UNIT

I SPARK IGNITION
ENGINES PART-A
1. What are the stages of combustion in a SI engine? (MAY 2010)
The stages of combustion in a SI engines are:
FIRST STAGE: Ignition lag (or) preparation phase
SECOND STAGE: propagation of flame
THIRD STAGE: After burning
2. What are the various factors that affect the flame speed?
The various factors that affect the flame speed are:
a) Turbulence b) Fuel-air ratio c) Temperature d) pressure d) compression ratio e) engine
speed,
size &output
3. Define normal combustion? (APR 2011)
In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across the
combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.
4. Define abnormal combustion and its consequences? (NOV 2011)
Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its normal Course
leading
to loss of performance and possible damage to the engine are termed as abnormal
combustion (or) knocking combustion. Consequences are (1). Loss of power (2). Recurring
pre ignition (3). Mechanical damage to the engine
5. What is equivalence ratio? (MAY 2010)
The ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to the stoichiometric fuel air ratio is called
equivalence
ratio
6. Short note on SI engine equivalence ratio requirements?
In a homogeneous mixture with equivalence ratio close to 1.0 the flame speed is
normally
of the order of 40cm/s .However in a SI engine the maximum flame speed is obtained when is
between 1.1 and 1.2 (i.e.) when the mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric.
7. Write the desirable qualities for SI engine fuel? (APR 2012)
In order to avoid or inhibit detonation, a high auto ignition temperature and a long
ignition lag are the desirable qualities for SI engine fuel.
8. Explain the type of vibration produced when auto ignition occurs.(APR 2008)
Two different vibrations are produced.
1. In one case, a large amount of mixture may auto ignite giving use to a very
rapid increase in pressure throughout the chamber and there will be a direct blow on free
vibration of the engine parts
2. In another case, larger pressure differences may exist in the combustion chamber and the
resulting gas vibration can force the walls of the chamber to vibrate at the same frequency as
the gas.
9. What is the method to detect the phenomenon of knocking? (APR 2009)
The scientific method to detect the phenomenon of knocking is to use a pressure transfer this
transducer is connected, usually to a cathode ray oscilloscope. Thus pressure-time traces can
be obtained from the pressure transducer.
10. List out some of the knock limited parameters? (NOV/DEC 2012)
The knock limited parameters are:
1. Knock limited compression ratio
2. Knock limited into pressure
3. Knock limited Indicated mean effective pressure.
11. Define performance number? (NOV/DEC 2012)
Performance number is defined as the ratio. Of Knock limited Indicated mean effective
pressure with the sample fuel to knock limited Indicated mean effective pressure with ISOOCTANE.
When the inlet pressure is kept constant.
12. List the factors that are involved in either producing (or) preventing knock.
The factors that are involved in either producing (or) preventing knock are temperature,
pressure, density of the unburned charge and the time factor.

13. List the parameters which are affecting knock in SI engine?

The parameters which are directly (or) indirectly connected with knocking are inlet
temperature of mixture compression ratio, mass of inducted charge, power output of the engine.
14. List the parameters in time factors that reduce the knocking? (NOV/DEC 2013)
Parameters are turbulence, engine speed, flame travel distance, combustion chamber shape
and location of spark plug.
15. List the composition factors in the knocking?(NOV 2014)
Air fuel ratio and octane value of the fuel are the composition factors.
16. What are the objectives to be kept in mind during design of combustion chamber?
General objectives are (a) smooth engine operation
1. Moderate rate of pressure rise
2. Reducing the possibility of knocking.
(b) High power output and thermal efficiency
17. What are the factors to be considered to obtain high thermal efficiency?(APR 2014)
Following are the factors:
1. A high volumetric efficiency.
2. Anti knock characteristics must be improved.
3. Compact combustion chamber reduces heat loss during combustion increases
the
thermal efficiency.
18. Write the different types of combustion chambering SI engine? (APR 2013)
T-Head type, L- Head type, I- Head type, F- Head type.
19. What are the components required in the fuel injection system?
Components are pumping
element, metering element,
mixing
element,
distributing element, Timing control, and ambient control.
20. What are the advantages of fuel injection in an SI engine?
Advantages are:
1. Increased volumetric efficiency.
2. Better thermal efficiency
3. Lower exhaust emissions
4. High quality fuel distribution.
21. List the drawbacks of the carburetion? (NOV/DEC 2011)
1. Non uniform distribution of mixture in multi cylinder engines.
2. Loss of volumetric efficiency due to retraction for the mixture flow and thepossibility
of
back firing.
22. What are the functional requirements of an injection system?
1. Accurate mixing of the fuel injected per cycle.
2. Timing the injection of the fuel.
3. Proper atomization of fuel into fine droplets
4. Proper spray pattern.
5. No lag during beginning and end of injection.
23. List some of the important requirements of automobile carbu retors? (NOV/DEC 2013)
1. Ease of starting the engine, particularly under low ambient conditions.
2. Good and quick acceleration of the engine.
3. Good fuel economy.
4. Ensuring full torque at low speeds.
24. What are the general types of carburetors?
Types are UPDRAUGHT, DOWN DRAUGHT, and CROSS DRAUGHT.
25. What are the essential parts, compensating device and additional system (modern)
carburetors? (NOV/DEC 2010)
Parts fuel strainer, float chamber, main metering and idling system, the choke &
the throttle. Compensating devise- Air bleed jet, compensating jet, Emulsion tube, auxiliary
valve
and port, back suction control mechanism.
Additional system Ant dieseling, richer coasting, acceleration pump and economic
(or)
power enrichment system.

26. Define carburetion?

(MAY 2015)
The process of formation of a combustible fuel air mixture by mixing the proper amount of
fuel
with air before admission to engine cylinder is called
carburetion.
27. What are the factors effecting carburetion? (MAY 2012)
1. The engine speed 2. The vaporization characteristics of fuel 3. The temperature of
the incoming air 4. The design of the carburetor
28. What are the different types air fuel
mixtures?
1.Chemically correct mixture 2. Rich mixture 3. Lean
mixture.
29. What are the different range of throttle
operation?
1. Idling 2. Cruising 3. High power.
30.What is a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture? In which engine is it used?(MAY/JUNE 2013)
Heterogeneous fuel-air mixtures is the mixture in which the mixing rates and chemical
kinetics are infinitely fast and that the sole criterion for successful ignition is an adequate
concentration of fuel vapor in the ignition zone. It is used in gasoline engines.
31.Sketch T-Head type combustion chamber used in S.I. engines.(MAY/JUNE 2013)

32. What is pre ignition? Explain.(NOV 2014)

Pre ignition describes the event wherein the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder ignites before the spark
plug fires.
33. Why S.I engine requires a rich mixture during idling and at full load? (MAY 2015)
During valve overlap, some of the exhaust gases are drawn back to the cylinder.The result is that
some of the chemically correct stoichiometric mixture of air and fuel will be so diluted that
combustion would be erratic or impossible.Therefore, engine requires a rich mixture during idling
and at full load.

PART B
1. Discuss why a modern carburetor is being replaced by an injection system in SI engine
?
(APR/MAY 2009)
Modern Carburetor: The increased fuel-air mixture achieved with this modern carburetor
is
responsible for a 20 to 30% gain in performance.. The benefit is the reduced wear on valves and
cylinders (excess fuel washes away lubricating oil) which leads to longer engine life. The use of
a nylon float, a neoprene float valve and an O-ring bowl gasket insure trouble-free operation. It
is easily adjustable to individual engines, and once adjusted, further adjustment is not required.
A new throttle rod is included. No modifications required except to fuel line. The use of a fuel
filter with this carburetor as the tolerances with this carburetor are closer than on the original
Ford carburetor and most Model Ts have a considerable amount of debris in their gas tanks. A
fuel pump might be needed on cars that do not have the gas tank under the cowl.
2. Explain the factors that affect the process of carburetion? (NOV/DEC
2010)
Factors affecting carburetion -Engine speed- in order to have high quality carburetion, the
air velocity of the air stream at the point where the fuel is injected has to be increased. This is
achieved by introducing a venture section in the path of the air.

Vaporizing characteristics of the fuel- presence of highly volatile hydrocarbons in the

fuel,
suitable evaporation characteristics of the fuel are necessary for efficient carburetion especially
at high engine speeds.
The temperature of the incoming air- the temperature and pressure of the surrounding air has
a large influence on efficient carburetion. Higher atmospheric temperature of the air increases
the
vaporization of the fuel and produces more homogeneous mixture. An increase in atmospheric
temperature leads to a decrease in power output of the engine and reduced volumetric
efficiency.
The design of the carburetor- proper design of the elements alone ensure the supply of
desired composition of the mixture under different operating conditions of the engine.
3. What are different air fuel mixture on which an engine can be operated? (APR/MAY
2011/MAY 2015)
Airfuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to fuel present in a combustion process such as
in
an internal combustion engine or industrial furnace. If exactly enough air is provided
to completely burn all of the fuel, the ratio is known as the stoichiometric mixture, often
abbreviated to stoic.

The stoichiometric mixture for a gasoline engine is the ideal ratio of air to fuel that burns all
fuel with no excess air. For gasoline fuel, the stoichiometric airfuel mixture is about 15:1
i.e. for every one gram of fuel, 15 grams of air are required. The fuel oxidat ion reaction is:
Any mixture greater than ~15 to 1 is considered a lean mixture; any less than ~15 to 1 is a Rich
mixture given perfect (ideal) "test" fuel (gasoline consisting of solely n-heptaneand isooctane). In reality, most fuels consist of a combination of heptane, octane, a handful of other
alkanes, plus additives including detergents, and possibly oxygenators such as MTBE (methyl
tert -butyl ether) or ethanol/methanol. These compounds all alter the stoichiometric ratio,
with most of the additives pushing the ratio downward (oxygenators bring extra oxygen to the
combustion event in liquid form that is released at time of combustions; for MTBE-laden fuel,
a stoichiometric ratio can be as low as 14.1:1). Vehicles that use an oxygen sensor or other
feedback loop to control fuel to air ratio (lambda control), compensate automatically for this
change in the fuel's stoichiometric rate by measuring the exhaust gas composition and
controlling fuel volume. Vehicles without such controls may have difficulties running certain
fuel blends and may require different jets (or otherwise have the fueling ratios altered) to
compensate. Vehicles that use oxygen sensors can monitor the airfuel ratio with an airfuel
ratio meter.
4.
Explain the following 1. Rich mixture, 2. Stoichiometric mixture 3. Lean
mixture. (APR/MAY 2011)
A rich mixture lower contains AFR number less air than the 14.7:1 stoichiometric AFR,
therefore it is a richer mixture. Conversely, a higher AFR number contains more air and
therefore it is a
leaner mixture.
A stoichiometric mixture unfortunately burns very hot and can damage engine components if
the
engine is placed under high load at this fuelair mixture. Due to the high temperatures at this
mixture, detonation of the fuelair mix shortly after maximum cylinder pressure is possible
under high load (referred to as knocking or pinging). Detonation can cause serious engine
damage as the uncontrolled burning of the fuel air mix can create very high pressures in the
cylinder. As a consequence, stoichiometric mixtures are only used under light load conditions.
For acceleration and high load conditions, a richer mixture (lower airfuel ratio) is used
to produce cooler combustion products and thereby prevent detonation and overheating of the
cylinder head.
Lean mixtures improve the fuel economy but also cause sharp rises in the amount of
nitrogen
oxides (NOX). If the mixture becomes too lean, the engine may fail to ignite, causing misfire
and a large increase in unburned hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. Lean mixtures burn hotter and
may cause rough idle, hard starting and stalling, and can even damage the catalytic converter, or
burn valves in the engine. The risk of spark knock/engine knocking (detonation) is also
increased when the engine is under load.
5. How the power and efficiency of the SI engine vary with air- fuel ratio for
different load and speed conditions? (MAY/JUNE 2009)
The engine speeds were varied from 2500 to 4500 rpm. The results show that the air-fuel
ratio and engine speed were greatly influence on the performance of hydrogen fueled engine
especially
Brake Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP), thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel
consumption
(BSFC). The decreases of the BMEP and brake thermal efficiency with increases of the
engine
speed and air-fuel ratio while the increases of the BSFC with increases of the speed and air-fuel
ratio. The cylinder temperature increases with increases of engine speed however temperature
decreases with increases of air-fuel ratio. The volumetric efficiency increases with increases of
engine speed and equivalent ratio. The volumetric efficiency of the hydrogen engines with port
injection is serious problem and reduces the overall performance of the engine. This

emphasized the ability of retrofitting the traditional engines with hydrogen fuel with minor
modifications.

Variation of brake mean effective pressure with air fuel ratio for various engine
speeds

Variation of brake thermal efficiency with air fuel

ratio

Variation of brake specific fuel consumption with air fuel ratio for different engine
speed
6. By means of suitable graph explain the necessary carburetor performance to
fulfill engine requirements? (NOV/DEC 2009)

Both air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine cylinders
by the suction created by the downward movement of the piston. This suction is due to an
increase in
the volume of the cylinder and a consequent decrease in the gas pressure in this chamber. It is
the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and cylinder that causes the air to flow
into the
chamber. In the carburetor, air passing into the combustion chamber picks up fuel
discharged from a tube. This tube has a fine orifice called carburetor jet which is exposed to the
air path. The rate at which fuel is discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference or
pressure head between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi and on the area of the
outlet of the tube. In order that the fuel drawn from the nozzle may be thoroughly atomized; the
suction effect must be strong and the nozzle outlet comparatively small. In order to produce a
strong suction, the pipe in the carburetor carrying air to the engine is made to have a restriction.

At this restriction called throat due to increase in velocity of flow, a suction effect is created.
The restriction is made in the form of a venturi to minimize throttling losses. The end of the
fuel jet is located at the venturi or throat of the carburetor.


It has a narrower path at the centre so that the flow area through which the air must pass is
considerably reduced. As the same amount of air must pass through every point in the tube, its
velocity will be greatest at the narrowest point. The smaller the area, the greater will be the
velocity of the air, and thereby the suction is proportionately increased.

The opening of the fuel discharge jet is usually located where the suction is
maximum. Normally, this is just below the narrowest section of the venturi tube. The spray of
gasoline from the nozzle and the air entering through the venture tube are mixed together in this
region and a combustible mixture is formed which passes through the intake manifold into the
cylinders. Most of the fuel gets atomized and simultaneously a small part will be
vapourized, increased air velocity at the throat of the venture helps the rate of evaporation of
fuel. The difficulty of obtaining a mixture of sufficiently high fuel vapour- air ratio for efficient
starting.
7. Explain why a rich mixture is required for the following 1. Idling 2. Maximum
power and sudden acceleration. (MAY/JUNE 2010)
Actual air-fuel mixture requirements in an automotive engine vary considerably from the
ideal conditions discussed in the previous section. For successful operation of the
engine, the
carburetor has to provide mixtures which follow the general shape of the curve ABCD (single
cylinder) and A'B'C'D' (multi cylinder)

The carburetor must be able to supply the required air-fuel ratio to satisfy these
demands. These ranges are:
Idling (mixture must be enriched)
Cruising (mixture must be leaned)
High Power (mixture must be enriched)

Idling Range
An idling engine is one which operates at no load and with nearly closed throttle. Under
idling
conditions, the engine requires a rich mixture, as indicated by point A. This is due to the
existing pressure conditions within the combustion chamber and the intake manifold which
cause exhaust gas dilution of the fresh charge.
The exhaust gas pressure at the end of the exhaust stroke does not vary greatly from the
value

indicated regardless of the throttle position. Since, the clearance volume is constant the mass of
exhaust gas in the cylinder at the end of the exhaust stroke tends to remain fairly constant
throughout the idling range. The amount of fresh charge brought in. during idling however
is

much less than that during full throttle operation, due to very small opening of the throttle. This
results in a much larger proportion of exhaust gas being .mixed with the fresh charge under
idling conditions.
Further, with nearly closed throttle the pressure in the intake manifold is considerably
below
atmospheric due to restriction to the air flow. When the intake valve opens, the pressure
differential between the combustion chamber and the intake manifold results in init ial
backward flow of exhaust gases into the intake manifold. As the piston proceeds down on the
intake stroke, these exhaust gases are drawn back into the cylinder along with the fresh charge.
As a result, the final mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber is diluted more by
exhaust gas. The presence of this exhaust gas tends to obstruct the contact of fuel and air
particles a requirement necessary for combustion.
This results in poor combustion and, as a result, in loss of power. It is, therefore, necessary
to
provide more fuel particles by richening the air-fuel mixture. Thus richening increases the
probability of contact between fuel and air particles and thus improves combustion.
8. Briefly explain the stages of combustion in SI engines elaborating the flame
front
Propagation. (MAY/JUNE 2011/APR 2014/NOV 2014/MAY 2015)
A typical theoretical pressure-crank angle diagram, during the process of compression (a to
b), combustion (b to c) and expansion (c to d) in an ideal four-stroke spark-ignition engine is
shown
below. In an ideal engine, as can be seen from the diagram, the entire pressure rise during
combustion takes place at constant volume i.e., at TDC. However, in an actual engine this
does
not happen.
The combustion process in a SI engine as consisting of three
stages:

A is the point of passage of spark (say 20obTDC); B is the point at which the beginning of
pressure rise can be detected (say 8 bTDC. and C the attainment of peak pressure. Thus
AB represents the first stage and BC the second stage and CD the third stage.

