merical analysis geomorphology introduction in C Doornkamp Fn geography University of Nottingham ® EDWARD ARNOLD| Drainage basins and stream networks ee ee ymetric properties, Problems in stream metry and_ geomorphological. proc of drainage be In an open system jport and export of mater4 DRAINAGE BASINS ‘compensating changes in the system. Under the condition of steady state it of part I of this book is to illustrat ‘may be discerned through the apj techniques are here to be used in order” 1 to study the relationships between the morphometric properties study slope form (part 1.1 Defining a drainage basin Ordering systems ‘cams, When two first-order streams join together they rder stream, when two second-order streams join they ‘order only occurs when two streams system the head of each second-order (0 first-order streams, In the system designation back to the head ofthe longest ofits first-order tributaries, and her orders. In this study the Strahler syitem of ordering i it can for streams. ‘Alternative. systems of ordering. streams have been suggested by Scheidegger (1965), Woldenberg (1966) and Shreve (1967) These alternatives were suggested because of weaknesses apparent in the systems DRAINAGE BASINS AND STREAM NETWORKS 5 ton and Strahler Scheidegger (1965) points out that in the Strahler “mn where two streams of order 1 join they forma streamof order w+} 1. yhen a stream of order w is int should be by defining. netion of two streams (of order » and w respec- a= bogs 2" + 2") neans that in the Scheidegger system all of the extreme outward ler system, he ‘magnitude of a then the resultant downstream, tary junctions (as demanded. also a divect statement of As Shreve points out,6 DRAINAGE Basins ‘The mathematical relationship between strcam order Scheidegger, and its magnitude, as defined by Shreve # = log 24 Woldenberg (1966) finds that succesive orders in the Strabler new logarithinie cycles to the base of the bifurcation rao measure of the amount of branching in the network, see Tables -) He suggests, therefore, that anew absolute order should be derived by sig the bifurcation rato to succesive incyer powers eunaley order aninus one as defined by ing the Strahler system, be many advantages in the Shreve system and further re irected towards examining its application more fully, defined and measured. For example, as a development of the ordering system it is possible to speak not only of first-order streams but also of firsvorder drainage basins. These arc the areas drained by first-order Possible to have a second-order drainag ‘case the parallel with the stream ordering system ni Is good for a second-order basin also includes the area occupied all of the firstorder basins which drain into it, and not area around the stream channel which has been designated as a second-order stream. A third-order drainage basin includes not onl supply water directly to the third-order stream but also by the first- and second-order streams which drain Morphometric properties Once a drainage basin watershed and its stream (or vall bbeen defined, measu length of first-order streams total length of cams (SL), number of and so on. Other drainage density ) The vs nsional characteristics. Thus measures of are one-dimensional ( igth), while basin area iis ‘oot/milo oF me ‘degrees fe degrees fea , ie H=Zz—z h RNAG, Fa =D x 4/5200 | cubic too | second "The superscript bar indicates (here and throughout) a mean value. Dimensions ih enumeraive | 0 a ° | ° Me Reafiten | : _ rn Ta La/Ne b Wher tek L : Fem Gafles | c square miles | Lt mes L t t 5 °8 DRAINAGE BASINS DRAINAGE BASINS AND STREAM NETWORKS 9 measure, being equal to total strean (L=L?=17) Stream numbers an ratio are dimensionless. In the cry largely, be referred fore, constantly to return to Table 1 1 for reference, divided by basin area such Problems in stream ordering Problems which are a result of local pecul lering is undertaken according to 1] apparent when Strahler system. These about the p: 1.2. Some problems in stream ordering and B_ by adding one tributary (B) the main stream increases from e may be difficulties over stream ordei ‘ordering becomes impossible where capture is a early course 0 tary of the Koga so Koyania Swamp, 3. Tho present captu10 DRAINAGE BASINS DRAINAGE BASINS AND STREAM NETWORKS ternal adjustments. Clearly this discussion is also relevant been reorganized by man, for instance by an extent that a natural system of however, many areas r sis undertaken, leted of thenature, sequence, processes that have operated within a it would be an impossible task to assign ical values to these processes. The only reflection of past processes can be enumerated with any degree of certainty are the forms and istics which are present in the landscape today Some of yy reflect past processes rather more clearly than others. For igh density of valleys, which there now exists a low ex be recog: rain where order~ or effect of all Ithas to be appreciated such as those listed processes at work within a drainage basin. Through a co stream frequency, however, a comparative study can be made af. tensity of dr to another, and dr its per unit area. Nevertheless many of the variables listed relate to basin form and are the result of denudational processes. However, they are just as likely, if not more fo be the result of processes which have operated in the past than those which can be seen in operation today In a sense the processes