1 - Introduction To Migration

1
Chapter One
Introduction to Migration
Objectives:
Recognize how data acquisition produces a distorted view of the subsurface
Realize that the distortion is removed by the migration process
Become aware of time or depth migration
Know that scatterpoints are useful in defining the acquisition response
Know that post-stack migration deals with semicircles
Know that prestack migration deals with ellipses
Identify the three main migration methods

1. Kirchhoff
2. F-K
3. Downward continuation
Downloaded 10 Nov 2011 to 198.3.68.20. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; Terms of Use: http://segdl.org/
A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations
1.1 Introduction
Possible scenario for finding productive hydrocarbons
Initial idea
Geological field work
Planning seismic programs
Seismic acquisition
Seismic processing
Interpretation
Drilling program
Well completion
Production
Seismic processing above is expanded to
Geometry
Amplitude recovery
Deconvolution
Statics
Noise attenuation
Velocities
Stacking
Migration
Inversion, AVO
Page 1.2
Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration
Migration above is expanded to
Time
Depth
Post-stack
Prestack
DMO (DIP moveout)
2-D
3-D
Constant velocity
Structured geology
Datum
Noise
Aliasing
Velocities
Migration algorithms
Migration algorithms above is expanded to
Kirchhoff time
Kirchhoff depth
F-K
Downward continuation
Finite difference
15 degree, 45 degree, ...
Phase shift
PSPI (Phaseshift plus interpolation)
X time
X depth
DMO
Pre-stack
Poststack
Page 1.3
1.2 Recording and the location of reflection energy

1.2.1 Zero-offset recording with linear reflectors
The main objective of seismic processing is to produce an image, or section, that
represents the geological structure below the surface.
Figure 1.1 illustrates
1. the source is identified by "
"
2. the receiver is identified by "
"
3. the geological structure in (a)

4. the seismic response in (b)
5. the migration in (c), found by repositioning the data from (b)
Note the following:
The source and receiver are located at the same position.
The time response is plotted directly below source and receiver
One way travel times are shown (assume velocity = 1.0).
Flat event looks OK.
Dipping event has moved to a new position and appears to have a new dip.
An objective of migration is to reposition the dipping to appear more like the

geological structure.
For the migration to be correct, the vertical axis would be in depth. However, it
is common to display the migrated section with a vertical time axis.
Page 1.4
a)
b)
c)
Figure 1.1 Illustration of migration concepts with linear reflectors, a) geological
structure, b) a seismic section, and c) a migration of the seismic section.
Page 1.5
1.2.2 Zero-offset recording with point reflectors

It is convenient to evaluate the effect of reflections from scatterpoints. This leads
to mathematical solutions for migration that collect the energy in the hyperbolas.
Figure 1.2 illustrates
source receiver raypaths to the scatterpoints in (a)
resulting "diffractions" or hyperbolas in (b)
effect of migration in (c) where the diffraction energy has been summed into
the scatterpoint.
From Figure 1.2b note the following:
Diffractions at the same depth have the same shape.
Deeper reflections have a broader shape.
The migration process collapses the energy in the diffraction back to the
position of the reflector.
The diffraction Figure 1.2b has a hyperbolic shape in a constant velocity medium.
In a smoothly varying velocity medium, the diffraction may be approximated by a
hyperbola.
In rugged velocity media, the diffraction shape may require ray tracing or wave
front analysis for evaluation.
In extremely rugged velocity media, the diffraction shape may require
simplification back to the hyperbola for evaluation.
The energy of the diffraction becomes weaker with increased offset. This effect is
not represented on kinematic illustrations.
Page 1.6
a)
b)
c)
Figure 1.2 Illustration of migration concepts using (a) geological structure with
scatterpoints, (b) a seismic section showing hyperboloids, and (c) a migration of
the seismic section.
Page 1.7
1.3 Zero offset migration