The first stage (A~B) is referred to as the ignition lag or preparation phase in which
growth and development of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes place. This is a chemical
process depending upon both temperature and pressure, the nature of the fuel and the proportion
of the exhaust residual gas. Further, it also depends upon the relationship between the
temperature and the rate of reaction.

 The second stage (B~C) is a physical one and it is concerned with the spread of the
flame
throughout the combustion chamber. The starting point of the second stage is where the first
measurable rise of pressure is seen on the indicator diagram i.e., the point where the line
of

combustion departs from the compression line (point B).This can be seen from the deviation
from the motoring curve. During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a
constant velocity. Heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low, because only a small part of
the burning mixture comes in contact with the cylinder wall during this period. The rate of
heat -release depends largely on the turbulence intensity and also on the reaction rate which is
dependent on the mixture composition. The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of
heat-release because during this stage, the combustion chamber volume remains practically
constant (since piston is near the top dead centre).
The starting point of the third stage is usually taken as the instant at which the maximum
pressure is reached on the indicator diagram (point C). The flame velocity decreases during this
stage. The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame velocity and reduced flame
front surface. Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage of combustion, with the piston
moving away from the top dead centre, there can be no pressure rise during this stage.
9. Explain the various factors that influence the phenomena of knock in SI engines?
(NOV/DEC 2012/MAY 2015)

In a spark-ignition engine combustion which is initiated between the spark plug

electrodes
spreads across the combustible mixture. A definite flame front which separates the fresh mixture
from the products of combustion travels from the' spark plug to the other end of the combustion
chamber. Heat-release due to combustion increases the temperature and consequently the
pressure, of the burned part of the mixture above those of the unburned mixture.
In order to effect pressure equalization the burned part of the mixture will expand,
and compress the unburned mixture adiabatically thereby increasing its pressure and
temperature. This process continues as the flame front advances through the mixture and the
temperature and pressure of the unburned mixture are increased further.
If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition temperature of the fuel
and remains at or above this temperature during the period of preflame reactions (ignition lag),
spontaneous ignition or autoignition occurs at various pin-point locations. This phenomenon is
called knocking. The process of autoignition leads towards engine knock.

In the normal combustion the flame travels across the combustion chamber from A towards
D. The advancing flame front compresses the end charge BB'D farthest from the spark plug,
thus raising its temperature. The temperature is also increased due to heat transfer from
the hot advancing flame-front Also some preflame oxidation may take place in the end
charge leading to further increase in temperature.
In spite of these factors if the temperature of the end charge had not reached its selfignition
temperature, the charge would not auto ignite and the flame will advance further and consume
the charge BB'D.
However, if the end charge BB'D reaches its autoignition temperature and remains .for some
length of time equal to the time of preflame reactions the charge will auto ignite, leading
to
knocking combustion. During the preflame reaction period if the flame front could move
from
BB' to only ee' then the charge ahead of ee' would auto ignite. Because of the
autoignition,

another flame front starts traveling in the opposite direction to the main flame front. When
the

two flame fronts collide, a severe pressure pulse is generated. The gas in the chamber is
subjected to compression and rarefaction along the pressure pulse until pressure equilibrium is
restored.
This disturbance can force the walls of the combustion chambers to vibrate at the
same frequency as the gas. Gas vibration frequency in automobile engines is of the order of 5000
cps.
It is to be noted that the onset of knocking is very much dependent on the properties of fuel.
It is clear from the above description that if the unburned charge does not reach its
autoignition
temperature there will be no knocking. Further, if the initial phase i.e., ignition lag period
is longer than the time required for the flame front to burn through the unburned charge, there
will
be no knocking.
But, if the critical temperature is reached and maintained, and the ignition lag is shorter
than
the time it takes for the flame front to burn through the unburned charge then the end charge
will detonate.
Hence, in order to avoid or inhibit detonation, a high autoignition temperature and a long
ignition lag are the desirable qualities for SI engine fuels.
When auto ignition occurs if two different types of vibration may be produced. In one case a
large-amount of mixture may auto ignite giving rise to a very rapid increase in pressure
throughout the combustion chamber and there will be a direct blow on the engine structure. The
human ear can detect the resulting thudding sound and consequent noise from free vibrations of
the engine parts.
In the other case, large pressure differences may exist in the combustion chamber and
the
resulting gas vibrations can force the walls of the chamber to vibrate at the same frequency as
the gas. An audible sound may be evident.
The impact of knock on the engine components and structure can cause engine failure and in
addition the noise from engine vibration is always objectionable.
The pressure differences in the combustion chamber cause the gas to vibrate and scrub the
chamber walls causing increased loss of heat to the coolant.
10. Explain the effects of various engine variables on SI engine knock. (NOV/DEC
2013/MAY 2015) EFFECT OF ENGINE VARIABLES ON KNOCK
These are the temperature, pressure, density of the unburned charge and the time
factors. Since, the effect of temperature, pressure and density are closely interrelated, these
three are
consolidated into one group and the time factors into another
group.
Density Factors
Any factor in the design or operation of an engine which tends to reduce the temperature of
the unburned charge should reduce the possibility of knocking by reducing the temperature of
the end
charge for autoignition. Similarly, any factor which reduces the density of the charge tends to
reduce knocking by providing lower energy release.
Further, the effect of the following parameters which are directly or indirectly connected
with temperature, pressure and density factors on the possibility of knocking is discussed below.
Compression Ratio:
Compression ratio of an engine is an important factor which determines both the pressure
and
temperature at the beginning of the combustion process. Increase in compression ratio increases
the pressure and temperature of the gases at the end of the compression stroke. This decreases
the ignition lag of the end gas and thereby increasing the tendency for knocking.
The overall increase in the density of the charge due to higher compressio n ratio increases
the
pre flame reactions in the end charge thereby increasing the knocking tendency of the engine,
The increase in the knocking tendency of the engine with increasing compression ratio is the
main reason for limiting the compression ratio to a lower value.
Mass of Inducted Charge:

A reduction in the mass of the inducted charge into the cylinder of an engine by throttling or by
reducing the amount of supercharging reduces both temperature and density of the charge at
the
time of ignition. This decreases the tendency of
knocking.
Inlet Temperature of the Mixture:
Increase in the inlet temperature of the mixture makes the compression. Temperature higher
thereby, increasing the tendency of knocking. Further, volumetric efficiency will be lower
ed.

Hence, a lower inlet temperature is always preferable to reduce knocking. It is important that
the temperature should not be so low as to cause starting and vaporization problems in the
engine. Temperature of the Combustion Chamber Walls:
Temperature of the combustion chamber walls playa predominant role in knocking. In order
to
prevent knocking the hot spots in the combustion chamber should be avoided. '. Since; the spark
plug and exhaust valve are two hottest parts in the combustion chamber, the end gas should
not be compressed against them.
Retarding the Spark Timing:
By retarding the spark timing from the optimized timing, i.e., having the spark closer to
TDC,
the peak pressures are reached farther down on the power stroke and are thus of lower
magnitude.
This might reduce the knocking. However, the spark timing will be different from the
MBT
timing. This will affect the brake torque and power output of the
engine.
Power Output of the Engine:
A decrease in the output of the engine decreases the temperature of the cylinder and
the
combustion chamber walls and also the pressure of the charge thereby lowering mixture and
end gas temperatures. This reduces the tendency to knock.
11. What are the various types of combustion chamber s used in SI engines? Explain them
briefly? (NOV/DEC 2012 /APR 2014/MAY 2015)

T-Head Type:
The T-head combustion chambers were used in the early stage of engine development.
Since
the distance across the combustion chamber is very long, knocking tendency is high in this
type of engines. This configuration provides two valves. On either side of the cylinder,
requiring two camshafts. From the manufacturing point of view, providing two camshafts is a
disadvantage.
L-Head Type:
A modification of the T-head type of combustion chamber is the L-head type which provides
the two valves on the same side of the cylinder and the valves are operated by a single camshaft.
In these types, it is easy to lubricate the valve mechanism. With the detachable head it may
be noted that the cylinder head can be removed without disturbing valve gear etc. The air flow
has to take two right angle turns to enter the cylinder. This causes a loss of velocity head and a
loss in turbulence level resulting in a slow combustion process.
The main body of the combustion chamber is concentrated over the valves leaving a
slightly
restricted passage communicating with the cylinder thereby creating additional turbulence
during the compression stroke.
This design reduces the knocking tendency by shortening the effective flame travel length by
bringing that portion of the head which layover the farther side of the piston into as close
a contact as possible with the piston crown, forming a quench space. The thin layer of

gas (entrapped between the relatively cool piston and also cooler head) loses its heat rapidly
because of large enclosing surface thereby avoiding knocking. By placing the spark plug in the
centre of the effective combustion space slightly towards the hot exhaust valve, the flame travel
length is reduced.

I-Head Type or Overhead Valve:

1. The I-head type is also called the overhead valve combustion chamber in which both
the
valves are located on the cylinder head. The overhead valve engine is superior to a side valve
or an L-head engine at high compression ratios.
2. Some of the important of this type of valve arrangement are
1) Less surface to volume ratio and therefore less heat loss
2) Less flame travel length and hence greater freedom from knock
3) Higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves or valve characteristics lifts
4) Confinement of thermal failures to cylinder head by keeping the hot
exhaust valve in the head instead of the cylinder block.
F-Head Type:
The F-head type of valve arrangement is a compromise between L-head and I-head
types.
Combustion chambers in which one valve is in the cylinder head and the other in the cylinder
block are known as F-head combustion chambers. Modern F-head engines have exhaust valve in
the head and inlet valve in the cylinder block. The main disadvantage of this type is that the
inlet valve and the exhaust valve are separately actuated by two cams mounted on two
camshafts driven by the crankshaft through gears.
12. Explain briefly the various factors that influence the flame speed in S.I.
engines.
(MAY/JUNE 2012)

The study of factors which, affect the velocity of flame propagation is important since the
flame velocity influences the rate of pressure rise in the cylinder and it is related to certain
types of abnormal combustion that occur in spark-ignition engines. There are several factors
which affect the flame speed, to a varying degree, the most important being the turbulence and
the fuel- air ratio. Details of various 'factors that affect the flame speed are discussed below.
Turbulence:

The flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent mixtures and increases with
increasing
turbulence. This is mainly due to the additional physical intermingling of the burning
and unburned particles at the flame front which expedites reaction by increasing' the rate of
contact. The turbulence in the incoming mixture is generated during the admission of fuel-air
mixture through comparatively narrow sections of throttle pipe, valve openings etc., in the
suction stroke. Turbulence which is supposed to consist of many minute swirls appears to
increase the rate of reaction and produce a higher flame speed than that made up of larger
and fewer swirls. A suitable design of the combustion chamber which involves the geometry
of cylinder head and piston crown increases the turbulence during the compression stroke.

Generally, turbulence increases the heat flow to the cylinder wall. It also accelerates the
chemical reaction by intimate mixing of fuel and oxygen so that spark advance may be reduced.
This helps in working in lean mixtures also. The increase of flame speed due to
turbulence reduces the combustion duration and hence minimizes the tendency of abnormal
combustion. However, excessive turbulence may extinguish the flame resulting in rough and
noisy operation of the engine.
Fuel-Air Ratio:

The fuel-air ratio has a very significant influence on the flame speed. The highest
flame
velocities (minimum time for complete combustion) are obtained with somewhat richer mixture
(point A) as which shows the effect of mixture strength on the rate of burning as indicated by
the time taken for complete burning in a given engine. When the mixture is made leaner or
richer the flame speed decreases. Less thermal energy is released in the case of lean mixtures
resulting in lower flame temperature. Very rich mixtures lead to incomplete combustion which
results again in the release of less thermal energy.
Temperature and Pressure:

Flame speed increases with an increase in intake temperature and pressure. A higher
initial

pressure and temperature may help to form a better homogeneous air-vapour mixture which
helps in increasing the flame speed. This is possible because of an overall increase in the density
of the charge.

Compression Ratio:

A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the wo rking
mixture
which reduce the initial preparation phase of combustion and hence less ignition advance is
needed. High pressures and temperatures of the compressed mixture also speed up the second
phase of combustion.

Increased compression ratio reduces the clearance volume and therefore increases the
density
of the cylinder gases during burning. This increases the peak pressure and temperature and the
total combustion duration is reduced. Thus engines having higher compression ratios have
higher flame speeds.
Engine Output:

The cycle pressure increases when the engine output is increased. With the increased
throttle opening the cylinder gets filled to a higher density. This results in increased flame
speed. When the output is decreased by throttling, the initial and final compression pressures
decrease and the dilution of the working mixture increases. The smooth development of selfpropagating nucleus of flame becomes unsteady and difficult.

The main disadvantages of SI engines are the poor combustion at low loads and the
necessity
of mixture enrichment ( between 1.2 to 1.3) which causes wastage of fuel and discharge of
unburnt hydrocarbon and the products of incomplete combustion like carbon monoxide etc. in
the atmosphere.

Engine Speed:

The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed since the increase in
engine
speed increases the turbulence inside the cylinder. The time required for the flame to traverse the
combustion space would be halved, if the engine speed is doubled.

Double the engine speed and hence half the original time would give the same number of
crank degrees for flame propagation. The crank angle required for the flame propagation
during
the entire phase of combustion, will remain nearly constant at all
speeds.
Engine Size:
The size of the engine does not have much effect on the rate of flame propagation. In
large engines the time required for complete combustion is more because the flame has to
travel a
longer distance. This requires increased crank angle duration during the co mbustion. This is
one of the reasons why large sized engines are designed to operate at low speeds.
UNIT
II - COMPRESSION IGNITION
ENGINES PART A
1. What are the stages of combustion in C.I engine?
The stages of combustion in C.I engine are four stages:
Stage 1: ignition delay period (preparatory
phase) Stage 2: Period of rapid combustion.
Stage
3:
Period
of
controlled
combustion. Stage 4: Period of after
burning.
2. What is ignition delay period?

The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the combustion chamber. There is
a
definite period of inactivity between the time when the first droplet of fuel hits the hot air in the
combustion chamber and the time it starts through the actual burning phase. This period is
known as ignition delay period.

3. What are two delays occur in ignition delay period?(MAY/JUNE 2013/MAY 2015)
The two delays occur in ignition delay period are the physically delay and chemically delay.
Physical delay is the time between the beginning of injection and the attainment of chemical
reaction conditions. Chemical delay is the reaction starts slowly and then accelerates until the
inflammation or ignition takes place.
4. List the factors affecting the delay period?
The factors affecting the delay period are:
1. Compression ratio.
2. Atomization of the fuel.
3. Quality of the fuel.
4. Intake temperature and pressure.
5. Explain the effect of quality of fuel factor on the delay period?(NOV/DEC
2010)
Self-ignition temperature is the most important property of the fuel which affects the
delay period. A lower self-ignition temperature and fuel with higher cetane number give
lower delay
period and smooth engine operation. Other properties of the fuel which affects the delay
period are latent heat, viscosity and surface tension.
6. Write the classification of combustion chamber in C.I engine? (MAY/JUNE 2013)
Combustion chamber in C.I engine is classified into two categories:
1. Direct-injection type
2. Indirect-injection type.
7. What is called direct injection type of combustion chamber?
Direct injection type of combustion chamber is also called an open combustion
In this type the entire volume of the combustion chamber is located in the main cylinder and
the fuel is injected into this volume.
8. What are the types of open combustion chamber? (MAY 2012)
In open combustion chamber there are many designs some
are
a. Shallow depth chamber
b. Hemispherical chamber
c. Cylindrical chamber
d. Toroidal chamber
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of open combustion chamber
type? Advantages:
1. Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower surface area to volume ratio
2. No cold starting problems
3. Fine atomization because of multihole nozzle
Disadvantages:
1. High fuel injection pressure required and hence complex design of fuel injection pump
2. Necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection system, particularly for
small engines.
10. What is indirect injection type of combustion? (NOV/DEC 2012)
Indirect injection type of combustion chamber in which the combustion space is
divided
in to two or more distinct compartment connected by restricts passages. This creates
considerable pressure difference between them during the combustion process.
11. Write the classification of indirect injection chamber (divided combustion chamber)
Classification of divided combustion chamber
is
a. Swirl chamber in which compression swirl is
generation.
b. Precombustion chamber in which combustion swirl is
induced.
c. Air cell chamber in which both compression and combustion swirl are
induced.
12. What are the applications of swirl chamber? (APR 2014)

Swirl
chamber
type
finds
application a. Where fuel quality is difficult
to control
b. Where reliability under adverse condition is more important than fuel
economy
c. Use of single hole of larger diameter for the fuel spray nozzle is often important
consideration
for the choice of fluid chamber
engine.

