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of Quality)
Through this concept, he tried to shift the quality thinking from just
Inspection and Testing to all those functions which affect quality.
According to Juran, if Quality is to be attained, a wide variety of
identifiable activities, called Quality Tasks/ Work Elements
have to be performed, e.g. studying the customers quality
needs, product design, product testing, complaint analysis etc.
If a firm is small, these different quality tasks or work elements can be
performed by a few persons. As the firm grows, each specific task
becomes so time consuming that specialized departments have to be
created to perform each task. This is when departments are
introduced viz. design, PPC, purchase, etc.
Quality)
The network of activities under the Spiral of Quality or Quality Function when well defined and
coordinated become a unified system which carries out the intended quality objectives.
Area
Content of Little q
Content of Big Q
(Traditional Quality)
(Modern Quality)
Products
Only Products
All Products
Services
and
Processes
Only
those
processes which are
related
to
Manufacturing
of
the Product
All
Processes::
Processes
Manufacturing,,
Manufacturing
Support Functions
(Process Planning,
MPS, MRP, CP, IC),
Business
Functions
(Forecasting,
Customer
Billing,
etc..)
etc
Industries
Only Manufacturing
All
Types::
Types
Manufacturing,
Service,
Government, NGO
etc..
etc
There are several tools and techniques which are used to detect, solve, and analyze
quality related problems (for troubleshooting issues related to quality).
Dr Karou Ishikawa put forward seven basic visual tools of quality so that even an average person
(with little formal training in statistics) could analyze and interpret data.
These tools are used world wide by companies, their managers and employees at all levels.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
Histograms
Pareto Charts
Cause and Effect Diagrams
Run Charts
Scatter Diagrams
Flow Diagrams
Control Charts
rectangles whose width represents class intervals (bins) and whose heights are
proportional to the corresponding frequencies.
Data Value
Frequency
HISTOGRAM
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
BAR GRAPH
Bar graph is generally drawn when frequencies have not been given for continuous data i.e.
frequencies are given for different categories of data e.g. population of different states being
compared through a bar graph.
Histogram is generally used when frequencies have been given for a particular category of data i.e.
data is continuous. In histograms, the horizontal scale is numerical, whereas in bar grapg, it is
categorical.
CLASS INTERVAL
FREQUENCY
5
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
FREQUENCY
0-10
4
3
2
1
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
Communicate the shape of data quickly to others e.g. symmetrical, skewed right,
skewed left, peaked, bimodal etc.
Show primary, secondary, and tertiary peaks in data as well as give a visual
representation of the statistical significance of those peaks (some idea about the
mean and how is data distributed about the mean etc.).
1. Form a table, listing the various categories of causes and their respective frequency/
count of occurrence
occurrence.. Ass two more columns, one for percentage frequency of each
category and the other for cumulative percentage frequency.
frequency. For example
example::
Causes
Category
Frequency
Percentage
Frequency
Cumulative
Percentage
Frequency
Broken Link
35
37
37
Spelling Error
30
32
69
Missing
Image
25
26
95
Script Error
05
05
100
F = 95
Y-axis.
axis. May be also, cumulative percentage frequency on the right side of Y-axis.
axis.
3. Put the percentage frequencies on the graph in descending order from left to right
right..
70
(64)
60
50
40
30
20
10
(13)
(10)
(6)
(3)
(2)
(2)
5. Draw a horizontal line from 80% mark on Y-axis till it intersects a point on the line
graph. Then, drop a perpendicular on the X-axis from this point of intersection. This
point on the X-axis separates the vital few (on left) from the trivial many. Mark
these two labels on the X-axis.
4. SCATTER DIAGRAMS
Scatter Diagram is a graph which shows relationship between paired data (two
variables).
The graph is drawn by taking the independent variable (cause variable) along
the X-axis and the dependent variable (effect variable) on the Y-axis.
Collect two pieces of data and tabulate the data as ordered pairs (x, y).
ii.
iii.
Interpret the scatter diagram for direction and strength of relationship. The
different types of relationships between data pairs are as follows:
- Positive correlation
- Negative correlation
- No correlation
SCATTER DIAGRAMS
A cluster of points resembling a straight line indicates the strongest correlation between
the variables. In this graph, there is a strong positive correlation between Variable 1 and
Variable 2.
Activity
Decision
No
Yes
Start or Stop
FLOWCHART
An Example: Statistical Process Control Steps
Start
Produce Good
Provide Service
Take Sample
No
Assign.
Causes?
Yes
Inspect Sample
Stop Process
Create
Control Chart
Passenger
Arrives
Ticket
For Flight
Yes
Check
Luggage
Yes
Excess
Carry-on
No
Issue
Boarding Pass
Passenger
Boards Airplane
No
Wait for
Appropriate
Flight
Operations
Inspection
Transportation
Delay
Storage
Move to storage
Move to peeler
15
20
Place in conveyor
10
11
Distance
(feet)
Description
of
process
Time
(min)
Storage
Delay
Inspect
Transport
Date: 03-09-08
Operation
Step
Process Chart
20
100 ft
30
50 ft
360
20 ft
20 ft
30
Total
480
190 ft
Control Charts
Control charts are used to determine whether a process will produce
a product or service with consistent measurable properties. It tells
whether the process is in control or going out of control.
Steps Used in Developing Process Control Charts
Identify critical operations in the process where inspection might be
needed.
Identify critical product characteristics.
Determine whether the critical product characteristic is a variable or an
attribute.
Select the appropriate process control chart.
Establish the control limits and use the chart to monitor and improve.