1.3.1 Zero offset migration of a single point on a seismic section
A point or spike of energy on a single seismic section before migration would
normally be undesirable as it would represent noise. However, it serves a very
useful purpose as it aids in understanding of the migration process. (A collection
of spikes may represent a reflection.)
Question: Where are all the possible reflectors located if they all produced the
same reflection time?
Figure 1.3 shows the migration of points on a single trace. Since we don't know
where the final migrated position will be, we simply disperse the amplitude of the
energy in semicircles.
Constructive interference of these semicircles will create the migrated image.
Destructive interference will cancel unwanted smiles.
This effect is observed when smiles are generated after migrating a noisy
section.
Question: Do migration algorithms always construct a full semicircle?
Page 1.8
x
t
a)
x
t
b)
Figure 1.3 Migration of single points on the input trace is shown in (a) and the
semi-circular result of migration is shown in (b).
Page 1.9
1.3.2 Zero offset migration of linear reflectors

The stacking process attempts to create a section that is equivalent to the zerooffset section. Migration after the stacking process is referred to as post-stack
migration, or as the assumed source-receiver offset is zero, it is also referred to
as zero-offset migration.
As shown in Figure 1.4, one objective of migration is to reposition the dipping

event of (a) to the migrated position in (b).
For convenience, we equate times with distance.
The velocity is constant.
The velocity has a value of unity.
One-way times are used.
For zero-offset, one-way times may be considered half the two-way time.
We will continue to use these assumptions throughout this chapter and in many
other areas of the notes.
Migration with a compass is illustrated in Figure 1.4b. Note:
Reflection point is plotted at its reflection time below the surface location.
Zero-offset reflecting rays are at right angles to the reflector.
Any reflection with the same time could come from any position on a
semicircle.
Construct semicircles at T1 and T2.
The tangent to these circles will represent the migrated position.
Page 1.10
x
t
T1
T2
a)
t or z
b)
Figure 1.4 The seismic event to be migrated is shown in (a). Compass migration
of a dipping event is shown in (b).
Page 1.11
1.3.3 Migration of real data

The following displays in Figure 1.5 illustrate:
1. a processed seismic section
2. a migrated time section
3. a migrated depth section
Note the apparent diffractions on the seismic section in (a) and the confusion
caused by overlapping diffractions. These confused areas are greatly improved
on the time migration (b). Depth migration (c) illustrates to potential ability of
seismic processing to produce an image of the geological structure below the
surface.
a)
Figure 1.5 Example of (a) a seismic section, (b) a time migration and (c) a depth
migration of the same data
Page 1.12
b)
X
c)
Figure 1.5 continued.
Page 1.13
1.3.4 Examples of a seismic project in Indonesia
Figure 1.6 Location maps for Makassar Strait, Indonesia, data provided by
TGS-NOPEC Geophysical Company.
Page 1.14
a)
b)
Figure 1.7 Makassar Strait data showing a) a structural image in depth of a depth
migration from one seismic line. The velocity that was estimated and used in
processing this data is shown in b).
Page 1.15
a) Time migration
(b) Depth Migration converted to vertical time scale for comparison to (a).
Figure 1.8 Close up Makassar Strait data comparing a) and c) time migrations
with b) and d) depth migrations. The vertical scale for the depth migrations have
been converted to time for comparison purposes.
Page 1.16
c) Time migration
d) Depth migration converted to vertical time scale for comparison.
Page 1.17
1.3.5 The three main post-stack migration methods

Figure 1.9 Illustrates the three major methods of post-stack migration. They are
Kirchhoff, F-K (or Fourier transform method), and downward continuation.
Kirchhoff migration
For every output sample, sum the energy along diffraction, or hyperbolic paths,
on the input section. The summed value becomes the amplitude value at the
output location. Additional scaling and filtering may be required.
F-K migration
This method makes use of the 2-D Fourier transform to convert the input section
into the 2-D Fourier domain where it is migrated with a simple algorithm. The
inverse transform provides the migrated structure. The F denotes the Fourier
transform of time to frequency, and K denotes the Fourier transform of space or
distance to wave number. Sometimes the wave number K may also be referred to
as frequency.
Downward continuation
This method is quite different to the above two migrations as it works on a
conceptual volume of information rather than two planes of data. The input 2-D
time section becomes the top surface of the cube, and various processes
continually compute the next downward layer until the volume is complete. Each
downward step represents the time section that would be produced if the sources
and receivers had also been lowered to the new depth. This volume of
information will then yield the migrated structure at the end of the cube where t =
0. Some downward-continuation algorithms are referred to as finite difference,
phase shift, or X.
Page 1.18
a)
b)
c)
Figure 1.9 Examples of the three major migration methods: (a) Kirchhoff
migration, (b) FK migration, and (c) downward continuation migration.
Page 1.19
1.4 Recording with variable source / receiver offsets