13.) List the advantages and drawbacks of indirect injection chamber (MAY 2013)
Advantages:
1. Injection pressure required is low
2. Direction of spraying is not very important
Disadvantages:
1. Poor cold starting performance required heater plugs
2. Specific fuel consumption is high
14. Why specific fuel consumption is high in indirect injection type combustion
chamber:
Specific fuel consumption is high because there is a loss of pressure due to air
motion through the duct and heat loss due to large heat transfer area.
15. What is turbo charging?
Energy available in the engines exhaust gas is used to drive the turbocharger
compressor,
which raises the inlet fluid density prior to entry to each engine cylinder. This is called
turbo charging.
16. What are the major parts of a turbocharger? (APR
2013)
The major parts of a turbocharger are turbine wheel, turbine housing, turbo shaft,
compressor wheel, compressor housing and bearing
housing.
17. Explain the term turbo lag.
In case of turbo charging
there is a phenomenon called turbo lag, which refers to the
short delay period before the boost or manifold pressure, increase. This is due to the
time the
turbocharger assembly takes the exhaust gases to accelerate the turbine and compressor wheel
to speed up.
18. Explain the function of waste gate. (APR 2009)
In the turbocharger assembly there is a control unit called waste gate. It is a diaphragm
operated
value that can bypass part of the gases around the turbine wheel when manifold pressure is quite
high this unit limits the maximum boost pressure to prevent detonation in S.I engines a nd
engine damage.
19. Why there is a large pressure differences across the injector nozzle are
required:
The fuel is introduced in to the cylinder of a diesel engine through a nozzle with a large
pressure differences across the nozzle jet will enter the chamber at high velocity
to
1. Atomize in to small sized droplets to enables rapid evaporation
and
2. Traverse the combustion chamber in the time available and fully utilize the air
charge.
20. What is called break up length?
The liquid column bearing the nozzle disintegrates within the cylinder over a finite
Length called the break up length in to drops of different sizes.
21. What are the different designs of nozzle used? (NOV/DEC 2013)
The different design of nozzle used is single orifice, multi orifice, throttle depending on the
needs of the combustion system
employed.
22. What are the two types of photographic technique used? (MAY/JUNE
2013)
To distinguish the liquid containing core of the jet and the extracts of the fuel
vapor region of the spray, which surrounds the liquid core, two types of photographic
technique used
are backlighting and shadow graph.
23. Explain photographic techniques method:
Back lighting identifies region where sufficient liquid fuel (as ligaments o r drops) is present
to attenuate the light.

The shadowgraph technique responds to density gradients in the test section so

it identifies regions where fuel vapor exists.
24. List the droplet size depends on various factors (NOV/DEC 2012)
The droplet sizes depends on various factors are
1. Mean droplet size decreases with increases
in a. Injection pressure
b. Air density
2. Mean droplet size increases with increases in fuel
viscosity.
3. Size of droplets increases with increases in the size of the
orifice.

25. Define flame development angle: (NOV/DEC 2012)

The crank angle interval between the spark discharge and the time when a small but
significant fraction of the cylinder mass has burned or fuel chemical energy has been
released
26. Define rapid burning angle:
The crank angle interval required to burn the bulk of the charge is defined as the
interval between the end of the flame development stage and the end of the flame propagation
process.
27.List any four types of turbo chargers used in CI engines.(NOV 2014)
Parallel Twin Turbochargers
Sequential Twin Turbochargers
28.What is the significance of Cetane number in the combustion process observed in CI
engines?(NOV 2014)
Cetane number or CN is an inverse function of a fuel's ignition delay, and the time period between
the start of injection and the first identifiable pressure increase during combustion of the fuel. In a
particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels will have shorter ignition delay periods than lower
Cetane fuels. Cetane numbers are only used for the relatively light distillate diesel oils.
PART-B
1. Bring out clearly the process of combustion in CI engines and also explain the
various
stages of combustion. (NOV/DEC 2013 APR 2014/MAY 2015)
STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES
The combustion in a CI engine is considered to be taking place in four stages .It is divided
into the ignition delay period, the period of rapid combustion, the period of controlled
combustion and
the period of after-burning. The details are explained
below.
Ignition Delay Period
The ignition delay period is also called the preparatory phase during which some fuel has
already been admitted but has not yet ignited.
This period is counted from the start of injection to the point where the pressure-time curve
separates from the motoring curve indicated as start of combustion.

The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great influence on both engine design and
performance. It is of extreme importance because of its effect on both the combustion rate and
knocking and also its influence on engine starting ability and the presence of smoke in
the exhaust.
The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the combustion chamber. There is
a
definite period of inactivity between the time when the first droplet of fuel hits the hot. air in
the. Combustion chamber and the time it starts through the actual burning phase.
This period is known as the ignition delay period. The delay period is shown on pressure
crank angle (or time) diagram between points a and b. Point a represents the time of injection
and point

b represents the time at which the pressure curve (caused by combustion) first separates from
the motoring curve. The ignition delay period can be divided into two parts, the physical
delay and
the chemical delay.
Physical Delay: The physical delay is the time between the beginning of injection and
the
attainment of chemical reaction conditions. During this period, the fuel is atomized, vaporized,
mixed with air and raised toIts self-ignition temperature. This physical delay depends on the
type of fuel, i.e., for light fuel the physical delay is small while for heavy viscous fuels the
physical delay is high. The physical delay is greatly reduced by using high injection pressures,
higher combustion chamber temperatures and high turbulence to facilitate breakup of the jet and
improving evaporation.
Chemical Delay: During the chemical delay, reactions start slowly and then accelerate until
inflammation or ignition takes place. Generally, the chemical delay is larger than the physical
delay. However, it depends on the temperature of the surroundings and at high ternperatures,
the chemical reactions are faster and the physical delay becomes longer than the chemical delay.
It is clear that, the ignition lag in the SI engine is essentially equivalent to the chemical delay
for the CI engine. In most CI engines the ignition lag is shorter than the duration of injection.
Period of Rapid Combustion

 The period of rapid combustion also called the uncontrolled combustion is that phase in
which the pressure rise is rapid, during the delay period, the droplets have had time to spread
over a wide area and fresh air is always available around the droplets.
Most of the fuel admitted would have evaporated and formed a combustible mixture with
air.
By this time, the preflame reactions would have also been completed. The period of
rapid combustion is counted from end of delay period or the beginning of the combustion to
the point of maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. The rate of heat-release is maximum
during this period.

It may be noted that the pressure reached during the period of rapid combustion will
depend on the duration of the delay period (the longer the delay the more rapid and higher is the
pressure rise since more fuel would have accumulated in the cylinder during the delay period).
Period of Controlled Combustion
The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the controlled combustion. The
temperature and pressure in the second stage is already quite high. Hence the fuel
droplets
injected during the second stage burn faster with reduced ignition delay as soon as they find the
necessary oxygen and any further pressure rise is controlled by the injection rate. The period
of
controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle
temperature.
Period of After-Burning
Combustion does not cease with the completion of the injection process. The unburnt and
partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start burning as soon as they
come
into contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain duration called the after
- burning period.
2. Explain with figures various types of combustion chambers used in CI engines.
(APR
2014/NOV 2014)

CI engine combustion chambers are classified into two

categories:
(i)Direct-Injection (DI) Type:
(ii) Indirect-Injection (IDI) Type:
Direct-Injection Chambers

An open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is

essentially a single cavity with little restriction from one part of the chamber to the other and
hence with no
large difference in pressure between parts of the chamber during the combustion pro cess.
There are many designs of open chamber some of which are as shown below

In four-stroke engines with open combustion chambers, induction swirl is obtained either
by
careful formation of the air intake passages or by masking a portion of the circumference of the
inlet valve whereas in two-stroke engines it is created by suitable form for the inlet ports.


These chambers mainly consist of space formed between a flat cylinder head and a cavity
in the piston crown in different shapes. The fuel is injected directly into this space. The
injector
nozzles used for this type of chamber are generally of multihole type working at a relatively
high pressure (about 200 bar).


Shallow Depth Chamber: In shallow depth chamber the depth of the cavity provided in
the piston is quite small. This chamber is usually adopted for large engines running at low
speeds. Since the cavity diameter is very large, the squish is negligible.

Hemispherical Chamber: This chamber also gives small squish. However, the depth
to
diameter ratio for a cylindrical chamber can be varied to give any desired squish to give better
performance.

Cylindrical Chamber: This design was attempted in recent diesel engines. This is
a
modification of the cylindrical chamber in the form of a truncated cone with base angle of
300o the swirl was produced by masking the valve for nearly 1800 of

Circumference. Squish can also be varied by varying the

depth.

Toroidal Chamber: The idea behind this shape is to provide a powerful squish along
with the air movement, similar to that of the familiar smoke ring, within the toroidal chamber.
Due to powerful squish the mask needed on inlet valve is small and there is better utilization of
oxygen. The cone angle of spray for this type of chamber is 150o to 160o.
Indirect-Injection Chambers

A divided combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is

divided into two or more distinct compartments conner-ted by restricted passages.
This creates
considerable pressure differences between them during the combustion
process.
Swirl Chamber:

Swirl chamber consists of a spherical-shaped chamber separated from the engine

cylinder and located in the cylinder head .Into this chamber, about 50% of the air is transfer red
during the compression stroke.

A throat connects the chamber to the cylinder which enters the chamber in a
tangential
direction so that the air coming into this chamber is given a strong rotary movement inside the
swirl chamber and after combustion, the products rush back into. the cylinder through the same
throat at much higher velocity. This causes considerable heat loss to the walls of the
passage which can be reduced by employing a heat-insulated chamber.

3. Explain Turbo charging in CI engines. (MAY/JUNE 2012/NOV 2014/MAY 2015)


In turbocharging, the supercharger is being driven by a gas turbine which uses the energy
in
the exhaust gases. There is no mechanical linkage between the engine and the supercharger. The
major parts of a turbocharger are turbine wheel, turbine housing, turboshaft, compressor wheel,
compressor housing and bearing housing.


During engine operation, hot exhaust gases blowout through the exhaust valve opening
into the exhaust manifold. The exhaust manifold and the connecting tubing route these gases
into the turbine housing.

As the gases pass through the turbine housing, they strike on the fins or blades on the
turbine wheel. When the engine load is high enough, there is enough gas flow and this makes
the turbine wheel to spin rapidly. The turbine wheel is connected to the compressor wheel by the
turboshaft.

As such, the compressor wheel rotates with the turbine which sucks air into the
compressor
housing. Centrifugal force throws the air outward. This causes the air to flow out of the
turbocharger and into the engine cylinder under pressure.

In the case of turbocharging, there is a phenomenon called turbolag. It refers to the short
delay period before the boost or manifold pressure increases. This is due to the time
the
turbocharger assembly takes the exhaust gases to accelerate the turbine and compressor wheel
to speed up.

In the turbocharger assembly, there is a control unit called waste gate. This unit limits the
maximum boost pressure to prevent detonation in SI engines and the maximum pressure and
engine damage.

It is a diaphragm operated valve that can bypass part of the gases around the turbine wheel
when manifold pressure is quite high. The computer controlled turbocharging system uses
engine sensors, a microprocessor and a waste gate solenoid.

The solenoid when energized or de energized by the computer can open or close the
waste

gate. By this way, the boost pressure can be controlled closely. There is an appreciable
reduction in smoke in the case of turbocharged engine in the overload operation.

4. What are the effects of turbocharging on CI engines? (NOV/DEC 2009)

In turbocharging, the supercharger is being driven by a gas turbine which uses the energy
in
the exhaust gases. There is no mechanical linkage between the engine and the supercharger. The
major parts of a turbocharger are turbine wheel, turbine housing, turboshaft, compressor wheel,
compressor housing and bearing housing.

During engine operation, hot exhaust gases blowout through the exhaust valve opening
into the exhaust manifold. The exhaust manifold and the connecting tubing route these gases
into the turbine housing.
As the gases pass through the turbine housing, they strike on the fins or blades on the turbine
wheel. When the engine load is high enough, there is enough gas flow and this makes the
turbine wheel to spin rapidly. The turbine wheel is connected to the compressor wheel by the
turboshaft.

As such, the compressor wheel rotates with the turbine which sucks air into the
compressor
housing. Centrifugal force throws the air outward. This causes the air to flow out of the
turbocharger and into the engine cylinder under pressure.
In the case of turbocharging, there is a phenomenon called turbolag. It refers to the
short delay period before the boost or manifold pressure increases. This is due to the
time the
turbocharger assembly takes the exhaust gases to accelerate the turbine and compressor wheel
to speed up.

In the turbocharger assembly, there is a control unit called waste gate. This unit limits the
maximum boost pressure to prevent detonation in SI engines and the maximum pressure and
engine damage.


It is a diaphragm operated valve that can bypass part of the gases around the turbine
wheel when manifold pressure is quite high. The computer controlled turbocharging system
uses engine sensors, a microprocessor and a waste gate solenoid.
The solenoid when energized or de energized by the computer can open or close the waste
gate.
By this way, the boost pressure can be controlled closely. There is an appreciable reduction in
smoke in the case of turbocharged engine in the overload operation.
5. Compare induction swirl with compression swirl with respect to their advantages and
disadvantages. (APR/MAY 2009)
Swirl generated by induction is very weak. Thus single orifice injection cannot provide
the
desired air fuel mixing. Therefore, with Induction swirl, it is advisable to use multiple-orifice
injector.
Advantages of Induction swirl.
Easier starting (due to low intensity of swirl).
High excess air (low temperature), low turbulence (less heat loss), therefore
indicated thermal efficiency is high.
Production of swirl requires no additional work.
Used with low speeds
Disadvantagesof of induction swirl:
Shrouded valves, smaller valves, low volumetric efficiency.
Weak swirl, low, low air utilization (60%), lower M.E.P utilization lower M.E.P.
and large engine.
Weak swirl.
Swirl not proportional to speed; efficiency not maintained at variable speed engine.
Engine.
Influence minimum quantity of fuel. Complication at high loads and idling.
COMPRESSION SWIRL COMPRESSION SWIRL
Compression swirl is generated using swirl chamber. A swirl chamber is a divided chamber.
A
divided combustion chambers defined as one in which the combustion space is divided into
two or more compartments. Pressure difference between these chambers is created restrictions
or throats. Estrictions or throats. Very strong swirl can be generated using compression swirl.
Advantage of compression swirl:
Large
valves,
high
volumetric
efficiency..
Single injector, pintle type (self cleaning), less maintenance. enhances smooth
engine
operation.
Smooth
engine
operation.
Disadvantage of compression swirl:
Cold starting trouble due to high loss due to strong swirl, lower indicated efficiency; 5 to
8%
more
fuel
consumption.
6. What are the main factors affecting the penetration of the fuel spray in CI
engines? (NOV/DEC 2008)
In the CI engine, only air is compressed through a high compression ratio (16:1 to 20:1)
raising its temperature and pressure to a high value. Fuel is injected through one or more jets
into
this highly compressed air in the combustion chamber. Here, the fuel jet disintegrates into a
core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles.This spray envelope is
created both by the atomization and vaporization of the fuel.

The turbulence of the air in the combustion chamber passing acro ss the jet tears the
fuel particles from the: core. A mixture of air and fuel forms at some location in the spray
envelope
and oxidation starts.


The liquid fuel droplets evaporate by absorbing the latent heat of vaporization from the
surrounding air which reduces the temperature of a thin layer of air surrounding the droplet and
some time elapses before this temperature can be raised again by absorbing heat from the bulk
of air. As soon as this vapour and the air reach the level of the autoignition t emperature and
if the

local AIF ratio is within the combustible range, ignition takes place. Thus, it is obvious that
at first there is a certain delay period before ignition takes place.
Since the fuel droplets cannot be injected and distributed uniformly throughout the
combustion space, the fuel-air mixture is essentially heterogeneous. If the air within the
cylinder were motionless under these conditions, there will not be enough oxygen in the burning
zone and burning of the fuel would be either slow or totally fail as it would be surrounded by
its own products of combustion .Hence, an orderly and controlled movement must be imparted
to the air and the fuel so that a continuous flow of fresh air is brought to each burning droplet
and the products of combustion are swept away.

In an SI engine, the turbulence is a disorderly air motion with no general direction of flow.
However, the swirl which is required in CI engines is an orderly movement of the whole body
of air with a particular direction of flow and it assists the breaking up of the fuel jet.
Intermixing of the burned and unburned portions of the mixture also takes place due to this
swirl. In the SI engine, the ignition occurs at one point with a slow rise in pressure whereas in
the CI engine, the ignition occurs at many points simultaneously with consequent rapid rise in
pressure.
In contrast to the process of combustion in SI engines, there is no definite flame front in CI
engines. In an SI engine, the air-fuel ratio remains close to stoichiometric value from no load
to full load. But in a CI engine, irrespective of load, at any given speed, an approximately
constant supply of air enters the cylinder.
With change in load, the quantity of fuel injected is changed, varying the air-fuel ratio. The
overall air-fuel ratio thus varies from about 18:1 at full load to about 80:1 at no load. It is
the main aim of the CI engine designer that the AIF ratio should be as close to stoichiometric as
possible while operating at full load since the mean effective pressure and power output are
maximum at that condition.