of the past have given rise to the forms which we measure tod processes at work today will give rise to the forms of tomorrow It has been suggested, though, that changes in basin morphometry in response idly to provide a new ‘steady 5 ity the situation may be even more complex: is. Many landscapes have been affected by climatic change, In. ses this may range f nage basin development, \e other hand, there are characteristics of a drainage basin established, tend to At each stage nage basin will have been fall in the past to one of ‘This means that the present form of a drainage basin © result of a sequence of different processes, or of a different processes. ‘Thus it is possible that forms produced tions may be modified by the onset of aridity; if s, the landscape, which it is composed, may carry features resulting from each of these three climatic phases. Tt is not known how long it takes one sct of processes to eliminate all signs of a previous period. ape development. The change in processes need not be a come kind, instead it may be a change in intensity ‘Thus an. ing movement of soil and regolith on its slopes may be: to debris avalanches and to soil ercep. At it might be the movement of regol dominant process, but at another inge could be a response to result from internal changes wi example, debris avalanches may red fh that the slope is no longer su ur and soil creep may take over, und process affecting land-form development. ‘Th within a drainage basin may be the r y ten basins may differ a great deal from those that result in the numerical analysis of dr ing that at least 50 but, better in the case of drainage ical investigations, itis not possible to measure the total popu- features being studied, Instead any analysis has to be based on le drawn from the total population. One of the aims of statistics ides ly nature of tion by analysing the charac- ies of the sample. For this p) necessary for the sample to12 DRAINAGE BASINS bbe drawn at random in such a way that each member of the population in the sample, Random sampling is for one of the follo 1 they are inaccessible in the field 2 there is no air photograph cover 3. there is no base map available, Tic es yout Where these Where they do made by first defining numbered and the required set of basins can be drawn rence to a table of random numbers. If, on the other hand, regular selection across an area is required then the investigator pense with the table of random numbers, Thus if 150 bi ross the area are required for itations apply a sample cannot be properly rand: a random selection of drainage basins can be possible basins and locating these on a base igh it may be for a particular le ifa particular basins on an outcrop of granite, and ic sta? "The sewer’ depentis onthe satscal tes bbe adapted to allow for only s (on this granite outcrop) rather than a sample, as it 1ps, such as the Ordnance Survey 1 25,000 series, may be accurate for some purposes, but where precise relationships cs are being defined they may not prove to be adequate, field, or from high-quality and large-scale air photographs. The funda DRAINAGE BASINS AND STREAM NETWORKS 19) al failing of most published relief maps is that they do not allow a n of the number or lengths of first-order valleys and stem is dependent upon this \d or from air photographs. fhe measures of basin area and all izontal equivalents of the ground ;nt amount only if the terrain contains some very to be a serious difference then a precise value fainage basin can be obtained by the con- m the same type Tr will, however, provide a sou when basins are being compared from an area of steep slopes in one case14 DRAINAGE Basis DRAINAGE BASINS AND STREAM NETWORKS 15 thin the drainage , Fight down to be shown, appear on appeared to be made on two ‘or on good air photographs, sphs of the same quali of valley networks, uniformi ‘on maps Photographs at a scale of 10,000 were used to define the valley net work of a part of Uganda (chapter 2). A comparison of the networl mapped in this way wi oe | 0m 198 at pints, Val i 201 4g 1-68 soa | tee network red. ade by Gregory (1966) of dl i can be mappe aphs. The valleys new streams may start on the footslope. Under these c valley would be designated first-order, but higher orders are involved.16 DRAINAGE BASINS for example, he found that d obtained according ‘These values are 1% cis important that whenever the results of a morphometric analysis are presented a clear statement should be made of the method used to fn the method of data collecting, compat m two different areas wi ¥e meaning in the same way, and from the same type source material, in both 1.2 The laws of drainage composition of streams of each order when compared with the order vi ‘The first law of drainage composition (the aww of siream stated by Horton (1945, p. 291) to be: ‘The number of streams of different orders ‘The average tend closely a drainage basin there is a progressive decrease in the number of streams as the numerical value of the stream order increases. The number of first-order streams is greater than the number of second-order streams, and so on. This relationship follows a geometrical series which can be demonstrated by plotting the number of streams of each order on a logarithmic scale against stream order on an arithmetic scale (Fig. 1.5). The second law suggests that as stream order increases so does the mean length of the streams. This too