Chapter 1

Psychology
scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- Behavior outward or overt actions and reactions
- Mental processes internal, covert activity of our minds
*Rorschach Ink Blots, IQ/EQ tests, career/abilities tests
Psychology is a science
- prevent possible biases from leading to faulty observations
- precise and careful measurements
Psychologys four goals
1. Description
what is happening?
2. Explanation
- why is it happening?
- Theory general explanation of a set of observations or facts
3. Prediction
when will it happen again?
4. Control
- how can it be changed?
- Medicine
Autism
1. activity level medium to high
2. attention inattentive vs focused
3. specific skills good at these
4. eye contact (minimal)
Theory may be caused by MMR because of incompatible genes
ADD/ADHD
Wilhelm Wundt father of psychology
1. Structuralism focused on structure or basic elements of the mind (observes)
Wilhelm Wundts psychology laboratory
- Germany in 1879
- Developed the technique of objective introspection; process of objectively
examining and measuring ones thoughts and mental activities
Edward Titchener
= Wundts student; brought structuralism to America
Margaret Washburn
- Titcheners student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology
2. Functionalism how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work and play (helps)
William James

influenced modern fields of educational, evolutionary and industrial/organizational

psychology

3. Gestalt Psychology good figure psychology

Wertheimer - studied sensation and perception
- ideas are now part of the study of cognitive psychology, a field focusing not only
on perception but also on learning, memory, thought, processes and problem
solving
- looking at the bigger picture; confronting the individual and the people around
him/her
4. Psychoanalysis the theory and therapy based on the work of Freud
Sigmund Freud
- unconscious mind controls much of our conscious behavior
- patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical cause
unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push, or repress all of our
threatening urges and desires
*parapraxed f. slips; meant to say something else but what youre thinking is what you say
5. Behaviorism
John B. Watson
- the science of behavior that focuses on observable stimuli, responses and
behavior only
must be directly seen and measured
- based much from work of Ivan Pavlov who demonstrated that a reflex could be
conditioned (learned)
- Watson (with Rayner) believed that phobias were learned
- Case of Little Albert taught to fear a white rat
- Mary Cover Jones learned phobia could be counter-conditioned
Seven Modern Perspectives
1. Psychodynamic Perspective
modern version of psychoanalysis; based on unconscious (childhood
experiences)
neo-Freudianism
2. Behavioral Perspective
Skinner
how people learn habits; spoiled child
3. Humanistic Perspective
Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers
- third force of psychology
- free will and human potential for growth
- control of own life; resilience
- owes far more to the early roots of psychology in the field of philosophy

people have free will, the freedom to choose their own destiny
emphasized the human potential, the ability of each person to become the best
person he or she could be
- self-actualization achieving ones full potential or actual self
Cognitive Perspective focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, language, problem
solving and learning
Sociocultural Perspective focuses on the relationship between social behavior and
culture
Biopsychological Perspective
attributes human and animal behavior to biological events occurring in the body
genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous system
Evolutionary Perspective focuses on the biological bases of universal mental
characteristics that all humans share
- Looks at the way the mind works and why it works as it does
- Behavior is seen as having an adaptive or survival value
- How eating habits differ?
- How is the behavior passed on from generation to generation?
- Passing of behavior even if in just one race
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4.
5.
6.

7.

Types of Psychological Professionals

1. Psychologist
- have academic/doctorate degree
- do experiments in different fields and states
- counseling, teaching, research
2. Psychiatrists has a medical degree; can prescribe medicine; provide therapy
3. Psychiatric Social Worker observes environments effect on ones mental thinking
4. Psychoanalyst

Scientific Method
1. Perceiving a question
2. Forming a hypothesis
3. Testing the hypothesis
4. Drawing conclusions
5. Reporting the results
Descriptive methods
1. Naturalistic Observation watching animals or humans behave in their normal
environment
- Advantages:
Realistic picture of how the behavior is in the natural setting
- Disadvantages:
Observer Effect participants know they are being observed (behavior
changes)

 Use of Participant Observation reduce OE

Observer Bias know what the study is about
Use of blind observers (people who do not know what the
research question is to reduce observer bias)
2. Laboratory Observation watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting
- Advantages:
Control over environment
Allows use of specialized equipment
- Disadvantage:
Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior
3. Case Study study of one individual in great detail
- Advantage:
Full study for the individual
- Disadvantage:
May not be applicable to other subjects
4. Surveys researchers will ask a series of questions about the topic under study
- Advantages:
Numerous responses
Easier and more efficient
- Disadvantages:
People may not respond accurately
shotgun
bias choice of samples
- Random Sampling from a population

Finding Relationships
Correlation
a measure of the relationship between two variables
a statistical technique that allows researchers to discover and predict
relationships between variables of interest
Variable anything that can change or vary
Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation
coefficient (r), which represents two things:
- direction of the relationship
- strength of the relationship
Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other
variable
Correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to 1.00
- the closer it is to 1, the stronger the relationship is
- 0.23 weak relationship
- no correlation = 00.0
1. Positive Correlation
- variables are related in the same direction
- as one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases
2. Negative Correlation
- variables are related in opposite direction
- as one increases, the other decreases
*Correlation does not prove causation
The Experiment
Experiment a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see corresponding changes in
behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships
Operational definition definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly
measured (quantitative)
The Variables
Independent variable variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter
(amount of water)
Dependent variable variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response
(growth of the plant)
The Groups
Experimental group subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent
variable
Control group subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable
and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for confounding variables)
*Waiting in control