Thermodynamic analysis of the engine cycles has clearly established that operating
an engine with a leaner air-fuel ratio always gives a better thermal efficiency but the mean
effective
pressure and the power output reduce.

Therefore, the engine size becomes bigger for a given output if it is operated near
the stoichiometric conditions, the AIF ratio in certain regions within the chamber is likely to
be so rich that some of the fuel molecules will not be able to find the necessary oxygen for
combustion and thus produce a noticeably black smoke. Hence the CI engine is always
designed to operate
with an excess air, of 15 to 40% depending upon the
application.
7. Explain about the fuel spray behavior? (APR/MAY 2008)
In the CI engine, only air is compressed through a high compression ratio (16:1 to 20:1)
raising its temperature and pressure to a high value. Fuel is injected through one or more jets
into this highly compressed air in the combustion chamber. Here, the fuel jet disintegrates into
a core of fuel surrounded by a spray envelope of air and fuel particles. This spray envelope is
created both by the atomization and vaporization of the fuel.

 The turbulence of the air in the combustion chamber passing across the jet tears the fuel
particles from the: core. A mixture of air and fuel forms at some location in the spray
envelope and oxidation starts.
The liquid fuel droplets evaporate by absorbing the latent heat of vaporization from
the surrounding air which reduces the temperature of a thin layer of air surrounding the droplet
and some time elapses before this temperature can be raised again by absorbing heat from the
bulk of air. As soon as this vapour and the air reach the level of the autoignition temperature
and if the local AIF ratio is within the combustible range, ignition takes place. Thus, it is
obvious that at first there is a certain delay period before ignition takes place.
Since the fuel droplets cannot be injected and distributed uniformly throughout the
combustion space, the fuel-air mixture is essentially heterogeneous. If the air within the
cylinder were motionless under these conditions, there will not be enough oxygen in the
burning zone and burning of the fuel would be either slow or totally fail as it would be
surrounded by its own
products of combustion .Hence, an orderly and controlled movement must be imparted to the
air and the fuel so that a continuous flow of fresh air is brought to each burning droplet and the
products of combustion are swept away.
In an SI engine, the turbulence is a disorderly air motion with no general direction of flow.
However, the swirl which is required in CI engine is an orderly movement of the whole body
of air with a particular direction of flow and it assists the breaking up of the fuel jet.
Intermixing of the burned and unburned portions of the mixture also takes place due to this
swirl. In the SI
engine, the ignition occurs at one point with a slow rise in pressure whereas in the CI engine,
the ignition occurs at many points simultaneously with consequent rapid rise in pressure.
In contrast to the process of combustion in SI engines, there is no definite flame front in CI
engines. In an SI engine, the air-fuel ratio remains close to stoichiometric value from no load
to full load. But in a CI engine, irrespective of load, at any given speed, an approximately
constant supply of air enters the cylinder.
With change in load, the quantity of fuel injected is changed, varying the air-fuel ratio. The
overall air-fuel ratio thus varies from about 18:1 at full load to about 80:1 at no load. It is
the main aim of the CI engine designer that the AIF ratio should be as close to stoichiometric as
possible while operating at full load since the mean effective pressure and power output are
maximum at that condition.

Thermodynamic analysis of the engine cycles has clearly established that operating an
engine with a leaner air-fuel ratio always gives a better thermal efficiency but the mean
effective pressure and the power output reduce.
Therefore, the engine size becomes bigger for a given output if it is operated near
the stoichiometric conditions, the AIF ratio in certain regions within the chamber is likely to
be so rich that some of the fuel molecules will not be able to find the necessary oxygen for
combustion and thus produce a noticeably black smoke. Hence the CI engine is always designed
to operate with an excess air, of 15 to 40% depending upon the application.
8. What is delay period and what are the factors that affect the delay period? APR
2014
Many design and operating factors affect the delay period. The important ones
are:
1) Compression ratio
2) Engine speed
3) Output
4) Atomization of fuel and duration of injection
5) Injection timing
6) Quality of the fuel
7) Intake temperature
8) Intake pressure
Compression Ratio: The increase in the compression temperature of the air with increase
in compression ratio evaluated at the end of the compression stroke.

It is also seen from the same figure that the minimum autoignition temperature of a fuel
decreases due to increased density of the compressed air. This results in a closer contact
between the molecules of fuel and oxygen reducing the time of reaction.

The increase in the compression temperature as well as the decrease in the minimum
autoignition temperature decreases the delay period. The peak pressure during the combustion
process is only marginally affected by the compression ratio (because delay period is shorter
with higher compression ratio and hence the pressure rise is lower).

One of the practical disadvantages of using a very high compression ratio is that the
mechanical efficiency tends to decrease due to increase in weight of the reciprocating parts.
Therefore, in practice the engine designers always try to use a lower compression ratio which
helps in easy cold starting and light load running at high speeds.
Engine Speed

The delay period could be given either in terms of absolute time (in milliseconds) or in
terms of crank angle degrees. The decrease in delay period in terms of milliseconds with
increase in engine speed in a variable speed operation with a given fuel.

With increase in engine speed, the loss of heat during compression decreases, resulting in
the
rise of both the temperature and pressure of the compressed air thus reducing the delay period
in milliseconds.

However, in degrees of crank travel the delay period increases as the engine operates at a
higher rpm. The fuel pump is geared to the engine, and hence the amount of fue l injected
during the delay period depends on crank degrees and not on absolute time. Hence at high
speeds, there will be more fuel present in the cylinder to take part in the second stage
of uncontrolled combustion resulting in high rate of pressure rise.
Output
With an increase in engine output the air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperatures
increase and hence delay period decreases. The rate of pressure rise is unaffected but the
peak
pressure reached may be high.
Atomization and Duration of Injection

Higher fuel-injection pressures increase the degree of atomization. The fineness of

atomization reduces ignition delay, due to higher surface volume ratio. Smaller droplet size
will
have low depth of penetration due to less momentum of the droplet and less velocity relative
to air from where it has to find oxygen after vaporization. Because of this air utilization factor
will
be reduced due to fuel spray path being
shorter.

Also with smaller droplets, the aggregate area of inflammation will increase after
ignition,
resulting in higher pressure rise during the second stage of combustion. Thus, lower injection
pressure, giving larger droplet size may give lower pressure rise during the second stage of
combustion and probably smoother running. Hence, an optimum group mean diameter of the
droplet size should be attempted as a compromise.


Also the fuel delivery law i.e., change in the quantity of fuel supplied with the crank
angle travel will affect the rates of pressure rise during second stage of combustion though
ignition delay remains unaffected by the same.
Injection Timing

The effect of injection advance on the pressure variation for three injection
advance timings of go, 18, and 27 before T DC. The injected quantity of fuel per cycle is
constant. As
the pressure and temperature at the beginning of injection are lower for higher ignition
advance, the delay period increases with increase in injection advance. The optimum angle
of injection
advance depends on many factors but generally it is about
20obTDC.
Quality of Fuel

Self-ignition temperature is the most important property of the fuel which affects
the
delay period. A lower self-ignition temperature results in a lower delay period. Also, fuels
with higher cetane number give lower delay period and smoother engine operation. Other
properties of the fuel which affect the delay period are volatility, latent heat, viscosity and
surface tension. Intake Temperature

Increase in intake temperature increases the compressed air temperature resulting

in reduced delay period. However, preheating of the charge for this purpose would be
undesirable
because it would reduce the density of air reducing the volumetric efficiency and power
output
Intake Pressure

Increase in intake pressure or, supercharging reduces the autoignition temperature

and hence reduces the delay period. The peak pressure will be higher since the compression
pressure
will increase with intake pressure.
9.
With the help of pressure crank angle diagram discuss briefly the stages of
combustion
in CI engine? (MAY/JUNE 2007)
A typical theoretical pressure-crank angle diagram, during the process of compression (a
to
b), combustion (b to c) and expansion (c to d) in an ideal four-stroke spark-ignition engine is
shown below. In an ideal engine, as can be seen from the diagram, the entire pressure rise
during combustion takes place at constant volume i.e., at TDC. However, in an actual engine
this does not happen.
The combustion process in a SI engine as consisting of three
stages:

A is the point of passage of spark (say 200bTDC), B is the point at which the beginning of
pressure rise can be detected (say 8 bTDC). and C the attainment of peak pressure. Thus AB
represents the first stage and BC the second stage and CD the third stage.

 The first stage (A~B) is referred to as the ignition lag or preparation phase in which
growth and development of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes place. This is a chemical
process

depending upon both temperature and pressure, the nature of the fuel and the proportion of the
exhaust residual gas. Further, it also depends upon the relationship between the temperature and
the rate of reaction.
The second stage (B~C) is a physical one and it is concerned with the spread of the
flame
throughout the combustion chamber. The starting point of the second stage is where the first
measurable rise of pressure is seen on the indicator diagram i.e., the point where the line of
combustion departs from the compression line (point B).This can be seen from the deviation
from the motoring curve. During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a
constant velocity. Heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low, because only a small part of
the burning mixture comes in contact with the cylinder wall during this period. The rate of heatrelease depends largely on the turbulence intensity and also on the reaction rate which is
dependent on the mixture composition. The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate
of heat -release because during this stage, the combustion chamber volume remains practically
constant (since piston is near the top dead centre).
The starting point of the third stage is usually taken as the instant at which the
maximum pressure is reached on the indicator diagram (point C). The flame velocity decreases
during this stage. The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame velocity and reduced
flame front surface. Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage of combustion, with the
piston moving away from the top dead centre, there can be no pressure rise during this stage.
10. Explain the following IDI chamber(MAY 2015)
Swirl Chamber:
Swirl chamber consists of a spherical-shaped chamber separated from the engine cylinder and
located in the cylinder head .Into this chamber, about 50% of the air is transfer red during the
compression stroke.
A throat connects the chamber to the cylinder which enters the chamber in a tangential
direction so that the air coming into this chamber is given a strong rotary movement inside
the
swirl chamber and after combustion, the products rush back into. the cylinder through the same
throat at much higher velocity. This causes considerable heat loss to the walls of the
passage
which can be reduced by employing a heat-insulated
chamber.

However, in this type of combustion chambers even with a heat insulated passage, the
heat loss is greater than that in an open combustion chamber which employs induction
swirl..This type of combustion chamber finds application where fuel quality is difficult to
control, where reliability under adverse conditions is more important than fuel economy. The
use of single hole of larger diameter for the fuel spray nozzle is often important consideration
for the choice of swirl chamber engine.
ii, Precombustion chamber. (May/June 2007)
The Precombustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and its volume accounts for
about
40% of the total combustion space. During the compression stroke the piston forces the air
into
the
Precombustion
chamber.

 The fuel is injected into the prechamber and the combustion is initiated. The resulting
pressure rise forces the flaming droplets together with some air and their combustion products
to rush out into the main cylinder at high velocity through the small holes.

 Thus it creates both strong secondary turbulence and distributes the flaming fuel
droplets throughout the air in the main combustion chamber where bulk of combustion takes
place. About
80% of energy is released in main combustion
chamber.

The rate of pressure rise and the maximum pressure is lower compared to those of open type
chamber. The initial shock of combustions limited to Precombustion chamber only.
The Precombustion chamber has multi-fuel capability without any modification in the
injection system because of the temperature of prechamber. The variation in the
optimum injection timing for petrol and diesel operations is only 2 for this chamber compared
to 8 to 10 in the other designs.
UNIT III ENGINEEXHAUST EMISSION CONTROL
PART A
1. What are the major exhaust emissions?(MAY 2015)
The major exhaust emissions
are a. Unburnt hydrocarbons
(HC)
b. Oxides of carbon (CO and CO2)
c. Oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2)
d. Oxides of sulphur (SO2 andSO3)
e. Particulates
f. Soot and smoke
2. What are the causes for hydrocarbon emission from S.I engine? (NOV/DEC
2012)
The causes for hydro carbon emission from S.I engine are
1.
Incomplete combustion. 2. Crevice volume and flow in crevices. 3. Leakage past the
exhaust
valve. 4. Valve overlap. 5. Deposits on walls. 6. Oil on combustion chamber
walls.
3. What are the reasons for incomplete combustion in SI
engine?
Incomplete combustion is due to
a. Improper mixing due to incomplete mixing of the air and fuel. Some fuel particles do not
find
the oxygen to react with this cause the
emissions.
b. Flame quenching: As the flame goes very close to the walls it gets quenched at the
walls
leaving a small volume of unreacted air fuel
mixture.
4. What are the reasons for flame quenching? (APR
2010)
The reason for flame quenching is the expansion of gases. (i) As the piston moves
down from TDC to BDC during power stroke, expansion of the gases lowers both
pressure and

temperature within the cylinder. This makes combustion slow and finally quenches the flame
and causes the emissions. (ii) High exhaust gas contamination causes poor combustion and
which in
turn causes quenching during expansion.
(iii) As the flame goes very close to the walls it gets quenched at the walls leaving a
small
volume of unreacted air-fuel
mixture.
5. How the oil consumption increases in IC engines and what are the effects. (NOV/DEC
2010)
Often as engines ages, due to wear, clearance between the pistons and cylinder wall
increases. This increases oil consumption contributes to increases in the emissions in three
ways. a. There is an added crevices volume.
b. There is added absorption desorption of fuel in the thicker oil film on cylinder walls

c. There is oil burned in the combustion

process
6. Write a short note on carbon monoxide emissions.(NOV/DEC
2009)
Carbon monoxide is a colourless and odourless but a poisonous gas. It is generated in
an engine when it is operated with a fuel rich equivalence ratio. Poor mixing, local rich regions,
and
incomplete combustion will also be the source for co
emissions.
7. What is photochemical smog? (APR/MAY 2013)
NOx is the primary causes of photochemical smog; Smog is formed by the
photochemical
reaction of automobiles exhaust and atmospheric air in the presence of
sunlight. NO2 + energy from sunlight NO + O +smog
8. What are soot particles?
Soot particles are clusters of solid carbon spheres. These spheres have diameter from 9nm to
90 nm (1nm = 10-9). But most of them are within the range of 15 30 nm. The spheres are
solid carbon with HC and traces of other components absorbed on the surface. Single soot
particles may contain up to 5000 carbon spheres.
9. Which is the most effective after treatment for reducing engine emissions? (MAY 2008)
The catalytic converter is the most effective after treatment for reducing engine
emissions
found on most automobiles. Co can be oxidized to CO2 and H2O in exhaust system and
thermal converters if the temperature is held at 600- 700oC. If certain catalysts are
present, the temperature needed to sustain these oxidation processes is reduced to 250 300oC,
making for a much more attractive system.
10. What is a catalyst? (NOV/DEC 2008)
A catalyst is a substance that accelerates chemical reaction by lowering the energy needed
for it to proceed. The catalyst is not consumed in the reaction and so functions indefinitely
unless degraded by heat age contaminants or other factors.
11. List the materials used as catalyst
The catalyst materials most commonly used are a. platinum b. palladium c.
rhodium.
12. Why catalytic converter called as three way
converters?(MAY 2015)
Catalytic converters are called as three way converters because they are used to reduce
the concentration of CO, HC and NO x in the
exhaust.
13. What are the types of ceramic structure used in catalytic
convertor?
Inside the container is a process ceramic structure through which the exhaust gas
flows.
a. The ceramic is a single honey comb structure with many flow
passages.
b. Some converters use loose granular ceramic with the gas passing between the packed
spheres.
14. List out the drawbacks of catalytic converters (NOV/DEC 2012)
a. Sulphur offers unique problems for catalytic converters some catalyst promote the
conversion
of SO2 to SO3 which eventually converted to sulphuric acid. This degrades the
catalytic convertor and contributes to acid rain.
b. Catalytic converters are not very efficient when they are cold. When an engine is started
after
not being operated for several hours it takes several minute for the converter to reach an
efficient operating temperature called as cold start up problem.
15. What are the methods of catalytic converters preheating?
The methods of catalytic converters preheating included the
following

a. By locating the converters close to the

engine
b. By having super insulation
c.
By
employing
electric
preheating
d. By using flame heating
e.
Incorporating
thermal
batteries.
16. List the invisible and visible emission (APR 2013)
Invisible emission: Water vapour, carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen,
hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, aldehyes.
Visible emission: Smoke, particulate.
17. What are the methods of measuring the following emission? (MAY 2009)
a. Oxides of nitrogen
= CHEMILUMINESCENCE ANALYZER
b.Carbonmonoxide
= NON DISPERSIVE INFRARED ANALYZER