is apparent from a graph of mean stream length, on the log seale, against stream order, plotted on the ordinal scale. More recently suggestions have been made that ‘curmulative mean length should replace the ‘me .959; Bowden and Wall horley, 1957, Morisawa, 19625 1962, Strabler, 1964, Gregory, 1956; Slaymaker, elby, 1967 & 19685 Ghose et al., 1967). ‘Horton (1945) also found that there isa close relationship between the DRAINAGE BASINS AND STREAM NETWORKS 17 radient of a stream and its order (the Jaw of stream gradients). This is ionstrated by the straight-line graph which results irom plotting the fhm of mean stream gradient against basin order Chorley (1957) Hes Sd f) 5 Ai Fig. 1.5. Relation of stream numbers, ql f basin. After Brush (1961) using Horton's ordering system, uch as the law of basin areas, developed by Schumm (1956), which states 1 at each of the different orders tends to approxi= first term is the mean atea of area of drainage This suggests inevitable outcome of the laws of drainage composition may be the18 DRAINAGE BASINS the logic of the ordering system applied to a naturally branch system has been employed for defining drainage basins o which the rel ascertained. For example it could be assumed basins of a group of third-order basins woul order streams is greatest the number of second-order streams is also greatest. This type of approach is rather different from that employed by Horton in producing his of drainage composition, The precise study of the rela ‘morphom a group of drainage basins cannot be undertaken ‘Not only does num ‘The next chapter introdu of some drainage basins of the area is provided, as analysis is undertaken. The variables and th also described. In chapter 3 the variables are examined two at an illustration of the type of pair-wise relationships wh Uganda third-order basins. These results are compared wi in the same area, and wi Chapter 4 is concerned with the same + a case study of the morphometric properties Uganda. A summary of the geomorphology ‘within this context that the numerical morphological regions, or if other forms of grouping are indicated. References BOWDEN, K.t. and WALI, |_R. 1964. Effect of ‘on Horton's laws of d 787-74. BROSCOR, “A. J. 19; : Quantitative geomorphology of small drainage DRAINAGE BASINS AND STREAM NETWORKS 19 is of southern Indiana. Columbia Univ., Dept. of Gel, Tech. Rept. In Slaymaker, H. ©., editor, Morpho- is of maps, British Geomorph. Research Group, Ove. Paper 4 strating the laws of morphometry. Geol. Mag 1962” Geomorphology and general systems theory. US. Gel. Sur. Prof SDE, 5. and TAL, 6. inage basins it flr Ceomorph. ‘of stream Iengths from orn, A. 3, 1065 col. Sure. Prof Paper y of the Greywacke ranges Earth Sci. F 1520 DRAINAGE BASINS STRAHLER, A. x, 1952: Dynamic basis of geom ogy Bull. Geol. Soe, wintians, p. w 1906 Suggested tec temperate karst land forms. In Morp British Geomorph. Research Group, Oce. Po WOLDENBERG, at. J. 1966" Hi laws growth and steady st BI. 2 The nature of morphometric data cal background to the Uganda case study 2.2 Collecting the dat: ee arian chapters 10 jues to drainage bas sever, itis necessary to examine the geomorphology ‘Uganda examples are taken, suffered from of its drainage (Doornkamp and surfaces occur area (Doorn-Co Ferran atte, [Him Fault scarp cite, El Aiea Lake Nabugabo It Kyoaya Valley = Main avice = IL Busy Mes IV Nyabushozi Srettah OF piten ‘THE NATURE OF MORPHOM ) they occur within lowlands, Th aracter between jer Uganda drainage bas farying amounts ofa summit planation suria mn Figure 2.1 and their main character srent major drainage systems, and they ha ETRIC DATA 23 dl areas retain remnants of the upland is which have a wide range of differing characteristics. They they are developed been cut into a 1c regions from which the drainage basins were taken are jes are summarizedthe mein civide between the arsinage to U Vietaria and that ‘othe rift valley Position with resp Dominant rock types Mean relative lot between upland and Towdand planation surfaces tics of the areas analysed ‘Amount of upland planation surface within basins measured Region within L. Vitoria system onciss small areas on most 300 feet 1 Lako Nabugebo eo a8 ties i watersheds sasvide main divide ‘neiss 1V Nyabushozi tant ‘within L. Vietora system within system draining schist and gnoiss V Bubale Valley quartz-mioa and mica Vi Mbarara Lowland ‘schist shales, phylite and within L. Vitoria system 1,300 fest watersheds Faas shales, phyllite and small areas on most small areas on most Yi Buhweju Mts. within L. Victoria systom 1100 feet VIL Rewampara Mis. ‘quareite ‘watersheds THE NATURE OF MORPHOMETRIC DATA 25 llecting the data .d occupied by the drainage basins which are analysed below, the Uganda 1 : 50,000 topographic maps (series Y 732). indicated on these base maps by form lines drawn from aerial and with reference to spot heights established on the ground. rainage lines and branches of the valley system are marked by wes on these maps. These were inserted for the basins measured, c aerial photographs (scale about 1 30,000) Some of the maps way were checked against morphological maps (of the ‘bed in chapter 6) drawn in the field. The actual delimitation ley net has been possible to a degree commensurate with the detail shown by the aerial photographs. Field checking sug- the result is the same as would have been obtained if the valley. been mapped entirely in the