Update the limits.
Control Chart
27
24
UCL = 23.35
Number of defects
21
c = 12.67
18
15
12
9
6
LCL = 1.99
3
2
10
12
Sample number
14
16
Cause and Effect diagrams were developed by Dr. Karou Ishikiwi in 1963.
These diagrams when made resemble the bones of a fish skeleton and so
are referred to as Fishbone diagrams.
Cause and Effect diagrams are used to find the possible causes of an
effect i.e. problem. If a company is facing quality relating problem, it can
use this quality tool to identify the various probable reasons or causes
creating that problem. Thus CAUSE AND EFFECT diagram gives the
relationship between the PROBLEM and its POSSIBLE CAUSES.
Dr. Ishikawa and Dr. W. Edwards Deming used this diagram extensively
as one of the first tools in Quality Management Process. Deming has
taught TQM in Japan since World War II and also gave the PDCA
concept.
2.
3.
This diagram represents the relationship between some effect and all the
possible causes. For every effect, there are likely to be several
major
causes.
under
These
major
causes
might
be
summarized
(Backbone or Spine)
Quality Problem
(Problem Statement)
(Fish Head)
For
Manufacturing:
MEN,
MACHINES,
METHODS
and
MATERIALS
Major Cause/
Major Category/
Broad Area 1
Major Cause/
Major Category/
Broad Area 2
Main Bones
Problem
Statement
Backbone or Spine
Fish Head
Major Cause/
Major Category/
Broad Area 3
Major Cause/
Major Category/
Broad Area 4
MEN
MACHINERY
Problem
Statement related
to Manufacturing
Industry
METHOD
MATERIAL
MEN
MACHINERY
Problem
Statement related
to Service
Industry
PROCEDURES
POLICIES
held to identify the causes/ issues under each problem area/ major
categories of cause. For this, under each category, look for the things that
have changed, deviations from norms or patterns. For each problem area,
ask, why does it happen? List the responses as branches off the main
bones i.e. major causes. The causes identified for each main cause is called
Level 1 cause. Similarly Level 1 causes are found for each main cause.
In the next stage, for each level 1 cause, find the possible sub-causes which
would be called Level 2 causes. For each level 2 cause, find the possible
sub-causes which would be called Level 3 causes. One can go up to Level
4 or 5.
The resulting structure after completion looks like a tree or a fish skeleton
and hence the name Fishbone Diagram.
Major Cause 2
Major Cause 1
Level 2 Cause
Level 3
Level 1 Cause
Level 1 Cause
Supporting
Ideas
Major Cause 3
Why
students
earn poor
grades?
Major Cause 4
Measurement
Faulty testing equipment
Incorrect specifications
Improper methods
Inaccurate
temperature
control
Dust and
Dirt
Environment
Human
Machines
Out of adjustment
Poor supervision
Lack of concentration
Tooling problems
Old / worn
Inadequate training
Quality
Problem
Defective from vendor
Not to specifications
Materialhandling problems
Materials
Poor process
design
Ineffective quality
management
Deficiencies
in product
design
Process
Fishbone Chart:
Personnel
Other
Weather
Air traffic
Mechanical failures
Late pushback tug
Material
Procedure
Delayed
Flight
Departure
4.
In this step, the different causes are quantified i.e. data is collected
to show that the causes being shown on the diagram are real. The
quantification is represented with the help of Pareto or any other
tool, to fix the priority in which different causes would be
eliminated.
5.
processes.
This
not
only
improves
the
Underlying Principle
Quality Circle is based on participative philosophy woven about
quality control and problem solving techniques at the bottom
level. This concept enables the grass root level employees to
play a significant and meaningful role in their organization. The
main purpose of quality circles is to build the people and
produce quality people towards making quality products or
providing quality services.
The concept of Quality Circles is primarily based upon the
recognition of the value of the worker as a human being, as
someone who activises on his job, his wisdom, intelligence,
experience, attitude and feelings. It is based on Human
Resource Management considered as one of the key factors in
the improvement of product quality and productivity. Quality Circle
concept is based on the principle that employee participation in
decision making and problem solving improves the quality of work.
Quality Circle concept has three major attributes.
Quality Circle is a form of participation management.
It is a HRD technique.
It is a form of problem solving technique.
The Origin
The concept of Quality Circles was initiated in the U.S in 1950s but was
not successful.
Quality Circles, as we know today, were developed in Japan in 1963 by Dr.
Karou Ishikawa. He started this concept to tap the creative potential of the
bottom level employees.
The concept was re-exported to U.S in 1970s. 1980s saw the
development of TQM and reduction in the use Quality Circles.
But even today, Quality Circles are very useful in solving work related
problems. These have now evolved into Kaizen teams (but these are multifunctional). Quality Circles have been extremely successful in Japan but
only partially successful in U.S. In U.S, teams called Product Development
Teams have been more successful.
Identify
problems
Problem Identification
Problem Selection
Selection of the
problem to be
solved
after
setting priorities
for all identified
problems
Problem Analysis
Generate Alternative
Solutions
number
of
Problem is analyzed
using simple problems
solving techniques viz.
Brain
Storming,
Quality tools etc.
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS:
i. As said earlier, quality circle is a form of participative management.
It improves the capabilities of an individual because of group
participation. Group participation brings out the hidden potential
of employees.
ii. It also improves the personality characteristics of employees
e.g. Shyness etc. It increases the level of skill of employees
because of training received prior to becoming a member of Q.C.
B)
i.
i.
ii.
ii.
iii.