Random assignment process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups

randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in neither group
*Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) variables
Hazards placebo effect, experimenter effect, extraneous variables
Placebo effect the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can
influence their behavior
*Single-blind study subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the
control group (reduces placebo effect)
Example: comparison to other brands, endorsers
*Double-blind study neither the experimenters nor the subjects know the
information
Experimenter effect tendency of the experimenters expectations for a study to
unintentionally influence the results of the study
Common ethical guidelines: protection of rights and well-being of participants, informed
consent, justification when deception, right of participants to withdraw any time, protection of
participants, confidentiality and debriefing at the end
Four basic criteria for making reasoned judgments
1. very few truths that do not need to be tested
2. evidence is not equal in quality
3. authority does not fully relate to the truth of their claims
4. critical thinking requires an open mind
Chapter 2
Nervous System an extensive network of specialized cells that carry information to and
from all parts of the body
Neurosciences
Structure of the Neuron
Neurons the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and which receives and sends
messages within that system
Parts of a Neuron
1. Dendrites branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons
2. Soma the cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell
3. Axon long tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells
Other types of brain cells
Glial cells grey fatty cells that:
Provide support for the neurons to grow on and around
Deliver nutrients to neurons
Produce myelin to coat axons

Myelin fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of
neurons to insulate, protect and speed up the neural impulse
Clean up waste products

Neurons in the Body

Nerves bundles of axons in the body that travel together through the body
Neurilemma Schwanns membrane
Tunnel through which damaged nerve fibers can repair themselves
Generating the Message: Neural Impulse
Ions charged particles
Inside neuron negatively charged
Outside neuron positively charged
Resting potential the state of the neuron
Sending the Message to Other Cells:
Axon terminals branches at the end of the axon
Synaptic knob rounded areas on the end of axon terminals
Synaptic vesicles sack-like structures found inside the synaptic knob
containing chemicals
Neurotransmitters chemical found in the synaptic vesicles which,
when released, has an effect on the next cell
Synapse/Synaptic Gap microscopic fluid-filled space between the rounded areas on the
end of the axon terminals of one cell and the dendrites or surfaces of the next cell; between
axon and dendrite
Receptor Sites holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and
glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
Neuron Communication
Neurons must be turned on and off
1. Excitatory neurotransmitter neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to fire
2. Inhibitory neurotransmitter neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop
firing
Chemical Substances can affect neuronal communication
1. Agonists mimic or enhance the effects of neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of
the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell
(Alaxan FR agonist to Endorphin)
2. Antagonists block or reduce a cells response to the action of other chemicals or
neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine arousal, memory
2. Serotonin mood, sleep, appetite
3. GABA inhibiting movement, restful sleep

4.
5.
6.
7.

Glutamate learning, memory formation, nervous system development

Norepinephrine arousal, mood
Dopamine control of movement and sensations of pleasure
Endorphins pain relief

Go back to synaptic vesicle Resting Process

Reuptake
Glutamate nervous systems major excitatory neurotransmitter
Nervous system
Central nervous system
1. Brain
2. Spinal Cord
3 types of Neurons
1. Afferent Neurons sensory
2. Efferent Neurons motor; spinal cord to other parts of the body
3. Interneurons
Peripheral Nervous System
1. Somatic Nervous system voluntary
2. Autonomic Nervous system involuntary
a) Sympathetic division reacting to stressful events
b) Parasympathetic decision day-to-day functioning of organs and glands
Glands
1. Pineal Gland secretes melatonin for biological rhythms (sleep and wake)
2. Pituitary master gland (dwarfism, giantism)
3. Thyroid regulate growth and metabolism
a) Hyperthyroid gets tired easily, lose weight
b) Hypothyroid metabolism is super slow; gain weight
4. Pancreas controls level of blood sugar
a) Hypoglycemia too low sugar
b) Hyperglycemia too high sugar
5. Adrenal Glands stress, regulate salt intake
6. Gonads sex glands
Peeking Inside the Brain
Clinical Studies
Deep lesioning insertion of a thin insulated wire into the brain
Electrical stimulation of the brain milder electric current causes neurons to react
Computed Tomography brain-imaging method using computer controlled x-rays of the
brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic
fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain

Electroencephalograph machine designed to record the electroencephalogram

Electroencephalogram a recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical
neurons
Positron Emission Tomography brain-imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is
injected into the subject
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography neuroimaging method that is similar to
PET but uses a different radioactive tracer
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows for
functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation
Brain Stem
Medulla life-sustaining functions; breathing, swallowing, heart rate; damaged death
Pons bridges; sleep, dream, arousal, left-right
Reticular Formation attention, alert
Cerebellum balance, posture, muscle coordination, involuntary motor movement
Limbic System
Thalamus pathway sending information
Hypothalamus sleep, sex, hunger, thirst
Hippocampus long-term memories; storage of memory for location
Amygdala fear responses
Cortex outer covering of the brain; higher thought processes
Corticalization wrinkling of the cortex
Olfactory Bulbs sends information to the receptors of nose
Cerebral Hemispheres two sections of the cortex on left & right sides of the brain
Left sequence and analysis (language, speech, handwriting, math)
Right global sense (perception, visualization, pattern recognition, faces,
emotional expression, spatial perception)
Corpus Callosum thick band of neurons that connect the right and left cerebral
hemispheres
Lobes of the Brain
Occipital sight, vision
Temporal hearing
Frontal decision-making, higher mental processes, fluent speech
**Motor Cortex sends motor commands to the muscles of Somatic NS
Parietal taste, touch, temperature
**Somatosensory Cortex processing information from skin and internal body receptors
Association Areas areas within each love of the cortex responsible for the coordination and
interpretation of information; higher mental processing

Brocas Aphasia unable to speak fluently, mispronounce words

Wernickes Aphasia unable to understand or produce meaningful language
Spatial neglect inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field
Split Brain he has to see to know the thing / Cerebrum