unburnt

c. Unburned hydrocarbons
= FLAME IONIZATION DETECTOR
(FID)
18.
Why smoke is formed in a CI engine? (NOV 2011)
Internal Combustion Engine that operates on compression ignition principle is that the light
absorption coefficient of the exhaust gases emitted by the vehicle has high compression
ratio
causes high temperature results in the formation of
smoke.
19. State the significance of stoichiometric air-fuel mixture (NOV 2010)
Reducing
emissions,
Fuel
economy,
Engine
performance
20.Differentiate smoke and particulate emission.(NOV 2014)
Smoke is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases emitted when a
undergoes combustion.
Particulate emission is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air, many of which are
hazardous. This complex mixture contains for instance dust, pollen, soot, smoke, and liquid
droplets.
PART B
1. Describe in detail the causes of hydrocarbon emissions from SI engines.(APR
2013)
The causes for hydrocarbon emissions from SI engine are:
(i)
Incomplete
combustion
(ii) Crevice volumes and flow in
crevices
(iii) Leakage past the exhaust valve
(iv) Valve overlap
(v) Deposits on walls
(vi) Oil on combustion chamber
walls
Incomplete Combustion
Even when the fuel and air entering an engine are at the ideal stoichiometric condition,
perfect
combustion does not occur and some HC ends up in the exhaust .There are several reasons
for this. Complete and homogeneous mixing of fuel and air is almost impossible. The
incomplete combustion is due to: .
(i) 1mproper mixing: Due to incomplete mixing of the air and fuel some fuel particles do not
find
oxygen to react with. Thus causes HC
emissions.
(ii) Flame quenching: As the flame goes very close to the walls it get quenched at the
walls
leaving a small volume of unreacted air and fuel mixture. The thickness of this unburned layer
is of the order of 100 microns. However, it may be noted that some of this mixture near the
wall that does not originally get burned as flame front passes will burn later in the combustion
process due to additional mixing swirl and turbulence.
Another reason for flame quenching is the expansion of gases which occurs during
combustion
and power stroke. As that moves down from TDC to BDC during power stroke. The expansion
of the gases lowers both pressure and temperature within the cylinder. This makes combustion
slow and finally quenches the flame somewhere later in the expansion stroke. This leaves some
fuel particles unreacted and causes HC emissions.
High exhaust gas contamination causes poor combustion and which in turn causes quenching
during expansion. This is experienced at low load and idle conditions. High levels of EGR will
also cause quenching of flame and will result in HC emission.
It has been found that HC emissions can be reduced by incorporating an additional spark plug
at

material

appropriate locations in the engine combustion chamber. By starting combustion at two

points, the flame travel distance and total reaction time are both reduced, and less expansion
quenching will result.
2. Explain the functioning of three way catalytic converter, with a sketch. Mention the
limitations of a catalytic converter.( MAY/JUNE 2013 , MAY/JUNE 2012,NOV/DEC
2012/MAY 2015)
The most effective after treatment for reducing engine emissions is the cat alytic converter
found on most automobiles and other modern engines of medium or large size. CO and HC
can be oxidized to C02 and H20 in exhaust systems and thermal converters if the temperature
is held at
600-700 C. If certain catalysts are present, the temperature needed to sustain these
oxidation
processes is reduced to 250-300 C, making for a much more attractive
system.
A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a. chemical reaction by lowering the energy needed
for
it to proceed. The catalyst is not consumed in the reaction and so functions indefinitely unless
degraded by heat, age, contaminants, or other factors. Catalytic converters are chambers
mounted in the flow system through which the exhaust gases pass through. These
chambers contain catalytic material, which promotes the oxidation of the emissions contained in
the exhaust flow.

Generally, catalytic converters are called three-way converters because they are used to
reduce the concentration of CO, HC, and NOx in the exhaust. Catalytic converter is usually a
stainless steel container mounted somewhere along the exhaust pipe of the engine.
Inside the container is a porous ceramic structure through which the exhaust gas flows.
Some
converters use loose granular ceramic with the gas passing between the packed spheres.
Volume of the ceramic structure of a converter is generally about half the displacement volume
of the engine. This results in a volumetric flow rate of exhaust gas such that there are 5
to 30 changeovers of gas each second, through the converter. Catalytic converters for CI
engines need larger flow passages because of the solid soot in the exhaust gases.
The surface of the ceramic passages contains small embedded particles of catalytic material
that
promote the oxidation reactions in the exhaust gas as it passes. Aluminum oxide (alumina) is
the base ceramic material used for most catalytic converters. Alumina can withstand the high
temperatures, it remains chemically neutral, it has very low thermal expansion, and it does not
thermally degrade with age. The catalyst materials most commonly used are platinum,
palladium, and rhodium.
Palladium and platinum promote the oxidation of CO and HC with platinum especially active
in
the hydrocarbon reaction. Rhodium promotes the reaction of NOx in one or more of the
following reactions:
NO + CO N2+ CO2
2 NO + 5 CO + 3 H2O 2 NH3 + 5 CO2
2 NO + CO N20+ CO2
NO + H2 N2+ H2O
2 NO + 5 H2 2 NH3 +2 H2O
2 NO + H2 N20 + H2O
Also often used is cerium oxide, which promotes the so-called water gas
shift
CO + H2O CO2 + H2O
This reduces CO by using water vapor as an oxidant instead of O2, which is very important
when the engine is running rich.
4. Explain the internationally accepted methods of measuring the following invisible
emission
i) Oxides of nitrogen (ii) Carbon
monoxide (iii) Unburned hydrocarbons (iv)
Aldehydes
(APR 2014/NOV 2014/MAY 2015)
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides .of nitrogen which also Occur only in the engine exhaust are a combination of nitric
oxide
(NO) and nitrogen dioxide (N02). Nitrogen and oxygen react at relatively high
temperatures.
Therefore high temperatures and availability of oxygen are the two main reasons for the
formation of NOx . When the proper amount of oxygen is available, the higher the peak
combustion temperature the more is the NO formed. '
The NOx_concentration in exhaust is affected by engine design and the mode of vehicle
operation. Air-fuel ratio and the spark advance are the two important factors which significantly
affect NOx emissions. The maximum NOx is formed at 'ratios between 14:1 and16:1. At lean
and rich air-fuel mixtures the NOx concentration is comparatively low. Increasing the
ignition advance will result in lower peak combustion temperatures and higher exhaust
temperatures. This will result in high NOX concentration in the exhaust.
Internationally accepted method for measuring oxides of nitrogen is by chemiluminescence
analyzer.
The principle of measurement is based on chemiluminescence reaction between ozone and
NO

resulting in the formation of excited N02. This excited N02 emits light whose intensity
is proportional to NO concentration. The light intensity is measured by a photo multiplier tube.
The analyzer measures only nitric oxide, NO and not N02. To analyze all the oxides of nitrogen
a converter is usually fitted ahead of the reaction chamber to convert all the oxides of nitrogen
into

nitric oxide. Thereby, the light intensity can be taken to be proportional to the oxides 'of
nitrogen concentration in the sample.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide occurs only in engine exhaust. It is a product of incomplete combustion due
to
insufficient amount of air in the air-fuel mixture or insufficient time in the cycle for
completion of combustion.Theoretically, the gasoline engine exhaust, can be made free of CO
by operating it at air-fuel mixture ratios greater than 16:1. However, that some, CO is always
present in the exhaust even at lean mixtures.
The percentage of CO decreases with speed. In passenger cars CO percentage has been found
to be as high as 5 per cent with rich mixtures and 1% with near stoichiometric mixtures. The
complete elimination of CO is not possible and 0.5 per cent CO should be considered
a reasonable goal.
Carbon monoxide emissions are high when the engine is idling and reach a minimum
value during deceleration. They are the lowest during acceleration and at steady speeds. Closing
of the throttle which reduces the oxygen supply to engine is the, main cause of CO production,
so deceleration from high speed will produce highest CO in exhaust gases.
Non Dispersive Infra-Red analyzer (NDIR) as shown in Fig. is the widely accepted
instrument for measuring CO. This instrument is presently used for the testing and legal
certification of some automotive exhaust emissions. In the NDIR analyzer the exhaust gas
species-being measured are used to detect themselves. The method of detection is based on the
principle of selective absorption of the infrared energy of a particular wave length peculiar to a
certain gas which will be absorbed by that gas.
Unburned Hydrocarbons
Unburnt hydrocarbons emissions are the direct .result of incomplete combustion. The pattern
of
hydrocarbon emissions is closely related to many design and operating variables. Two of the
important design variables are induction system design and combustion chamber design, while
main operating variables are air-fuel ratio, speed, load and mode of operation. Maintenance
is also an important factor.
Induction system design and engine maintenance affect the operating air-fuel ratio of the
engine
and hence the emission of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Induction system determines
fuel distribution of cylinders, fuel economy, available power etc. And the quantity of engine
maintenance determines whether the engine will operate at the designed air-fuel ratio and for
how long. This will include piston ring wear, lubrication, cooling, deposits and other factors
which are likely to affect the air-fuel ratio supplied or its combustion in the combustion
chamber.
The design of the combustion chamber is important. A portion of the fuel-air mixture in
the
combustion chamber comes into direct contact with the chamber walls and are quenched and do
not burn. Some of this quenched fuel-air mixture is forced out of the chamber during the
exhaust stroke and, because of the high local concentration of hydrocarbon in this mixture,
contributes to the high hydrocarbon exhaust from the engine. A small displacement engine will
have a higher surface-to-volume ratio than an engine with a large displacement.
Factors like combustion chamber shape, bore diameter-stroke and compression ratio affect
the
surface-to-volume ratio and hence the hydrocarbon emission. Lower compression ratio, higher
stroke to bore ratio, larger displacement per cylinder and fewer cylinders, all lower the surfaceto- volume ratio and hence the hydrocarbons.
The effect of air-fuel ratio on the HC emission is exactly like that on carbon monoxide. At
near
stoichiometric fuel-air mixtures both hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide (HC/CO) emissions are
higher and lean fuel mixtures have substantially low HC/CO emission.
5. What is smoke and classify the measurement of smoke? What is a driving cycle?
Discuss its significance with regard to emissions. (APR 2014/MAY 2015)
Smoke

The smoke of the engine exhaust is a visible indicator of the combustion process in the engine.
Smoke is due to incomplete combustion. Smoke in diesel engine can be divided into
three
categories viz., blue, white and black. Visible method of analysis is used
for

quantifying the above three types of smokes. Smoke measurements can be broadly classified
into two groups viz. comparison method and obscuration method.
Comparison Method: Most ordinances regulating smoke emissions are based on estimation of
the density of the smoke as it emerges from the exhaust. Of the several available methods,
the
one of the commonly used method is the Ringelmann Chart. The chart shows four shades of
gray, as well as a pure white and an all-black section.
To overcome the difficulty of reproducing various shades of gray, the intermediat e shades'
are built from black lines of various widths the four intermediate charts are printed by the
particularly
at part loads
6. Specify the main emissions from a multi-cylinder passenger car C.I engine. How is
sulphur emission in IC engine? (MAY/JUNE 2013)
Sulphur
Many fuels are used in CI engines contain small amounts of sulphur. When exhausted in the
form of S02 and S03 (called SOx) they contribute to the acid rain problem of the world.
Unleaded
gasoline generally contains 150-550 ppm sulphur by weight. Some diesel fuels contain up
to
5500 ppm by weight, but in the developed countries this is restricted by law to a tenth of
this
value or less.
At high temperatures, sulphur combines with hydrogen to form H 2S and with oxygen
to
formS02.
H2 + S H2S
O2 + S SO2
Engine exhaust can contain up to 20ppm of S02 S02 then combines with oxygen in the air
to
form S03
2 S02 + 02 2 S03
These combine with water vapor in the atmosphere to form sulphur into acid (H 2S04)
and sulphurous acid (H2803), which are ingredient in acid rain.
S03 + H20 H2SO4
7. Discuss the HC and NO pollutant formation in IC engine. (MAY/JUNE 2007)
HYDROCARBONS (HC)
Exhaust gases leaving the .combustion chamber of an SI engine contain up to 6000 ppm
of
hydrocarbon components, the equivalent of 1-1.5% of the fuel. About 40% of this is
unburned
components of the fuel. The other 60% consists of partially reacted components that were not
present in the original fuel. These consist of small non equilibrium molecules, which are
formed when large fuel molecules break up (thermal cracking) during the combustion reaction.
It is often convenient to treat these molecules as if they contained one carbon atom, as CHI.
Hydrocarbon emissions will be different for each gasoline blend depending on the original fuel
components. Combustion chamber geometry and engine operating parameters also influence the
HC component spectrum. When hydrocarbon emissions get into the atmosphere, they act
as irritants and odorants; some are carcinogenic. All components except CH4 react with
atmospheric gases to form photochemical smog.
OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOx )
Exhaust gases of an engine can have up to 2000 ppm of oxides of 'nitrogen. Most of this will be
nitrogen oxide (NO), with a small amount of nitrogen dioxide (N02). There will also be traces
of other nitrogen-oxygen combinations. These are all grouped together NOx, with x representing
some suitable number. NOx is very undesirable.

Released NOx reacts in the atmosphere to form ozone and is one of the major causes
of- photochemical smog.
NOx is created mostly from nitrogen in the air. Nitrogen can also be found in fuel
blends. Further, fuel may contain trace amounts of NH3, NC, and HCN, but this would
contribute only to a minor degree. There are a number of possible reactions that form NO.
All the restrictions are probably occurring during the combustion process and immediately after.
These include but are not limited to:

0+ N2 NO + N
N + O2 NO + 0
8. Define the conversion efficiency and light off temperature of a catalytic converter.
(MAY/JUNE 2007)
Acatalytic converter be operated hot to be efficient, but not hotter. Engine malfunctions can
cause
poor efficiency and overheating of converters. A poorly tuned engine can have misfires and
periods of too lean and/or too rich conditions.
These cause the converter to be inefficient. A turbocharger lowers the exhaust temperature by
removing energy, and this can make a catalytic converter less efficient.
It is desirable that catalytic converters have an effective life time equal to that of the
automobile or at least 200,000 km. Converters lose their efficiency with age due to thermal
degradation and
poisoning of the active catalyst material. At high temperature the metal catalyst material
can sinter and migrate together. This can cause larger active sites which are, overall, less
efficient.
Serious thermal degradation occurs in the temperature range of 500-900 "C. A number
of different impurities contained in fuel, lubricating oil, and air find their way into the
engine
exhaust and poison the catalyst
material.
These include lead and sulphur from fuels, and zinc, phosphorus, antimony, calcium,
and
magnesium
from
oil
additives.
9. What are the methods to reduce particulate matter emissions? (MAY/JUNE 2013)
EMISSION CONTROL METHODS
The combustion process in the four-stroke cycle occurs only for about 25 to 50 ms
depending
upon the operating conditions. After the combustion process ends, the exhaust gas constituents
in the cylinder gas mixture that have been partially burned continue to react during the
expansion stroke, during exhaust blowdown, and into the exhaust process. Over 90 to 95% of
the HC remaining after combustion reacts during this time either in the cylinder, near the
exhaust port, or in the upstream part of the exhaust manifold. CO and small component
hydrocarbons react with oxygen to form C02 and H20 and reduce undesirable emissions.
The higher in the exhaust temperature, the more these secondary reactions occur and the
lower the engine emissions. Higher exhaust temperature can be caused by stoichiometric airfuel combustion, high engine speed, retarded spark, and/or a low expansion ratio. Hence, in
order to reduce emissions, some after-treatments are necessary with add on devices. The details
are discussed in the following sections.
10. What is a particulate trap? Discuss its significance with regard to emissions.
(MAY/JUNE 2013)
Compression ignition engine systems are equipped with particulate traps in their exhaust flow to
reduce the amount of particulates released to the atmosphere. Traps are filter-like systems
often
made of ceramic in the form of a monolith or mat, or else made of metal wire mesh. Traps
typically remove 60-90% of particulates in the exhaust flow. As traps catch the soot
particles,
they slowly fill up with the particulates. This restricts exhaust gas flow and raises the back
pressure of the engine. Higher back pressure causes the engine to run hotter, the
exhaust
temperature to rise, and fuel consumption to increase. To reduce this flow restrict ion,
particulate traps are regenerated when they begin to saturate. Regeneration consists of
combusting the
particulates in the excess oxygen contained in the exhaust of the lean-operating CI
engine.

o
o
Carbon soot ignites at about 550-650 C, while CI engine exhaust is 150-350 C at
normal operating conditions. As the particulate .trap fills with soot and restricts flow, the
exhaust
temperature rises but is still not high enough to ignite the soot and regenerate the trap. In
some
systems, automatic flame igniters are used which start combustion in the carbon when
the pressure drop across the trap reaches a predetermined value. These igniters can be electric
heaters or flame nozzles that use diesel fuel. If catalyst material is installed in the traps, the
o
temperature needed to ignite the carbon soot is reduced to the 350-450 C range. Some
such traps can
automatically regenerate by self-igniting when the exhaust temperature rises from increased
back pressure. Other catalyst systems use flame igniters.

11.With the help of sketch explain the principle of operation of FID analyser?
Flame Ionization Detector (FID) is used for measuring hydrocarbons. This is a well established and
accepted method for measuring He, Ionization is a characteristic of HC compound. This principle is
employed in the FID detector. Formation' of electrically charged particles of ionized carbon atoms,
from the hydrocarbons in a hydrogen-oxygen flame is achieved in the FID analyzer. Current flow in
micro amperes (amplified for measurements) is a measure of the concentrationofhydrocarbons.