1.4.1 Offset modelling
In practical seismic acquisition there are many surface recordings made from one
source or explosion. Consequently, there are variable distances (offsets) between
the source and receiver as illustrated in Figure 1.10. The sorting and merging
together of the many recorded traces constitute a major part of seismic
processing.
Figure 1.10 illustrates raypaths for a source gather, a CMP gather, and two source
receiver pairs from a dipping reflector.
To is the normal reflection from a co-located source and receiver.
Farther offsets have a longer travel times TMO.
This increasing refection time with offset is moveout (MO).
The trace is located midway between the source and receiver, at the common
mid point (CMP).
Traces with the same CMP but with different offsets require MO time correction
to realign the reflection.
CMP traces from dipping events contain reflections from different parts of the
reflector.
Special MO is required dip-dependent moveout(DD-MO) to align the reflection

times from dipping events.
Special prestack processing is required to correct the dipping reflection point

smear (DMO or prestack migration).
Page 1.20
a)
b)
Figure 1.10 Illustrations of linear reflectors and variable source receiver offsets
show (a) raypaths for a source gather, a CMP gather, and reflections from a
dipping linear surface. (b) shows the resulting traces from (a).
Page 1.21
1.4.2 Prestack migration

Prestack migration (PSM) takes into account the location of the source and
receiver for each trace when determining the reflector location.
The construction for PSM can be difficult and is usually left for the computer. The
migration of a spike on a single trace will serve as an introduction as shown in
Figure 1.11. Note:
Velocity is assumed to be unity.
One-way time response T is shown at the CMP location.
Time response could come from any reflection point that has the same total
time for the raypath.
All possible reflection points lie on an ellipse with the source and receiver
locations being the foci of the ellipse.
1. The travel times are the same.
2. The reflection angles are equal.
Prestack migration is accomplished by spreading the energy of each time

sample along its appropriate ellipse.
Real-world note: The real-world migrations are more complex than indicated in
this initial chapter. We have assumed the velocities to be constant and unity,
the geological surface to be flat and horizontal, and that we have no noise. This
is not the case for real data, but these assumptions help clarify the concepts
and are valuable aids in testing the various migration algorithms.
Page 1.22
CMP
x
t
To
T
a)
CMP
x
t
To
T
b)
Figure 1.11 Possible reflection locations a) for a single point on the input trace,
and b) the result of prestack migration.
Page 1.23
1.5 Relationship between Seismic and Geology

Seismic data is recorded in time t then processed and stacked into a section in (x,
t) that should be equivalent to a zero offset section.
The stacked section has a better signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) than a zero offset
section and unwanted coherent energy such as multiples are attenuated.
Diffractions are still present (though in an attenuated form), and dipping energy is
mis-possitioned as evident in Figure 1.12.
After stacking the section is usually migrated with a time migration in (x, t). The
time migration is relatively straightforward and is usually the responsibility of the
seismic processor. Time migration would typically use stacking velocities that
have been converted to RMS or interval velocities.
A time migration focuses the data by collapsing diffractions, and tends to move
dipping events in the direction of their correct location. An interpreter must use
some form of average velocity to estimate the depth of an event since the vertical
scale is in time.
A depth migration (x, z) may be performed using an accurate depth model that is
required to focus and position the data. If the model is incorrect, the migration
will also be incorrect. Areas with complex geology will require a geologist to aid
in building the velocity model.
The stacking process was designed for horizontally layered reflectors and will
lose resolution in typical seismic data. The data is optimally resolved with
prestack time and depth migrations. If an accurate depth model can be built, the
desired result is the prestack depth migration.
Economics and the geological complexity of the area under investigation control
the level to which the data is processed.
Figure 1.12 shows a geological cross-section and a zero offset time response.
They are plotted orthogonal to each other to emphasize the difference between a
time and depth section.
When the velocity is constant, time and depth migrations are equivalent and
diffractions in (x, t) are simultaneously plotted with raypaths in (x, z).
Page 1.24
Figure 1.12 Illustration of a geological cross-section, a zero offset time section,

