Running Head: Research Paper Reclaiming a Richer

Research Paper: Reclaiming a Richer Understanding of Poverty

Caitlin A. Leffingwell
Eastern University

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Research Paper: Reclaiming a Richer Understanding of Poverty

Abstract
As one of the most pervasive social problems in our world today, poverty is unanimously
deplored and battled on both a global and local level. Yet the fight against such a universal foe is
critically hindered by assuming a common understanding of its definition, causes, and impacts
never mind potential solutions. As such, this paper aims to extract these fundamental themes
from a wide variety of both secular and Christian sources in order to provide future research with
a more solid foundation on this convoluted subject.
Key Words: poverty, definition, causes, impact, solutions, cross-cultural, global, scripture
Introduction
Regardless of time period or global location, a common theme in the story of humankind
has been a continual quest not only for survival, but also for improvement. Yet even a grand
history of advancement still leaves us plagued by social problems, which Mooney calls
conditions that a segment of society views as harmful to members of society and in need of
remedy (2014, p.3). Chief among these problems is that of povertyan issue so pervasive and
convoluted that even just the mention of it can automatically make our skin crawl, fists raise,
minds churn, and hearts feel strangely weary. It has garnered well-deserved attention from a
variety of stakeholders, and all agree that poverty is an adverse reality. Yet this agreement is also
built around a myriad of assumptions, such as a shared definition of poverty and a common
understanding of its causes and consequences. Without first wrestling with these assumptions,
how can we hope to change something that we may not mutually understand?
In light of such challenges, the purpose of this paper is to both synthesize and analyze a
wide range of existing perspectives on poverty in order to begin reclaiming a richer

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understanding that is both cross-culturally relevant and scripturally sound. It will take into
account views primarily from newspaper articles, interviews, international anecdotes, and
scholarly studies. Although this focus inherently limits discussion of the many nuanced elements
of poverty, this paper seeks to improve the effectiveness and reliability of such future research by
establishing a more solid foundation for it. The first two sections will present definitions and
causes of poverty from both secular and Christian perspectives, followed by a third section on its
local and global impacts. The fourth section will then propose interdisciplinary solutions, and the
paper will conclude with a summary of findings and implications for further research.
Definitions
Secular Perspective
On a very basic level, the secular world has long defined poverty in terms of material
possession (Powell, 2013), such that absolute poverty refers to the lack of resources necessary
for well-beingmost importantly, food and water, but also housing, sanitation, education, and
health care (Mooney, 2014, p.174). This connection between poverty and physical needs has
formed the basis of many common statistical measures, which range from the Multidimensional
Poverty Index (the amount and extent of deprivation based on health, education, and living
standards) to the United States federal poverty level (the cost of food multiplied by three)
(Mooney, 2014; Clary, Kreisberg, & Terpstra, 2013; Catholic Campaign for Human
Development [CCHD], 2012). While providing a useful picture of this form of poverty, these
measurements have also revealed inconsistency between actual well-being and material
possessiona realization that has garnered increasing attention and led to a definition that
expands to include the social and psychological aspects of poverty as well (Economic and Social
Inclusion Corporation, 2014; Rynell, 2007; Greer, 2014).

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While the material definition of poverty seems most associated with the Western world,
this expanded definition seems to be led in large part by those in developing countries and civil
rights disciplines. For instance, Greer from HOPE International noted that when a group of
Rwandan participantsmost of whom were living on less than two dollars a daydefined
poverty, only one answer mentioned money, while others included broken relationships,
isolation, and not being able to make progress (2014). Along these lines, Mooney (2014)
notes that Although many Americans think of poverty in terms of income level, for millions of
people, poverty is not primarily a function of income but of their alienation from sustainable
patterns of consumption and production (p.179). Powell (2012) also agrees that poverty includes
both material deprivation [and] other forms of group inequality, such as marginalization,
powerlessness, and group stigmatization (p.13); he even argues that [i]n a wealthy and mature
democracy, poverty is largely about social exclusion and the lack of belonging, not material
inequality (p.3). Inability to impact ones life materially or relationally can lead to deep
hopelessness, because such social exclusion means that the truly disadvantaged are essentially
outside the system of social mobility and forced to watch as society progresses without them
(Palen, 2014, p.193). Building from Robert Mertons strain theory, this definition of poverty
acknowledges that certain members of our world lack the resources necessary to attain both the
material and social goals so adamantly prescribed by society (Mooney, 2014, p.104).
Christian Perspective
A great portion of the Christian understanding of povertyas determined through
scripture and the works of prominent Christian scholarsentails these material and social
elements of poverty as well. To begin with, the Bible is incredibly clear about Gods special heart
for those who suffer from a lack of necessary resources due to oppression and other forms of