field. For much of the year many of rder branches of the valley net are without runt \e rainy seasons, however, every branch carries running water s an integral part of the drainage system, In this area there is, ice as to whether or not the dry valley sections of the nd drainage systems are one and the same thing. fe measured from the 1 50,000 maps with a polar planimeter are thus not ground values but their horizontal equivalents. distances were all measured with dividers, These measure- ided by the 150,000 base maps. The values are s the maps themselves. Although the absolute values may not be ly of the right order of magnitude. For example, Crest is mapped at 4,300 feet and another at 4,350 feet, the crests may not be absolutely correct but the second nly be higher than the first. these measurements the available data for analysis con- les, either measured or derived from those measured, for sie. 3,250 numbers. For ease of handling such ine ing cards, with one card carrying all of the When a very large number of observations have been these in such a way that their main charac-28 DRAINAGE BASINS bea: ted which summarize main properties of the observ ns made fon each variable, These values include measures of central tendency and spersion (or spread of data values) For example, the area of the basins Uganda, together with the drainage density and a, | 6 | ot ° 34 rd 90 109 13 6 10 123 125 128 128 129 130 18) 16 27 | 63 aa] 37 11) 98 7) 105 2 127 a 2 9 1) 130 * Rounding streams in each basin, can be summarized by a frequ (Table 2.2) Here the range of values observes 123 407, 67-0 154 208 908 978 90-3, 1000 nber of first-order 262 245 185 77 104 15 | st St 13 08 15 os q os | t008 toot wp. bl fthtd-ordr besin (square J23 oy Number of streams in 24 third-order basin he) per square 84 ‘order basins 54 a. 100 70 15 08 100-18 rors prevent the rf, column from summing to precisely 100%, THE NATURE OF MORPHOMETRIC DATA 27 ‘and number of fist- yen Uganda in each ‘ammatic mn of the data is by means range of data values is lard deviation (see Table 2. in the data, the latter indi iendency, these are the mean, jown as the average value. For28 DRAINAGE BASINS 130 third-order ba shows that this must be al the last in the 1-2 square mi is the value of the most frequently recurs Table 2.3 Standard deviation calculated for the area of ten thitd-order basins, Kyogya Valley Uganda 3.08, 263 224 098, 094 62 039 176 300 534 $= 2:54 square mites Soeaz ‘here Xs the value of basin area in square mile. Note: x n ealeulating Xi — X negative signs ar ignored, in the total spread of values up to 13 square miles. The mean takes into account all data values, whereas the median and the mode are obtained by reference to the number of observations rather than their magnitude, ‘The fact that most of the data observ size classes (for Ay) is also si ns are made in the first two produces cha normal distribution have the same value, be defined by measut ‘The spread of t (Ge. standard ME NATURE OF MORPHOMETRIC DATA 29 1e cases lie within two standard deviations of lard deviation (s) can be calculated from: °, Xj is each individual value, X is the mean of, rvations, and n is the number of cases. ow how the standard deviation may be calculated the area was ired for each of ten third-order basins tributary to the Kyogya "These values are tabulated in Table 2.3. The mean area of the s and the standard deviation 2°54 square miles. used to represent the standard deviation, but only ly a possible e 2.3 the standard deviation is calculated from le of the population, thus has been substituted for o. It ke an estimate (@) of a from s by the equati xs y be illustrated by to the example of Table 2.3 {x 854 x 254 = 2°68 square miles 1¢ value of these techniq logical it is important to note that the frequency table ) can be expanded. Two more columns may be added relating lative frequency (c. relatioe cumulative frequency (rc) ely The former is derived by successively adding together the 1¢ frequency column (f), starting at the top of the table. value of each cumulative frequency taken as a percentage otal number of observations. does Table 2.2 provide a summary of the data, it also allows probability statements to be made. For example, as far as the FFA, are concemed the r.c.£ column shows that more than 50% hhave areas of less than 2 square miles. her, and final column, can be added to Table 2.2 and this is the kp.) column. The values under this heading wnd ave the proportion that the frequency the total number of observations. For the + class the calculation is, 2B x 100 = 245% 130 ‘ geomorphTable 2.4 Moans and standard deviations (s) for basin area (A,), desinage density (D,) and numberof fist {(N2) in some third-order Uganda drainage basins Drainage density Number of first-order steams Aveo ] eed Ay rm r fr | PRERRPHAR hee egteitle sisi S2é2aeace whore n = number of basins in esch morphological region THE NATURE OF MORPHOMETRIC DATA &1 relative frequency in proportion values can be divided by 100 in case to allow a probability statement to be made. Thus there is a probability that a basin chosen at random from the Uganda data fe an area of 8-g square miles. Likewise the probability that a have an area of 5-5 square miles is (0-077 -+ 0-101) = 0-178. sd another way IA, is the area of a randomly selected vability () that it will have an area of between 3 and 13

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