediaCommonshas
University(http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/transfor.htm)
mediarelatedto
SubstationandTransmission(https://www.dmoz.org/Business/
Transformers.
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s/AN0305Current_Transformers.pdf)
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transformer
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0LM) fromYouTube
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BDPk) fromYouTube
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AboutCircuits
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Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transformer&oldid=728840799"
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