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injustice. Over and over He directs His children to free those who are wrongly imprisoned;
lighten the burden of those who work for you. Let the oppressed go free, and remove the chains
that bind people. Share your food with the hungry, and give shelter to the homeless. Give clothes
to those who need them, and do not hide from relatives who need your help (Isaiah 58:6-7, New
Living Translation). Scripture shows that pursuing justice in this very tangible way is a sign of
truly knowing God and a guaranteed way of getting to know Him better (Jeremiah 22:16;
Deuteronomy 15; Proverbs 22:9), while the lack thereof leads to terrible distance from God
(Proverbs 22:22-23; Isaiah 58). Likewise, scripture also affirms the terrible challenges of poverty
and refers to wealth as a form of blessingthe result of diligence, wisdom, and generosity
(Proverbs 10).
However, the Bible also places equal emphasis on the downsides of wealth and the upsides
of poverty. For instance, after a rich man turns away when asked to give his wealth to the poor,
Jesus famously exclaimed It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for
someone who is rich to enter the kingdom of God (Mark 10:24b-25, New International Version
[NIV]). Similarly, Jesus expresses the great blessings received by the poor, hungry, weeping,
hated, and excluded because great is your reward in heavena direct contrast to those who
enjoy abundant resources in this life but will receive none in the life to come (Luke 6:20-26,
NIV). As Evans observes,
Its hard for the wealthy to flourish in the kingdom that Jesus inaugurated because the
economy of that kingdom runs so contrary to the economies of the world. It rewards the
peacemakers over the powerful, the humble over the proud, the kind over the cruel, and
those who hunger to do the right thing over those whose wealth has convinced them they
already are. (2013)

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For these reasons and many more, God has chosen those who are poor in the eyes of the world
to be rich in faith and to inherit the kingdom he promised those who love him (James 2:5, NIV)
a beautiful reward that the Christian faith values above all others.
Through this unique blend of negative and positive possibilities for both poverty and
wealth, the Christian perspective both affirms and challenges the secular definition of poverty.
Moreover, doing so ultimately reveals a very different definition as wellone that encompasses
a deep and pervasive spiritual deficiency. Such need is characterized not by a lack of physical
resources or societal influenceimportant though those may bebut by a broken relationship
with our Creator and, by extension, broken relationships between others, creation, and even
ourselves (Corbett & Fikkert, 2009, pp.57-58). The Bible refers to this brokenness as sin and
succinctly explains its ubiquity in Romans 3:23 (NIV): For all have sinned and fall short of the
glory of God. The Greek word for the phrase fallen short, hystere, refers to falling behind in
a race, to lack and be in want, or even to be destitute as when the prophets were persecuted and
impoverished for the sake of proclaiming Gods Word (Blue Letter Bible, 2014). This picture of
deep spiritual poverty conveys an inability of all humans, rich or poor, to meet Gods perfect
standards and thereby secure a fulfilling and enriching relationship with our Creator. It puts the
material and social aspects of poverty into perspective not by nullifying their existence or
lessening our call to address them, but by revealing a much deeper need felt by all humankind
one whose depth and impact cannot be measured or even rectified by human effort.
Causes
Secular Perspective
In defining poverty as the lack of resources necessary to meet material and social needs,
the secular world predominantly attributes this social problem to economic issues caused by