UNIT-IV ALTERNATE FUELS

PART A
1. Write the advantage and disadvantage of alcohol as a fuel?
The advantages of alcohols a fuel
are:
1. It is a high octane fuel with antiknock index number (octane number) of over
100.
2. Alcohols have low sulphur content in the
fuel.
3. It produces less overall emissions when compared with
gasoline
Disadvantages:
1. Alcohols have poor ignition characteristics in
general.
2. There is a possibility of vapor lock in fuel delivery
system.
3. It has poor cold weather starting characteristics due to low vapor pressure and
evaporation.
2. What is the problem with gasoline-alcohol mixture as a fuel? (NOV/DEC
2012)
Problems with gasoline-alcohol mixture as a fuel are the tendency for alcohol to combine
with
any water present. When this happens the alcohol separates to locally from the gasoline,
resulting in a non-homogenous mixture. This causes the engine to run erratically due to the large
air-fuel ratio difference between the two fuels.
3. Write the sources for methanol? (NOV/DEC 2012)
Methanol can be obtained from many sources, both fossil and renewable. These include
coal, petroleum, natural gas, biomass, wood landfills and even the ocean.
4. Write the source for ethanol?
Ethanol can be made from ethylene (or) from fermentation of grains and sugar. Much of it
is
made from sugarcane, sugar beets, and even cellulose (wood and
paper).
5. What are the techniques of using alcohol in diesel engine fuel? (NOV/DEC
2013)
The techniques of using alcohol in diesel engine
are:

Alcohol diesel
emulsions.

Dual fuel injection.

Alcohol fumigation.

Surface ignition of
alcohols.
6. What are the methods are adopted for induction of alcohol into intake
manifold?
The methods are adopted for induction of alcohol into intake manifold micro fog unit,
pneumatic
spray nozzle, and vaporizer, carburetor and fuel
injector.
7. List the advantages of hydrogen as an IC engine? (APR 2014)
Advantages

Low emissions.

Fuel availability.

Fuel leakage to environment is not a

pollutant

High energy continent per volume when stored as a

liquid.
8. List the disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel? (APR 2011)

Disadvantages

Difficult to re fuel.

Fuel cost would be high at present days technology and

availability.

Poor engine volumetric

efficiency.

High NOx emission because of high

flame.
9. Write the methods for hydrogen can be used in SI engines?(NOV/DEC 2009)
Hydrogen can be used in SI engines by three
methods

By manifold induction

By direct introduction of hydrogen into the

cylinder.

By supplementing gasoline.
10. List the advantages of natural gas? (MAY / JUNE 2013)
Advantages:

Octane number is around 120, which makes it a very good SI engines

fuel.

Low engine emissions

Fuel is fairly abundant

worldwide.

11. List the disadvantages of natural gas? (APR 2008)

Disadvantages:

Low energy density resulting in low engine

performance.

Low engine volumetric efficiency because it is a gaseous

fuel.

Refueling is a slow process.

12. Write the two types of LPG used in automobiles engine?
Two type of LPG used in automobile engines:
One is propane and the other is butane, sometimes in mixture of propane and butane is used
as LPG in auto mobile engine.
13. What are the advantages of LPG?

LPG mixes with air at all

temperatures.

LPG has high antiknock

characteristics.

There is no crack case dilution, because the fuel is in the form of

vapor.
14. Write the disadvantages of LPG? (APR 2010)

A special fuel feed system is required for liquid petroleum

gas.

A good cooling system is quite

necessary.

The vehicle weight is increased due to the use of heavy pressure cylinder for storing
LPG.
15. Write the improvements required for the LPG vehicle in
future?

Effort must be made to have more LPG filling stations at convenient locations, so
that
LPG tank can be filled up easily.

Safety devices are to be introduced to prevent accidents due to explosion of gas

cylinders
(or) Leakage in the gas pipes.
16. Comment on the water tolerance of alcohol blends.(NOV/DEC
2012)
Water and alcohol are infinitely soluble in one another at room temperature (API).
Thealcohol
in the fuel will take up water to a certain point and the alcohol, water, and gasoline will coexist.
If this coexisting mixture enters a vehicle, then the water will convert to steam during fuel
combustion and exit as part of the exhaust. However, if water continues to accumulate in
the tank, then the point of phase separation may be reached.
17.List the advantages of bio diesel over petroleum based fuels.(NOV 2014)
The main advantage of bio-gas is that it can be produced in rural areas from readily available
materials. Bio gas consists mainly of methane and carbon dioxide. Its calorific value is low but its
knock resistance (octane number) is high and ignition quality (cetane number) is low.
18.What are the problems of using methanol in an engine?(MAY 2015)
One problem with gasoline-alcohol mixtures as a fuel is the tendency for alcohol to combine with
any water present. When this happens the alcohol separates locally from the gasoline, resulting in a
non-homogeneous mixture. This causes the engine to run erratically due to the large air-fuel ratio
differences between the two fuels.
19.List the properties required in selecting a fuel for an engine.(MAY 2015)
Cetane number.
Octane number.
Calorific value of blended fuel.
PART B

1. Explain the reasons for looking for alternate fuels for IC engines.
(NOV/DEC
2008)Alternate fuels like liquid fuels are preferred for IC engines because they are easy to
store
and have reasonably good calorific value. In the liquid fuel category the main alternative is
the alcohol.
Alcohols are an attractive alternate fuel because they can be obtained from both natural and
manufactured sources. Methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are two kinds of
alcohols that seem most promising.
Of all the fuels being considered as an alternate to gasoline, methanol is one of the
most
promising and has experienced major research and development. Pure methanol and mixtures
of methanol and gasoline in various percentages have been extensively tested in engines
and vehicles for a number of years.
The most common mixtures are .M85 (85% methanol and 15% gasoline) and MI0
(10%
methanol and 90% gasoline). The data of these tests which include performance and
emission levels are compared to pure gasoline (MO) and pure methanol (MI00).
2. Explain alcohols as alternate fuels for IC engines bringing out their merits
and demerits. (APR/MAY 2010)
Alcohol

Alcohols are an attractive alternate fuel because they can be obtained from both
natural and manufactured sources. Methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol (ethyl alcohol) are
two kinds
of alcohols that seem most
promising.
The advantages of alcohol as a fuel are:

It can be obtained from a number of sources, both natural and

manufactured.

It is a high octane fuel with anti-knock index numbers (octane number) of over
100.
Engines using high-octane fuel can run more efficient by using higher compression
ratios. Alcohols have higher flame speed.


It produces less overall emissions when compared with
gasoline.

When alcohols are burned, it forms more moles of exhaust gases, which gives
higher
pressure and more power in the expansion
stroke.

It has high latent heat of vaporization (hf g ) which results in a cooler intake process.
This
raises the volumetric efficiency of the engine and reduces the required work input in
the compression stroke.

Alcohols have low sulphur content in the

fuel.
The disadvantages of alcohol as a fuel are:
Alcohols have poor ignition characteristics in
general.
Alcohols have almost invisible flames, which are considered dangerous when handling
fuel. Again, a small amount of gasoline removes this danger.
There is the danger of storage tank flammability due to low vapor pressure. Air can leak
into storage tanks and create a combustible mixture.
Because oflow flame temperatures there will be less NOx emissions but the resulting lower
exhaust temperatures take longer time to heat the catalytic converter to an efficient operating
temperature
There is a possibility of vapor lock in fuel delivery
systems.
3. Explain the possibility of using reformulated gasoline and water gasoline mixture
as alternate fuel. (APR/MAY 2009)
Reformulated Gasoline for SI Engine

Reformulated gasoline is normal-type gasoline with a slightly modified formulation

and additives to help reduce engine emissions. Additives in the fuel include oxidation
inhibitors,
corrosion inhibitors, metal deactivators, detergents, and deposit control
additives.

Oxygenates such as methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) and alcohols are added, such
that
there is 1-3% oxygen by weight. This is to help reduce CO in the exhaust. Levels of benzene,
aromatic, and high boiling components are reduced, as is the vapor pressure. Recognizing that
engine deposits contribute to emissions, cleaning additives are included. Some additives clean
carburetors, some clean fuel injectors, and some clean intake valves, each of which often does
not clean other components.

On the positive side is that all gasoline-fuelled engines old and new can use this
fuel
without modification. On the negative side is that only moderate emission reduction is
realized, cost is increased and the use of petroleum products is not reduced.
Water-Gasoline Mixture for SI Engines

The development of the spark-ignition engine has been accompanied by the desire to
raise
the compression ratio for increased efficiency and fuel economy. One obstacle to this gain in
economy at times has been the octane quality of the available gasoline. To circumvent this
limitation, water was proposed as an antiknock additive.

Water addition to gasoline slows down the burning rate and reduces the gas
temperature
in the cylinder which had probably suppressed detonation. Engine combustion chamber
deposit reductions has also been reported when' water was added to the intake charge.

With respect to nitric oxide emissions, dramatic reductions were reported when
conversely, water addition probably increases hydrocarbon emissions. Finally, with respect to
carbon monoxide emissions water addition seem to have minimal effect. A limited work
has taken place with the addition of water via an emulsion with the fuel rather than

independently. Emulsion could eliminate the need for a separate tank, provide improved
atomization and increase fuel safety. However, a water fuel separation problem may exist.
4. Can alcohol be used for CI engines? Explain. (NOV/DEC 2009)
Techniques of using alcohol in diesel engines
are

Alcohol/diesel fuel
solutions

Alcohol diesel
emulsions.

Alcohol fumigation

Dual fuel injection

Surface ignition of
alcohols.


Spark ignition of
alcohols

Alcohols containing ignition improving

additives.

Both ethyl and methyl alcohols have high self ignition temperatures. Hence, very high
compression ratios (25-27) will be required to self ignite them. Since this would make the
engine extremely heavy and expensive, the better method is to utilize them in dual fuel
operation. In the dual fuel engine, alcohol is carbureted or injected into the inducted air. Due to
high self ignition temperature of alcohols there will be no combustion with the usual diesel
compression ratios of
16 to 18. A little before the end of compression stroke, a small quantity of diesel oil is
injected
into the combustion chamber through the normal diesel pump and spray nozzle. The diesel oil
readily ignites and this initiates combustion in the alcohol air mixture also.
Several methods are adopted for induction of alcohol into the intake manifold. The y are
micro fog unit, pneumatic spray nozzle, vaporizer, carburetor and fuel injector. The degree of
fineness
in mixing of fuel and air are different for the above
methods.
Another method tried is to inject alcohol into the combustion chamber after the diesel
fuel
injection: This way of alcohol injection avoids the alcohol cooling the charge in the cylinder to
a degree which will jeopardize the ignition of the diesel fuel. However, this design calls for two
complete and separate fuel systems with tank, fuel pump, injection pump and injectors.
In the dual fuel engines mentioned above, major portion of the heat release is by the
alcohol
supplied and this alcohol is ignited by a pilot spray of diesel oil injection. The performance of
the dual fuel engine is influenced by the following properties of alcohols:
The calorific value of alcohols is lower than diesel oil and hence a larger quantity of alcohol
has to be used for producing the same amount of power output. However, their air requirement
for combustion is lower, and hence the energy content of the mixture is roughly the same. Since
their latent heat of vaporization is very high, the temperature and pressure at the end of
compression come down due to their evaporation. Hence, if the alcohol induction rate exceeds a
limit, the injected diesel will not be able to ignite and hence the engine will fail to function.
All the dual fuel systems described above have the basic disadvantage of requiring two
different
types of fuels and associated components. Since alcohols have a high tendency to pre-ignite in
SI engines, recently, this property was made use of in a compression ignition engine by using a
hot surface to initiate ignition.
5. Explain with a neat sketch the surface-ignition alcohol engine. (NOV/DEC
2011) SURFACE-IGNITION ALCOHOL CI ENGINE
The basic concept of the system is as
follows:

A slab of insulator material, wound with a few strands of heating wire (kanthal heating
element wire) is fixed on the combustion chamber with the wire running on the face exposed
to the gases. The fuel injector is located such that a part of the spray impinges head on this
surface. Ignition is thus initiated.


The combustion chamber, which is in the cylinder head, is made relatively narrow so
that the .combustion spreads quickly to the rest of the space. Since a part of the fuel burns on
the insulator surface and since the heat losses from the plate are low, the surface after some
minutes of operation reaches a temperature sufficient to initiate ignition without the aid o
f external electrical supply.

The power consumption of the coil is about 50 W at 6 volts. The engine lends itself
easily
to the use of wide variety of fuels, including methanol, ethanol and gasoline. The engine
was

found to run smoothly on methanol with a performance comparable to diesel operation. The
engine operates more smoothly at lower speeds than at higher speeds.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen in SI engine? (NOV/DEC
2013)
A number of automobile manufacturers have built with prototype or modified engines which
operate on hydrogen fuel. The advantages of hydrogen as an IC engine fuel include:

Low emissions.
Essentially no CO or HC in the exhaust as there is no carbon in the fuel. Most exhaust would
be
H20 and N2'

Fuel availability.
There are a number of different ways of making hydrogen, including electrolysis of
water.

Fuel leakage to environment is not a

pollutant.

High energy content per volume when stored as a liquid. This would give a large vehicle
range for a given fuel tank capacity, but see the following.
The disadvantages of using hydrogen as a fuel include:

Requirement of heavy, bulky fuel storage both in vehicle and at the service
station.
Hydrogen can be stored either as a cryogenic liquid or as a compressed.gas. If stored as a
liquid, it would have to be kept under pressure at a very low temperature. This would require a
thermally super-insulated fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a high pressure vessel
with limited capacity.

Difficult to refuel.

Poor engine volumetric efficiency. Any time a gaseous fuel is used in an engine, the
fuel
will displace some of the inlet air and poorer volumetric efficiency will
result.

Fuel cost would be high at present-day technology and

availability
7. Explain the two methods by which hydrogen can be used in CI engine.(APR/MAY 2012)
There are two methods by which hydrogen can be used in diesel engines.
(i) By introducing hydrogen with air and using a spray of diesel air to ignite the mixture that is
by
the dual fuel mode. The Limiting conditions are when the diesel quantity is too small to produce
effective ignition, that is failure of ignition and when. The hydrogen air mixture is so rich that
the combustion becomes unacceptably violent. In between these limits a wide range of diesel to
hydrogen proportion can be tolerated. Investigations show that beyond a certain range (30 to
50% substitution of diesel fuel by hydrogen),' further introduction leads to violent pressure rise.

(ii) By introducing hydrogen directly into the cylinder at the end of compression. Since the self
ignition temperature of hydrogen is very high, the gas spray is made to dmpinge on a hot glow
plug in the combustion chamber- that is by surface ignition. It is also possible to feed a very
lean hydrogen air mixture during the intake into an engine and then inject the bulk of the
hydrogen towards the end of the compression stroke.
8. What is natural gas? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using natural gas as
alternate fuels?(MAY/JUNE 2012)

 Natural gas is a mixture of components, consisting mainly of methane (60-95%) with small
amounts of other hydrocarbon fuel components. The composition varies considerably from
place
to place and from time to time. But usually contain a large amount of metha ne (CH4) and
small amount of ethane CiH5. In addition it contains various amounts of N2, C02, He, and
traces of other gases. Its sulphur content ranges from very little (sweet) to larger amounts (sour).

 It is stored as compressed natural gas (CNG) at pressures of 16 to 25 bar, or as liquid

natural gas (LNG) at pressures of 70 to 210 bar and a temperature around -160C. As a fuel, it
works best in an engine system with a single-throttle body fuel injector. This gives a longer
mixing time, which is needed by this fuel. Tests using CNG in various sized vehicles continue
to be conducted by government agencies and private industry.
Advantages of Natural Gas
Advantages of natural gas as a fuel
include:

Octane number is around 120, which makes it a very good SI engine fuel. One reason
for
this high octane number is a fast flame speed. Engines can operate with a high compression
ratio.

Low engine emissions. Less aldehydes than with

methanol.

Fuel is fairly abundant worldwide. It can be made from coal but the process of making
is very costly.
Disadvantages of Natural Gas
Disadvantages of natural gas as an engine
fuel:

Low energy density resulting in low engine

performance.

Low engine volumetric efficiency because it is a gaseous

fuel.

Need for large pressurized fuel storage tank. There is some safety concern with
a pressurized fuel tank.

Inconsistent fuel
properties.

Refueling is a slow process.

9. Compare LPG and petrol as fuel for SI engines. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of using LPG in SI engines? (APR 2014)
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Propane and butane are obtained from oil and gas wells. They are also the products of
the petroleum refining process. For automobile engines, two types of LPG are used. One is
propane and the other is butane. Sometimes, a mixture of propane and butane is used as liquid
petroleum
gas in automobile engines. Liquid petroleum gases serve as fuel in place of
petrol.