and a depth migration. The time axis is plotted orthogonal to depth to emphasize
the incompatibility.
Page 1.25
1.6 Modelling
Modelling will be considered the process of starting with a known geological
cross-section and creating a seismic time section. This tends to be a natural
process and the principles are straightforward and easily understandable. The
migration process is introduced as the inverse operation. This is especially the
case with downward-continuation migration. Consequently, the next chapters will
deal with modelling in detail.
Precise methods of migration require an accurate knowledge the geological

model (i.e., velocities and structure). Modelling the kinematics of ray paths or
wave fronts is often part of these migration processes, especially depth migration.
The following models will be discussed in greater detail to introduce the various
methods of migration:
modelling with zero-offset
ray tracing with constant velocity
diffraction sum modelling
Fourier Transform modelling
ray tracing with constant interval velocities
exploding reflector model
wavefront modelling
source (shot) record modelling
constant or limited offset stacked sections
Page 1.26
1.7 Points to Note in Chapter 1
Seismic acquisition produces a distorted view of the subsurface.
The migration process reduces this distortion.
Migrations can be in time or depth.
Scatterpoints help define the migration response.
Post-stack migration produces semicircles in a constant velocity medium.
Prestack migration produces an ellipse (constant velocity medium) where the

source and receiver are located at the foci of the ellipse.
The three main migration methods are

1. Kirchhoff
2. F-K
3. downward continuation
Summing energy along a hyperbola is identical to spreading energy along a

semicircle (constant velocity).
For further information:

See chapter 2 for more information on modelling and references.
See chapter 4 for more detailed information on migration and references.
Page 1.27
1.8 Quiz 1
1)
Define
CRP?
CMP?
2)
What is the assumed source-receiver offset in post-stack migration?
3)
Sketch the zero-offset migration response of the trace below.
x
z
o
t
4)
Where could the reflection come from on the trace below?

s
x
z
o
t
5)
Define
Two-way time...
One-way time...
Page 1.28

1 - Introduction To Migration

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

1 - Introduction To Migration

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

1

Recognize how data acquisition produces a distorted view of the subsurface

Realize that the distortion is removed by the migration process

Become aware of time or depth migration

Know that scatterpoints are useful in defining the acquisition response

Know that post-stack migration deals with semicircles

Know that prestack migration deals with ellipses

Identify the three main migration methods

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

Geological field work

Planning seismic programs

Seismic processing above is expanded to

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration

Migration above is expanded to

DMO (DIP moveout)

Migration algorithms above is expanded to

15 degree, 45 degree, ...

PSPI (Phaseshift plus interpolation)

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

1.2 Recording and the location of reflection energy

2. the receiver is identified by "

3. the geological structure in (a)

Note the following:

The source and receiver are located at the same position.

The time response is plotted directly below source and receiver

One way travel times are shown (assume velocity = 1.0).

Flat event looks OK.

An objective of migration is to reposition the dipping to appear more like the

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

1.2.2 Zero-offset recording with point reflectors

source receiver raypaths to the scatterpoints in (a)

resulting "diffractions" or hyperbolas in (b)

From Figure 1.2b note the following:

Diffractions at the same depth have the same shape.

Deeper reflections have a broader shape.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

1.3 Zero offset migration

Constructive interference of these semicircles will create the migrated image.

Destructive interference will cancel unwanted smiles.

Question: Do migration algorithms always construct a full semicircle?

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

1.3.2 Zero offset migration of linear reflectors

As shown in Figure 1.4, one objective of migration is to reposition the dipping

For convenience, we equate times with distance.

The velocity is constant.

The velocity has a value of unity.

One-way times are used.

Migration with a compass is illustrated in Figure 1.4b. Note:

Zero-offset reflecting rays are at right angles to the reflector.

Construct semicircles at T1 and T2.

The tangent to these circles will represent the migrated position.

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

1.3.3 Migration of real data

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

1.3.4 Examples of a seismic project in Indonesia

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration

A Practical Understanding of Pre- and Poststack Migrations

Chapter 1 Introduction to Migration