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either individual deficiency or systemic inadequacy. Although overlap certainly exists, those who
attribute poverty primarily to individual deficiency argue that insufficient resources stem from
lack of effort, foolish decisions, or even overall inferiority. The American meritocracy in
particular is seen as a social system in which individuals get ahead and earn rewards based on
their individual efforts and abilities (Mooney, 2014, p.176), which can be seen in the
traditionally Republican mentality of attributing wealth largely to hard work (Blow, 2014). As
seen through the symbolic interactionist perspective, this mentality puts great emphasis on
individual effort and therefore assumes that people can be inferior because they are pooror
poor because they are inferior (Mooney, 2014).
On the other hand, structural-functionalist and conflict perspectives argue that poverty
results from institutional breakdown or the fact that those with power create systems that
perpetuate such power at the cost of the disadvantaged (Mooney, 2014, pp. 176-178). Democrats
in the United States illustrate this mentality by attributing wealth (or lack thereof) primarily to
advantages and circumstances beyond ones control (Blow, 2014). This mindset claims that
poverty stems primarily from systemic issues like disastrous criminal justice systems, skewed
welfare incentives, pervasive racism, dual credit market, and even the steady erosion of marriage
(Berlin, 2008, pp.7-8; Sawhill, 2014; Powell, 2012, pp.11). Although far beyond the scope of this
paper, both of these perspectives understandably revolve almost entirely around economic
rationaleciting forces that have been at work since urban diversification of labor first allowed
economic surplus and inequality (Berlin, 2008; Clary, Kreisberg, & Terpstra, 2012; Palen, 2014).
Christian Perspective
Much as it adds a uniquely nuanced perspective to the secular definition of poverty, the
Christian perspective of what causes poverty also extends beyond just the economics of

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individual or systemic inadequacy. As Tim Keller (2003) explains, every worldview is formed
around a story that includes a mission (movement toward a meaningful goal), a problem (a
barrier that hinders that goal), and both protagonists and antagonists (those working either for or
against the mission). While both the secular and Christian worldviews seek a better world and
fight against the problem of poverty to achieve that goal, the secular world chooses to label
various aspects of creation as antagonists while a Christian worldview claims that every aspect of
creation was at first good, every aspect became broken by sin, and every aspect will once again
be perfect (Keller, 2003). In other words, the Bible reveals that poverty is not caused by a
singular facet of creation, such as irresponsible people or uncaring governments, but by the
permeation of sin in each persons heart and in the very fabric of our world. Marked by broken
relationships with our Creator and those around us, such spiritual poverty in turn causes the
multifaceted issues of physical and social poverty that Kotter describes in these examples:

Collecting riches by oppressing other people is now easier than creating wealth according
to the cultural mandate.

Laziness now competes with ambition and impedes work rather than spurring it
onwards...

The very creation itself groans in bondage to corruption which causes calamities and
disasters that destroy wealth and subject people to poverty.

Finally, death itself is a result of sin and leaves widows and orphans destitute. (2013)

When interviewing Melissa and David Leffingwell, both thoughtful middle-aged Christians, they
explained that povertyspecifically chronic material and social povertyis in many ways like
a thermometer that marks the painful symptoms of a much deeper illness (M. Leffingwell & D.
Leffingwell, personal interview, November 28, 2014). While difficult in and of itself, the

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persistence of poverty actually reflects a sin issue that permeates the hearts of both the poor and
wealthy alike. In these ways and countless more, the gap between us and our Creator contributes
brokenness to our world that proliferates both material and social poverty.
Impact
Globally
When measuring material poverty with methods like those mentioned previously, results
reveal great poverty in developing countries and shamefully persistent levels of poverty in many
developed countries. Though such rates do vary widely by country, data collected by the World
Bank shows that Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) remain
the poorest regions in the world, despite the fact that their extreme poverty rates recently
decreased drastically (Theis, 2013). Marking a decrease from 43% in 1990, about 17% of the
population in all developing countries currently lives at or below $1.25 a day; while this means
that over 1 billion people still live in extreme poverty, the decline is expected to continue as
economic growth climbs in many of the worlds most impoverished countries (World Bank,
2014; World Bank LAC, 2010). As David Leffingwell noted, healthy economic growth should
allow improvement for all by enlarging every piece of the piea reality that will hopefully
emerge as developing countries continue to grow (M. Leffingwell & D. Leffingwell, personal
interview, November 28, 2014). In fact, studies show growing levels of very effective
philanthropy from wealthy individuals in Africa, Asia, and India who regularly invest large
percentages of their wealth toward local anti-poverty initiatives (Cantegreil, Chanana, &
Kattumuri, 2013; Mahmood & Santos, 2011; Mahomed, 2014).
Unfortunately, a 2008 study by the Organization for Economic and Cooperative
Development (OECD) revealed that two thirds of the industrialized countries in the worldmost