They are used widely in buses, cars and trucks. Liquid petroleum gases are
compressed
and cooled to form liquid.
Advantages and Disadvantages of LPG
Liquefied petroleum gas has higher potential as an alternate fuel for IC engines. Compared
to natural gas which has more positive points.
Advantages :
LPG contains less carbon than petrol. LPG powered vehicle produces 50 per cent
less carbon monoxide per kilometer though only slightly less nitrogen compounds.
Therefore
emission is much reduced by the use of LPG.
LPG mixes with air at all temperatures.
In multi-cylinder engines a uniform mixture can be supplied to all cylinders.
There is no crankcase dilution, because the fuel is in the form of vapour.
Automobile engines can use propane, if they have high compression ratios (10:1).
LPG has high antiknock characteristics.
Its heat energy is about 80 per cent of gasoline, but its high octane value compensates
the thermal efficiency of the engine.
Running on LPG translates into a cost saving of about 50%.
The engine may have a 50 per cent longer life.
Disadvantages

Engines are normally designed to take in a fixed volume of the mixture of fuel and air.
Therefore LPG will produce 10 percent less horse power for a given engine, at full
throttle. The ignition temperature of LPG is somewhat higher than petrol.
Therefore running on LPG could lead to a five percent reduction in valve life.
A good cooling system is quite necessary, because LPG vaporizer uses engine coolant
to provide the heat to convert the liquid LPG to gas.

The vehicle weight is increased due to the use of heavy pressure cylinders for storing
LPG.
A special fuel feed system is required for liquid petroleum gas.

10. Discuss the change in properties of alcohol-petrol blends and their effect on
the performance of the engine. (NOV/DEC 2013)
Alcohols have higher antiknock characteristic compared to gasoline. As such with an alcohol
fuel, engine compression ratios of between 11:1 and 13:1 are usual. Today's gasoline engines
use
a compression ratio of around 7:1 or 9:1, much too low for pure
alcohol.

In a properly designed engine and fuel system, alcohol produces fewer harmful
exhaust
emissions. Alcohol contains about half the heat energy of gasoline per litre. The
stoichiometric air fuel ratio is lesser for alcohol than for gasoline. To provide a proper fuel air
mixture, a carburetor or fuel injector fuel passages should be doubled in area to allow extra fuel
flow. Alcohol does not vaporize as easily as gasoline. Its latent heat of vaporization is much
greater. This affects cold weather starting.

Alcohol liquefies in the engine and will not burn properly. Thus, the engine may
be
difficult or even impossible to start in extremely cold climate. To overcome this, gasoline is
introduced in the engine until the engine starts and warms up. Once the engine warms, alcohol
when introduced will vaporize quickly and completely and burn normally. Even during normal
operation, additional heat may have to be supplied to completely vaporize alcohol. Alcohol
burns at about half the speed of gasoline. As such, ignition timing must be changed, so that
more spark advance is provided. This will give the low burning alcohol more time to develop
the pressure and power m the cylinder. Moreover, corrosion resistant materials are required for
fuel system since alcohols are corrosive in nature.
11. Compare the properties of gasoline, methanol and ethanol as engine fuels and
explain how they influence combustion and emissions? (MAY/JUNE 2013)
METHANOL

Of all the fuels being considered as an alternate to gasoline, methanol is one of the most
promising and has experienced major research and development. Pure methanol and mixtures
of
methanol and gasoline in various percentages have been extensively tested in engines
and vehicles for a number of years.
The most common mixtures are
.

M85 (85% methanol and 15% gasoline) and MI0 (10% methanol and 90% gasoline).
The
data of these tests which include performance and emission levels are compared to pure
gasoline (MO) and pure methanol (MI00). Some smart flexible fuel (or variable-fuel) engines
are capable of using any random mixture combination of methanol and gasoline ranging from
pure methanol to pure gasoline. Two fuel tanks are used and various flow rates of the two fuels
can be pumped to the engine, passing through a mixing chamber. Using information from
sensors in the intake and exhaust, the electronic monitoring system (EMS) adjusts to the proper
air-fuel ratio, ignition timing injection timing, and valve timing (where possible) for the fuel
mixture being used.

One problem with gasoline-alcohol mixtures as a fuel is the tendency for alcohol
to
combine with any water present. When this happens the alcohol separates locally from
the gasoline, resulting in a non-homogeneous mixture. This causes the engine to run erratically
due to the large air-fuel ratio differences between the two fuels.

Methanol can be obtained from many sources, both fossil and renewable. These
include
coal, petroleum, natural gas, biomass, wood, landfills, and even the ocean. However, any
source that requires extensive manufacturing or processing raises the price of the fuel.


Emissions from an engine using M10 fuel are about the same as those using gasoline.
The advantage (and disadvantage) of using this fuel is mainly the 10% decrease in gasoline use.
With
M85 fuel there is a measurable decrease in HC and CO exhaust emissions. However, there is an
increase in NOx and a large increase in formaldehyde formation.

Methanol is used in some dual-fuel CI engines. Methanol by Itself is not a good CI fuel
because of its high octane number, but if a small amount of diesel oil is used for ignition, it
can

be used with good results. This is very attractive for developing countries because methanol
can often be obtained from much cheaper source than diesel oil.
ETHANOL

Ethanol has been used as automobile fuel for many years in various regions of the
world.
Brazil is probably the leading user, where in the early 1990s. About 5 million vehicles
operated on fuels that were 93% ethanol. For a number of years gasohol (gasoline +. alcohol).
has been available at service stations in the United States.

Gasohol is a mixture of 90% gasoline and 10% ethanol. As with methanol .

the
development of systems using mixtures of gasoline and ethanol continues. Two mixture
combinations that are important are E85 (85% ethanol) and E10 (gasohol).

E85 is basically an alcohol fuel with 15% gasoline added to eliminate some of
the problems of pure alcohol (i.e., cold starting, tank flammability, etc.). E10 reduces the
use of
gasoline with no modification needed to the automobile engine. Flexible-fuel engines are being
tested which can operate on any-ratio of ethanol-gasoline.

Ethanol can be made from ethylene or from fermentation of grains and sugar. Much of
it is made from corn, sugar beets, sugar cane,and even cellulose (wood and paper). The present
cost of ethanol is high due to the manufacturing and processing required. This would be
reduced if larger amounts of this fuel were used. However, very high production would create a
food-fuel competition, with resulting higher costs for both. Some studies show that at present in
the United States, crops grown for the production of ethanol consume more energy in plowing,
planting, harvesting, fermenting, and delivery than what is in the final product. This defeats one
major reason for using an. alternate fuel. Ethanol has less HC emissions than gasoline but more
than methanol.
12.Compare alcohol and vegetable oil based biofuel as their suitability for use in SI and CI
engine.(NOV 2014)
Vegetable oils have better ignition qualities for diesel engines than light alcohols, their cetane
number being over 30. There are many vegetable oils which can be used in diesel engines like
peanut oil, linseed oil, rapeseed oil but the most important in sunflower oil on which maximum
work has been done.
The difference in properties of sunflower oil and diesel oil leads to the following problems in the
use of vegetable oils in diesel engines.
1. The viscosity of vegetable oils is much higher than that of diesel. It can cause
problems in fuel handling, pumping, atomization and fuel jet penetration. This would
require modifications in the engine fuel system.
2. Vegetable oils are slower burning. It can give rise to exhaust smoke, fuel
impingement on cylinder walls and lubricating oil contamination. To overcome this
combustion system must be modified to speed up air-fuel mixing. The indirect
injection (IDI) engines are more suitable than direct injection (DI) engines for
vegetable oils because of a single relative large size nozzle hole.
3. Sunflower oil can be blended with diesel oil,80% dieseV20% sunflower oil, to
extend the availability of diesel oil.
13.Discuss the salient properties of hydrogen as a fuel.(MAY 2015)
Hydrogen is another alternate fuel tried for IC engines. Investigations were carried out
extensively in many countries. The most attractive features of hydrogen as an IC engine fuel
are that it can be produced from a potentially available raw material, water, and the main
product of its combustion again is water.
Hydrogen has very low density both as gas and as liquid. Hence,in spite of its high calorific
value on mass basis its energy density as a liquid is only one fourth that of gasoline. As a gas
it has less than one tenth the density of air and its heating value per unit volume is less than
one third that of methane. This is one of its chief disadvantages.
Hydrogen has to be stored as compressed gas, as liquid (in cryogenic containers) or in
absorbed form (as metal hydrides), none of which is as convenient as gasoline storage.

14.Explain the combustion and ignition of using hydrogen in CI engines.(MAY 2015)

Hydrogen has extremely wide ignition limits. This allows a spark ignition engine to operate
on hydrogen with very little throttling, a decided advantage. Stoichiometric hydrogen air
mixture burns seven times as fast as the corresponding gasoline air mixture. This too is a
great advantage in IC engines, leading to higher engine speeds and greater thermal
efficiency.
Hydrogen has a high self-ignition temperature but requires very little energy to ignite it. Hence, it is
highly prone to preignition and backflash in SI engines. Adiabatic flame temperature for hydrogen is
a little lower than for gasoline but the rapid combustion allows very little heat loss to the
surroundings and hence, high, instantaneous, local temperatures are produced. This leads to high
nitric oxide formation.
UNIT V
RECENT TRENDS
1 What is lean burn engine?
Lean burn engine is a layout of Otto cycle engine designed to permit the combustion of lean
air
fuel mixture and to obtain simultaneously low emission values as high fuel economy. It
is designed to operate effectively in the air fuel ratio 14:1-16:1to 20:1-22:1. When the lean
compression ratio, combustion chamber shape, ignition system, the lean limit are successfully
optimized, the engine is refused to as a lean burn engine.
2. Why lean mixture is preferred in SI engine? (NOV/DEC 2012)
Lean mixture is preferred in SI engine because of the following
facts:

Lower pollutants.

Good fuel economy.

Heat transfer losses to the cooing medium are reduced because of lower
peak temperatures.

Since lean mixture are less prove to

knocking.
3. What are the modifications to be made to convert an existing engine as a lean burn
engine?
The modifications to be made to comments an existing engine as a lean burn engine
are:

Increasing the compression ratio of the engine to accurate flame

propagation.

Increasing the swirl and turbulence of the mixture in order to increase flame
speed.

Catalytic activation of the charge in the combustion

chamber.
4. How the stratified charge engine can be characterized? (NOV/DEC
2008)
The stratified charge engine can be characterized by the following
features:

Relatively high compression

ratio

Ability of direct cylinder fuel injection variations to run

unthrottled.

Stratification of the charge mixture into distinctly different rich and lean air fuel
ratios.
5. List the advantages of the stratified charge engine.(APR 2010)
The advantages of the stratified charge engines
are:
Low octane fuels (cheaper fuels) can be used at higher compression
ratios.


Load control can be achieved without air
throttling

Quiet in operation.

Multi fuels give more or less equal

performance.

6. What are the main disadvantages of the stratified charge engine?(NOV/DEC 2008)
The main disadvantages of the stratified charge engines are:

Maximum output (from the air in the cylinder (i.e.) complete utilization of air) is not
achieved.

The added cost of the injection/modified combustion systems.

Added complication of injection and spark ignition systems.

7. Write short notes on plasma jet ignition system.
The plasma jet ignition system uses a plasma jet spark plug. This system can be considered as
a form of electrical torch ignition, since the ignition source is hot jet plasma which project
well
away from the spark plug. The plasma jet ignition sources is turbulent and electrodeless,
both desirable features for igniting marginal mixtures.
8. What are the factors that influence the operation of the plasma jet plug? (MAY/JUNE
2008)
The factors that can influence the operation of the plasma jet plug are the amount of the
applied electrical energy, the rate of energy delivery, the cavity volume, the cavity dimensions,
the orifice
size, the ambient gas pressure and the quantity of fuel present in the cavity.
9. What are the reasons for automotive engines equipped with gasoline injection system?
Some of the recent automotive engines are equipped with gasoline injection system, instead of
a carburetion for the reasons:

To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multi cylinder engine.

To improve breathing capacity (i.e.) volumetric efficiency.

To reduce or eliminate detonation.

10. What are the types of injection systems?
The fuel injection system can be classified as:

Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) in to the cylinder

Port injection (a) timed (b) continuous

Manifold injection
11. What are the objectives of the fuel injection system?
The objectives of the fuel injection system are to meter, atomize and uniformly distribute the
fuel throughout the air mass in the cylinder.
12. What are the components of injection system? (NOV/DEC 2011)
The components of injection system are:

Pumping element

Metering element

Mixing element

Mixture control

Timing control
13. Write notes on continuous injection system. (MAY/JUNE 2011)
Continuous injection system usually has a rotary pump. The pump maintains the fuel line
gauge pressure of about 0.75 to 1.5 bar. The system injects the fuel through a nozzle
located in
manifold immediately downstream of the throttle plate.
14. Explain the functions of the following components. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
(a) Pumping element, (b) Metering element, (c) Timing control, (d) Ambient control.
(a)Pumping element- moves the fuel from the fuel tank to the injector. This include
necessary piping, filter etc.
(b)Metering element- measures and supplies the fuel at the rate demanded by load and
speed conditions of the engine.
(c)Timing control- fixes the start and stop of the fuel-air mixing process.
(d)Ambient control-compensates for charges in temperature and pressure of either air or
fuel that may affect the various elements of the system.
15. Write the advantages of homogeneous charge compression ignition engine?(APR 2014)
Lower NOx and particulate emissions
High thermal efficiency

16. What are the fuels used in HCCI engines?(NOV/DEC 2008)

Diesel, gasoline, methanol, natural gas and
hydrogen
17. List the disadvantages of homogeneous charge compression ignition engine?
The major problem is controlling the ignition timing over a wide lead and speed.
Power density is limited by combustion noise and high peak pressure.
18.What is stratified charge engine?(NOV 2014)
The stratified charge engine is usually defined as a spark ignition internal combustion engine* in
which the mixture in the zone of spark plug is very much richer than that in the rest of the
combustion chamber, i.e.,one which burns leaner overall fuel-air mixtures.
19.What is common rail injection system?(MAY 2015)
The commonrail fuel injection' system is finding increasing' use in diesel engines as It has the
potential to drastically cut emissions and fuel consumption. This system provides control of many
important parameters linked to the injection system." It has a wide range of application, from small
to heavy duty engines.
Part B
1. What is the necessity for gasoline injection? Explain with suitable sketch.(APR
2008)
In a carburetor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is difficult to realize in each cylinder of
a
multicylinder engine. A typical pattern of mixture distribution in an intake manifold of a
multicylinder engine. As may be noticed that the intake valve is open in cylinder 2. As can
also be observed the gasoline moves to the end of the manifold and accumulates there. This
enriches the mixture going to the end cylinders. However, the central cylinders, which are
very close to the carburetor, get the leanest mixture. Thus the various cylinders receive the airgasoline mixture in varying quantities and richness. This problem is called the maldistribut
ion and can be solved by the port injection system by having the same amount of gasoline
injected at each intake manifold. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop injection systems
for gasoline engines. By adopting gasoline injection each cylinder can get the same richness
of the air-gasoline mixture and the maldistribution can be avoided to a great extent.

Some of the recent automotive engines are equipped with gasoline injection system, instead of
a carburetion for one or more of the following reasons:
(i) To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multicylinder
engine.
(ii) To improve breathing capacity i.e. volumetric
efficiency. (iii) To reduce or eliminate detonation.
(iv) To prevent fuel loss during scavenging in ~ase of two-stroke
engines.
2. With neat sketch, explain the exhaust emissions with different air-fuel ratio lean
burn spark ignition engines. (APR 2009)
Any air/fuel reaction requires an energy source to initiate combustion. In natural gas engines,
the spark plug performs this function. In lean-burn engines, the combustion process is enhanced
by pre-mixing the air and fuel upstream of the turbocharger before introduction into the
cylinder. This creates a more homogenous mixture in the combustion chamber and reduces the
occurrence of knocking or detonation. To prevent either knocking or misfiring, the
combustion process must be controlled within a narrow operating window. Charge air
temperatures and volume, together with air to fuel ratio, are constantly monitored. The

microprocessor-based engine controller regulates the fuel flow and air/gas mixture and ignition
timing.
New lean-burn engines from Cummins are designed to operate at a lean air/gas ratio of Lambda
=
1.7.(Traditional stoichiometric natural gas engines have an air/gas ratio o
f
Lambda = 1.0). In the chart (at left) that plots Break Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)
against
Air Excess (Lambda), the operating window is a very narrow band where efficiency peaks
and
where NOx is near its minimum. A richer mixture (stoichiometric) can potentially
produce knocking and higher NOx emissions; a leaner mixture than Lambda 1.7 may not
combust reliably and cause misfiring, which raises HC emissions. Full-authority electronic
engines, sensors and microprocessors in the new lean-burn engines are critical for
maintaining combustion within these boundaries.
The design of the lean-burn engine incorporates a simple open combustion chamber housed in
the
piston crown. The shape of the piston crown introduces turbulence in the incoming
air/fuel

mixture that promotes more complete combustion by thoroughly exposing it to the advancing
flame front. The flame plate of the cylinder head is regular (flat) and the spark plug is centrally
located. The air and gas fuel are correctly mixed under the control of the engine management
system.
3. What do you understand by charge stratification? Explain the method of achieving the
same with suitable sketches. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of charge
stratification.(MAY/JUNE 2012/NOV 2014)
The stratified charge engine is usually defined as a spark ignition internal combustion engine in
which the mixture in the zone of spark plug is very much richer than that in the rest of
the
combustion chamber, i.e., one which burns leaner overall fuel-air
mixtures.
METHODS OF CHARGE STRATIFICATION
The stratified charge engines can he classified into two main types, according to the method of
formation of the heterogeneous mixture in the combustion chamber.
1. Those using fuel injection and positive ignition (including swirl stratified charge
engines).
2. Those using carburetion
alone.
STRATIFICATION BYFUEL INJECTION AND POSITIVE IGNITION
The first approach.
The first attempt to obtain charge stratification was made by Ricardo around 1922. The rich
mixture was formed at the spark plug by an auxiliary spray while another spray injecting fuel
along the major axis of the combustion chamber formed a leaner mixture

This arrangement could give combustion over a relatively wide range of overall mixture
strengths and allowed very lean engine operations giving efficiencies as high as 36 percent.
However, the range was limited at higher speeds and at loads higher than about 50 percent of
the full load the engine did not work properly, presumably due to too rich a mixture near the
sparkplug. Prechamber stratified charge engine
In this method used a small prechamber with injector and the spark plug. In this a rich mixture
is
formed near the sparkplug by fuel supply from the injector and carburetor supplies lean
mixture to the main combustion chamber. The auxiliary charge burns in prechamber and issues
out, through its throat, into the main chamber, and burns lean mixture present there. Thus a
leaner overall mixture can be burned.