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notably Canada, Germany, Norway, and the United Statesare actually showing signs of the
opposite trend, as rates of poverty and inequality continue to rise (Shah, 2011). Moreover, the
impact of poverty in developing and developed countries alike is consistently felt most strongly
by certain subgroups. Poverty rates are universally highest for women and children (particularly
in families with no father present), and poverty in the United States remains highest among
blacks and Latinos as well (Berlin, 2008; Rynell, 2007; Mooney, 2014). All of these subgroups
struggle more than their counterparts to acquire the means necessary for basic survivallet
alone the opportunity for improvement. Even when approached with basic statistics only dealing
with the material elements of poverty, this social problem clearly has a stunning impact on our
world today.
Locally
In addition to this striking global impact, poverty takes on a whole new meaning when
observed at a local level. Mooney (2014) claims that the United States has the greatest degree of
income inequality and the highest rate of poverty in any industrialized nation (p.180), which
both contradict the values of fairness, justice, and equality of opportunity, and constitute a
moral violation of basic human rights. Economic inequality and poverty are also viewed as
problems because they have economic and social consequences that affect the whole society
(p.184). Such consequences are particularly harsh when observed in terms of what Powell (2012)
calls a poverty of belongingness, which stems from social exclusion that then weakens relational
connections to the point of societal collapse (Palen, 2014, p.194). As often seen in consumeristic
capitalism, pervasive scorn and envy arise when our natural tendency to compare ourselves with
others collides with a society that is stratified from top to bottom by race, class, gender, etc.a
result that harms both sides of this disastrous game (Powell, 2012, p.7). Moreover, both material

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and social poverty tend to be intergenerational and can have very negative effects on children in
particulara subgroup that makes up 35% of those affected by poverty in the United States
(Mooney, 2014, p.181). A UNICEF report card referenced in OHare (2009) calls childhood
poverty the most telling single indicator of child well-being that not only costs the United
States an estimated $500 billion each year (p.3) but also correlates with significant negative
outcomes later in life, including adult poverty, dropping out of high school, and teenage
pregnancy (Ratcliffe & McKerman, 2010).
When narrowed down even more to the small city of Hartford, Connecticut, this picture
becomes even clearer. Although Connecticut is the fourth wealthiest state in the country (De
Avila, 2012), 21% of its population lives below twice the poverty linerevealing a poverty rate
of 9% that has been rapidly increasing since 1990 (Haar, 2013). Moreover, these rates mask the
24% and 27.6% poverty rate experienced by African American and Hispanic residents,
respectively, as well as the 38% poverty rate specifically in Hartford (Connecticut Voices for
Children, 2013). The poverty rate for children in Hartford was even 53.1% in 2012higher than
any other city in the state and currently on the rise (Connecticut Voices for Children, 2013; De
Avila, 2012). When experienced in the midst of an otherwise wealthy state, this material lack is
compounded by poignant social poverty; Palen (2014) addresses this effect by explaining that
the feeling of being ignored and bypassed while all around others rise can lead to explosions of
frustrationor worse, despair and violencenot only against oneself but also against ones
children. The bondage of unstable slums is made doubly oppressive by the relative prosperity of
those outside their boundaries (p.154). As a result of what Christians call spiritual poverty, the
impact of these material and social forms of poverty is truly a terrible social problem that
requires our immediate attention.

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Recommended Solutions
Secular Perspective
Reflecting its understanding of poverty as a material and social issue that stems from
either individual or systemic economic failure, the secular world generally proposes solutions
that also stem from an economic foundation. According even to a survey of recent newspaper
articles and research papers, these acclaimed protagonists, as Tim Keller would say, range
from a greater emphasis on traditional marriages (Blow, 2014) to better support for poor parents
(Kristof & WuDunn, 2014), improved social norms for parenthood (Sawhill, 2014) to
government support for low-income workers (Berlin, 2008, p.12). Organizations of every size in
virtually every country work tirelessly to combat this social problem by lobbying for better
government assistance and welfare programs, investing in economic and human development
strategies like microcredit loans, raising living wages, improving education systems, forgiving
international debts, promoting cross-cultural service trips for students, and even sponsoring
incredible long-term global research (Mooney, 2014). Despite criticism for its capitalistic bent
and problematic use of privatization (Portello & Diaz, 2008), the World Bank exemplifies largescale attempts to eradicate poverty in its multifaceted attempts to create a world free of poverty
(World Bank, 2014). In response to the problem of social poverty, others also promote strategies
for increasing societal belongingness and inclusion, such as Powells emphasis on communities
of opportunity, targeted universalism, and larger circles of concern through collaborative
exposure to the other (2013, p.19). Although showing an equally wide range of success rates,
all of these efforts share a great deal of potential for helping impoverished individuals gain
access to the material and social resources necessary for life.
Christian Perspective

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Because of Gods great compassion for the poor and oppressed, the Christian response to
poverty entails efforts very similar to those of the secular world. In fact, global organizations like
World Vision and Compassion International exist solely to help communities reach their full
potential by strategically counteracting poverty of all forms as a direct expression of Gods love
(World Vision, 2014; Compassion International, 2014). Similarly, scripture motivates local
organizations like PovertyUSA to implement numerous strategies (including community
organizing, education both for the poor and regarding poverty, and an emphasis on honoring
human dignity through fair wages) for promoting both education for economic justice and
helping people who are poor speak and act for themselves (CCHD, 2012). Working to alleviate
material and social poverty in these ways aligns with Gods command to be generously
openhanded to the poor and needya command accompanied with the promise of rich
blessings and even the eradication of chronic poverty (Deuteronomy 15:4-11, NIV). The results
of such beautifully voluntary redistribution can be seen among the early Church, where Gods
grace was so powerfully at work in them all that there were no needy persons among them
(Acts 4:34-37, NIV). Clearly, continuing such effortswhen scripturally sound and
economically wiseis an important part of solving this social problem.
Nonetheless, even with a necessary continuation of such efforts, the true fight against
poverty must ultimately stem from a victory over the spiritual poverty that plagues us all.
According to the Christian perspective, the true protagonist in our fight against poverty is neither
ourselves nor a piece of this created world; even the fact that we rarely acknowledge our own
personal contributions to this brokenness attests to our own antagonistic nature and spiritual
deficiency. Yet when we begin to understand that the bad guys around us are actually just a
result of the bad guy within each of us, we discover our true need for a good guy that cannot

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be found in either. Far from leaving us in desperate hopelessness, however, God provided the
ultimate protagonist through His Son, who, by paying the death penalty for our sins, made a way
for all to have a restored relationship with their Creator through faith (Romans 3:24-25). The
apostle Paul writes in Titus 3:3-6:
For we ourselves were once foolish, disobedient, led astray, slaves to various passions
and pleasures, passing our days in malice and envy, hated by others and hating one
another. But when the goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior appeared, he
saved us, not because of works done by us in righteousness, but according to his own
mercy, by the washing of regeneration and renewal of the Holy Spirit, whom he poured
out on us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior. (English Standard Version)
By meeting our deepest need, such a sacrifice in turn sparks an inextinguishable fire of grateful
generosity in Believers that should drive us to share this spiritual richnessas well as any
amount of material and social richnesswith others out of humble joy. As Wytsma (2013)
writes, When justice is the place where you are closest to God, giving your life away becomes
your greatest delight (p.165). This mindset does not see material wealth solely as a result of
ones hard work nor as an evil to be avoided, but as a resource given by God to be used wisely as
an act of grateful worship (Ramsey, 2013). As such, the greatest interdisciplinary solution that
research can recommend for alleviating poverty is not merely more programs driven by
economic efforts, but the Spirit-led generosity of individuals and churches that emerges from a
grateful relationship with God through Jesus Christ our Savior.
Summary and Conclusion
Much like every social problem in our world, poverty is an incredibly complex issue that
humankind universally struggles to resolve. The diversity of those working to solve this problem

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has created an equally diverse understanding of its definitions, causes, impacts, and even
solutionsa diversity that needs to be recognized and even utilized for true change to occur. As
such, this research paper analyzed a wide variety of sources from both secular and Christian
perspectives to extract fundamental building blocks that further research can build upon to
understand and resolve the many more nuanced aspects of poverty. This foundation begins by
defining poverty in terms of material, social, and spiritual insufficiency, which all stem not just
from individual or systemic economic failure, but ultimately from the sin that separates us all
rich and poor alikefrom a relationship with our perfect Creator. Such poverty deeply impacts
both developing and developed countries on a global level, and such challenges can even be seen
locally through some of the specific struggles of the poor in Hartford, Connecticut. Both secular
and Christian perspectives seek to alleviate this problem through a wide range of compassionate
and strategic economic remedies that serve to bring hope and Gods love to those suffering from
material and social poverty. Yet acknowledging that the true problem lies within each of us
reveals that we must seek a solution outside of our own powernamely our Savior, Jesus Christ,
who paid the price necessary for us and our world to be right with God once more. Only through
faith in him and lives marked by grateful generosity can this world truly see the redemption and
restoration that we all yearn for so desperately.

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