This approach also involves many problems of engine operation. The first problem is that of
getting good performance over the fun load range.
At part loads, the lean mixtures are effectively burned but at full-load due to improper fuel
distribution and incomplete scavenging of the prechamber the rich mixture is not properly
burnt. The use of prechamber means loss of thermal efficiency due to throttling and rather
costly fuel injection equipment.
The fuel injection equipment bas to be highly sophisticated in order to provide regular injection
at low fuel deliveries, good distribution in prechamber and avoiding an overall rich mixture at
high loads.

Advantages
1. It can tolerate a wide quality of
fuels.

2. It has low exhaust emission

levels.
3. It can be manufactured by the existing
technology.
Disadvantages
1. Charge stratification results in reduced power for a given engine
size.
2. It has a higher weight than that of a conventional
engine.
3. Its manufacture is more complex and hence, its manufacturing cost is
higher.
4. Its reliability is yet to be well
established.
4. Explain briefly electronic fuel injection system (NOV/DEC 2010).
ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
Modern gasoline injection systems use engine sensors, a computer and solenoid operated
fuel injectors to meter and injects the right amount of fuel into the engine cylinders. These
systems
called electronic fuel injection (EFI) use electrical and electronic devices to monitor and
control engine-operation.
An electronic control unit (ECU) or the computer receives electrical signals in the form of
current or voltage from various sensors.
It then uses the stored data to operate the injectors, ignition system and other engine
related devices. As a result, less unburned fuel leaves the engine as emissions, and the
vehicle gives
better mileage.
Typical sensors for an electronic fuel injection system include the
following:
(i) Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor - senses the amount of oxygen in the engine exhaust
and calculates air-fuel ratio. Sensor output voltage changes in proportion to air-fuel ratio.
(ii) Engine temperature sensor - senses the temperature of the engine coolant, and from this
data the computer adjusts the mixture strength to rich side for cold starting.
(iii) Air flow sensor - monitors mass or volume of air flowing into the intake manifold
for adjusting the quantity of fuel.
(iv) Air inlet temperature sensor - checks the temperature of the ambient air entering the
engine
for fine tuning the mixture
strength.
(v) Throttle position sensor - senses the movement of the throttle plate so that the mixture
flow
can be adjusted for engine speed and
acceleration.
(vi) Manifold pressure sensor - monitors vacuum in the engine intake manifold so that
the
mixture strength can be adjusted with changes in engine
load.
(vii) Camshaft position sensor- senses rotation of engine camshaft / crankshaft for speed
and
timing of injection.
(viii) Knock sensor - microphone type sensor that detects ping or preignition noise so that
the
ignition timing can be retarded;
The fuel injector in an EFI is nothing but a fuel valve. When it is not energized, spring
pressure
makes the injector to remain closed and no fuel will enter the engine. When the computer
sends the signal through the injector coil, the magnetic field attracts the injector armature. Fuel
then spurts into the intake manifold.

The injector pulse width is an indication of the period for which each injector is energized
and
kept open. The computer decides and controls the injector pulse width based on the
signals received from the various sensors.
Under full load, the computer will sense a wide open throttle, high intake manifold pressure,
and high inlet air flow. The ECU will then increase the injector pulse width to enrich the
mixture
which will enable the engine to produce higher
power.
Under low load and idling conditions, the ECU will shorten the pulse width by which
the
injectors are kept in the closed position over a longer period of time. Because of this, airfuel mixture will become leaner and will result in better fuel economy.
Electronic fuel injection system has a cold start injector too. This is an extra injector that
sprays fuel into the center of the engine intake manifold, when the engine is cold. It serves
the same
purpose as the carburetor choke. The cold start injector ensures easy engine startup in very
cold weather.

Merits of EFI System

The spark ignition engine with an EFI' system compared with a carburetor unit has the
following
favorable points:
(i) Improvement in the volumetric efficiency due to comparatively less resistance in the
intake
manifolds which will cause less pressure losses. It eliminates majority of carburetor
pressure losses and almost eliminates the requirement of manifold heating.
(ii) Manifold wetting is eliminated due to the fuel being injected into-or close to the cylinder
and need not flow through the manifold.
(iii) Atomization of fuel is in4ependent of cranking speed and therefore starting will be
easier. (iv) Better atomization and vaporization will make the engine less knock prone.
(v) Formation of ice on the throttle plate is
eliminated.
(vi) Distribution of fuel being independent of vaporization, less volatile fuel can be
used.
(vii) Variation of air-fuel ratio is almost negligible even when the vehicle takes different
positions like turning,. moving on gradients, uneven roads etc.
(viii) Position of the injection unit is not so critical and thereby the height of the engine
(and hood) can be less.
Demerits of EFI System
Some of the disadvantages of EFI system
are:
(i) high maintenance
cost,
(ii) difficulty in servicing,
and
(iii) possibility of malfunction of some
sensors.
5. What is a learn burn engine? What are the advantages of using learn mixture in
SI
engine? (APR 2014/NOV 2014/MAY 2015)
The combustion is considered "lean" when excess air is introduced into the engine along with
the fuel. This produces two positive effects. First, the excess air reduces the temperature of the
combustion process and this reduces the amount of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) produced by
nearly half, compared to a conventional natural gas engine. Second, since there is also excess
oxygen available, the combustion process is more efficient and more power
is produced from the same amount of
fuel.
6. Explain MULTI-POINT FUEL INJECTION (MPFI) SYSTEM (MAY/JUNE 2013)
Throttle Body Injection System
This throttle body is similar to the carburetor throttle body, with the throttle valve controlling
the amount of air entering the intake manifold.
An injector is placed slightly above the throat of the throttle body. The injector sprays gasolin
e into the air in the intake manifold where the gasoline mixes with air. This mixture then
pass
through the throttle valve and enter into the intake
manifold.
The fuel injection systems can be either timed or continuous. In the timed injection, gasoline
is
sprayed from the injectors in pulses. In the continuous injection system, gasoline is sprayed
continuously from the injectors. This port injection system and the throttle body injection
system may be either pulsed systems or continuous systems. In both systems, the amount of
gasoline injected depends upon the engine speed and power demands.
D-MPFI System
The D-MPFI system is the manifold fuel injection system. In this type, the vacuum in the
intake

manifold is first sensed. In addition, It senses the volume of air by its density. As air enters
into the intake manifold, the manifold pressure sensor detects the intake manifold vacuum and
sends the information to the ECU.
The speed sensor also sends information about the rpm of the engine to the ECU. The ECU
in
turn sends commands to the injector to regulate the amount of gasoline supply for
injection. When the injector sprays fuel in the intake manifold the gasoline mixes with the air
and the mixture enters the cylinder.
L-MPFI System
The L-MPFI system is a port fuel-injection system. In this type the fuel metering is regulated
by the engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters the engine. This is called airmass

metering or air-flow metering. As air enters into the intake manifold, the air flow sensor
measures the amount of air and sends information to the ECD. Similarly, the speed
sensor sends information about the speed of the engine to the ECU. The ECD processes
the information received and sends appropriate commands to the injector, in order to regulate
the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When injection takes place, .the gasoline mixes with
the air and the mixture enters the cylinder
7. Explain gasoline direct injection engine. (NOV/DEC 2012)
In a carburetor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is difficult to realize in each cylinder of a
multicylinder engine. The intake valve is open in cylinder 2 the gasoline moves to the end of
the manifold and accumulates there. This enriches the mixture going to the end cylinders.
However, the central cylinders, which are very close to the carburetor, get the leanest mixture.
Thus the various cylinders receive the air-gasoline mixture in varying quantities
and
richness. This problem is called the maldistribution and can be solved by the port injection
system by having the same amount of gasoline injected at each intake manifold. Therefore, there
is an urgent need to develop injection systems for gasoline engines. By adopting gasoline
injection each cylinder can get the same richness of the air-gasoline mixture and the
maldistribution can be avoided to a great extent.

Some of the recent automotive engines are equipped with gasoline injection system, instead of
a carburetion for one or more of the following reasons:
(i) To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multicylinder
engine. (ii) To improve breathing capacity i.e. volumetric
efficiency.
(iii) To reduce or eliminate detonation.
(iv) To prevent fuel loss during scavenging in as of two-stroke
engines.
8. Describe with a sketches how a CI engine can be controlled electronically. What
is stratified charge? Give its significance. (NOV/DEC 2013)
Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
The ECU in the electronic control system receives signals from the sensors and determines
the
opening time for the injectors land which also controls the injection
volume.
Cold Start Injector
When the engine is cold, the starting of the engine is usually not easy. When a cold engine
is started, it requires a richer mixture. The cold start injector, the main injector and the air valve
are
shown. The cold start injector is a type of solenoid valve to which power is supplied from
8:
battery for the opening and closing of the valve inside, thus for injecting the fuel. The
fuel
injected should not be excessive. Therefore the duration of injection time is controlled by
a timing switch. The timing switch is composed of a bimetal element and an electric heater coil.
When the engine is cold, the starter motor cranks the engine. At this time, the cold start
injector injects fuel to enrich the mixture. The main injector also injects fuel during the same
time. When the engine is hot, the cold start injector will stop injection and only the main
injector will inject the fuel to the cylinder.
Air Valve

As the temperature is low, the air valve speeds up the engine idle speed to fast idling. When
the
engine is cold, the throttle plate will be in the closed position. When the temperature is low,
the air valve opens completely.

Thus a large volume of air passes through the air valve to the intake manifold. As the
temperature rises; the air valve closes gradually. When the engine reaches the normal operating
temperature, the valve closes completely and the air flow is cut-off from the air valve. A
thermo wax valve operates depending on the temperature of the engine coolant. This valve
controls the opening and closing of the air valve.

INJECTION TIMING
Consider a cylinder of a four cylinder engine. The fuel is injected into the inlet manifold of
each
cylinder at different timings. The timing at which the injection of the fuel takes place inside the
inlet manifold is called injection timing. The injection timing for one cylinder of this
four cylinder engine is described below.
In one cylinder, the piston moves up from BDC (Bottom Dead Centre) to TDC (Top
Dead
Centre) during the exhaust stroke. Just before the piston reaches TDC during this exhaust stroke,
injection of the fuel takes place into the inlet manifold of this cylinder at about 60 crank angle
before TDC. This injected fuel mixes with the air in the air intake chamber. Thus the air-fuel
mixture is obtained.
At the beginning of the suction stroke, intake valve opens and the air-fuel mixture is sucked
into the cylinder during the suction stroke. According to the firing order, the injection of the fuel
takes place inside the inlet manifolds of the other three cylinders at various timings. In
this four cylinder engine, the ECU calculates the appropriate injection timing for each cylinder
and the air fuel-mixture is made available at each suction stroke.
In order to meet the operating conditions, the Injection valve is kept open for a longer time
by
ECU. For example, if the vehicle is accelerating, the injection valve will be opened for
longer time, in order to supply additional fuel to the engine.
9. With a schematic diagram explain an electronically Controlled Injection Pumps (lnline
and Distributor Type). (MAY/JUNE 2007/MAY 2015)
Diesel engines use inline and distributor pumps. The start of injection in the conventional
inline
element is determined by the instant when the top of the plunger covers the bypass or the spill
ports. The end of delivery occurs when the helical slot or groove on the plunger uncovers these
ports. The start of delivery is fixed but the end of delivery depends on the amount of fuel to be
delivered.
In the case of the electronically controlled system there will be a control sleeve which can be
moved up and down by an actuator which is controlled by the ECU (Electronic Control
Unit). The ECU determines the amount of fuel to be injected depending on the throttle position,
engine speed, and other parameters. Once this is obtained the control sleeve is positioned so
that the required quantity of fuel can be injected. The timing of injection is still done
mechanically.

Distributor pumps use control sleeves for metering the injected quantity. Thus they can be
easily
be made to work with an electronically controlled solenoid actuator. The principle of operation
is similar to the one explained above.
Inline pump governors in mechanical systems are quite complex. These basically alter
the injected fuel quantity of the pump so that the engine speed can be maintained. A
mechanical governor is used, which senses the engine speed through the use of flyweights. In
addition to the speed the governor also puts a limit on the maximum fuel delivery depending on
engine operating and ambient conditions.
It also has to supply excess fuel just for starting. The fuel delivery has to be controlled based on
the turbocharger outlet conditions. The governor has to also limit the maximum speed and
ensure stable idling operation.
10. What is meant by HCCI engine? Explain with neat sketch with
advantages.(NOV 2014)
HCCI is a combustion process. HCCI is not an engine concept. HCCI must be incorporated
in
an engine concept.

HCCI is a low temperature chemically controlled (flameless) combustion

process.

HCCI can be considered as a hybrid form between the diesel and Otto
combustion process.

However combustion process is different. So there is neither Diffusion flame (as in

a diesel engine) nor a flame front traveling through a premixed charge ( as in SI engine).

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HCCI

Homogenous charge is drawn in to the cylinder during suction and compress to high
enough temperature to achieve spontaneous ignition of the charge.
Combustion starts in almost whole volume of C.C Two degree before
TDC
After Combustion initiation the temperature rapidly increases and whole fuel burn
simultaneously
As whole mixture burns simultaneously and no flame propagation , combustion temperature
can be controlled less than 700 deg Centigrade and thus NOx formation is avoided.
HCCI Drawbacks

Higher load HCCI operation is

difficult.

To achieve Transient operation and cold starting are

issues.


Start of combustion (SOC) is difficult to control because there is no direct ignition
source
such as a spark plug or fuel injection timing. Instead SOC is controlled by mixture properties
at intake valve closing.

Controlling how rapidly the energy is released is also a problem. For this
reason significant EGR dilution is needed.


CO and UHC emissions are also high at light loads
HCCI Benefits

Ultra-low NOx emissions because there is no propagating flame front and the
burning is both locally and globally lean.

Extremely low PM emissions because the mixture is homogeneous and

there are no rich pockets

Significant part load efficiency gains over SI because the engine is operated
unthrottled and load is controlled by fuelling and varying the fuel to air ratio.

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engines have the potential

of producing a high thermal efficiency with extremely low PM and NOx emissions.
11.Explain the operation of CRDI engine with a neat sketch.(MAY 2015)

The commonrail fuel injection' system is finding increasing' use in diesel engines as It has the
potential to drastically cut emissions and fuel consumption. This system provides control of
many important parameters linked to the injection system." It has a wide range of application,
from small to heavy duty engines. Some important features are:
(i) Very high injection pressures of the order of 1500 bar.
(ii) Complete control over start, and end of injection
(iii) Injection pressure is independent of engine speed
(iv) Ability to have pilot, main and post injection
(v) Variable injection pressure.
The common rail injection system has a high pressure pump which operates continuously and
charges a high pressure rail or reservoir or accumulator. Fuel is led from this rail to the injector
mounted on the cylinder head through lines. The injector is solenoid'operated.
It received pulses from the ECU to open the same.

The engine directly drives the pump of the common rail system.It is generally of the multicylinder radial piston type. The generated pressure is independent of the injection process unlike
conventional injection systems. The rail pressure pump is generally much smaller that
conventional pumps and also is subjected to lesser pressure pulsations.
The injection occurs when the solenoid is energized. The quantity of fuel injected is directly
dependent on the duration of the pulse when the injection pressure is constant. Sensors on the
crankshaft indicate its position and speed and so the timing of injection
and its frequency can be controlled.