Tripods

Tapes, Tripods and Transits
Kevin J. Wilder
Circuit Rider
August 2012
CLRP No. 12-04
Preface
This workbook was written to accompany the training course, Tapes, Tripods and Transits, and is
a successor to the Surveying Methods for Local Highway Departments workbook written by Paul
Cooney in 1994. The course and this reference book are intended for town, village, county and
city highway officials, street foremen, construction supervisors, and others who want to
learn basic surveying methods, and whose knowledge and experience with surveying
techniques is limited.
Kevin Wilder re-organized the content of the original workbook, wrote new material, and
provided some new illustrations. Kevin is the former Engineering Supervisor for the Jefferson
County Highway Department, and has over 38 years in highway engineering. He is degreed in
Math and Public Administration.
We developed the oneday workshop with the guidance of an Advisory Group, which helped
us define course content, construct an agenda, and determine course material. We appreciate the
dedication and commitment of the Advisory Group, which consisted of:

Kevin Wilder, Circuit Rider/Instructor, Watertown
Paul Male, P.E., P.L.S. Circuit Rider/Instructor, Saratoga Springs
Randy Ensign, Superintendent of Highways, Town of Marathon
Martin Roberts, Superintendent of Highways, Town of Reading
Larry Wagner, Commissioner of Public Works, Town of Big Flats
Joe Slatter, Engineer Technician, Town of Ithaca
The Cornell Local Roads Program LTAP Center provides training and technical assistance to
highway and public works officials in New York State. Support for the Cornell Local Roads
Program is provided by the Federal Highway Administration Local Technical Assistance
Program, the New York State Department of Transportation, and Cornell University.
David Orr, P.E., Senior Engineer
August 2012
Table of Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................. 3
1 - Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 1
Plane versus Geodetic Survey.....................................................................................................2
Types of Surveys in Highway Projects.......................................................................................3
Route Survey ........................................................................................................................3
Control Survey .....................................................................................................................3
Property Survey ...................................................................................................................3
Topographic Survey .............................................................................................................4
Hydrologic Survey ...............................................................................................................4
Photogrammetric Survey .....................................................................................................4
2 - Surveying Location Control.................................................................................................... 5
Working within Property Margins or a Prescribed Right-of-Way..............................................5
3 - Vertical and Horizontal Command and Control................................................................... 7
Vertical Control ..........................................................................................................................8
Horizontal Control....................................................................................................................10
4 - Basic Surveying Techniques................................................................................................... 15
Types of measurements.............................................................................................................15
Accuracy and Allowable Error..................................................................................................15
Basic Surveying Tools .............................................................................................................16
Horizontal Measurements .................................................................................................16
Vertical Measurements........................................................................................................17
Other Basic Equipment.......................................................................................................18
Horizontal Measurements.........................................................................................................19
Reading the Tape or Chain..................................................................................................19
Applying Tension................................................................................................................20
Plumbing.............................................................................................................................20
Reading the Tape.................................................................................................................20
Taping on Uneven Ground............................................................................................22
Care of the Tape or Chain...................................................................................................23
Vertical Measurements .............................................................................................................24
A Level is a Level is a Level...............................................................................................24
Taking Vertical Measurements............................................................................................25
Important terms and concepts in leveling (vertical readings).............................................25
Cornell Local Roads Program
Differential Leveling...........................................................................................................27
Setting up the Self Leveling Level......................................................................................27
Common avoidable leveling mistakes......................................................................................29
5 - Advanced Surveying Techniques........................................................................................... 31
Grid (or Tape or Chain) Layouts vs. Radial Layouts................................................................31
Grid Survey.........................................................................................................................31
Chain Survey.......................................................................................................................31
Radial Survey (Stadia)........................................................................................................33
6 - Common Field Applications.................................................................................................. 37
Culverts.....................................................................................................................................37
How to stake out culvert installations:..........................................................................38
Structure Layout........................................................................................................................39
Horizontal Control..............................................................................................................40
Staking................................................................................................................................40
Vertical Control...................................................................................................................40
Layout and References........................................................................................................40
Profiles......................................................................................................................................41
Staking and Side Slopes............................................................................................................42
Calculating Stockpiles..............................................................................................................43
Calculating the Volume of a Cone......................................................................................43
Borrow Pits and Stockpiles.......................................................................................................46
How to Square Work.................................................................................................................48
7 - Getting Your Thoughts on Paper........................................................................................... 53
Preliminary Project Plans..........................................................................................................53
Appendix I - Glossary.................................................................................................................. 65
Appendix II - Field applications................................................................................................. 69
Converting Inches per Foot to Percent........................................................................69
Pavement area.....................................................................................................................69
Sideslopes...........................................................................................................................70
Centerline profile................................................................................................................71
Culverts...............................................................................................................................71
Grade stakes........................................................................................................................75
ii
Appendix III - Field Book Notes................................................................................................. 79

Appendix IV - References............................................................................................................ 81
videos........................................................................................................................................82
Appendix V - Some Common Hand Signals.............................................................................. 83
List of Figures & Tables

Figure 1: Geoid...........................................................................................................................2
Figure 2: Terrain..........................................................................................................................2
Figure 3: Mercator Projection of the Earth.................................................................................3
Figure 4: Right of Way Plan.......................................................................................................5
Figure 5: Table of Ground Control Locations.............................................................................6
Figure 6: Precast Bridge .............................................................................................................7
Figure 7: Pipe Installation ..........................................................................................................7
Figure 8: Typical Bench Marks...................................................................................................9
Figure 9: Example Benchmark List..........................................................................................10
Figure 10: Theodolite................................................................................................................11
Figure 11: Horizontal Alignment..............................................................................................12
Figure 12: Vertical Alignment...................................................................................................12
Figure 13: Survey Rods and Rules............................................................................................16
Figure 14: Dumpy Level...........................................................................................................18
Figure 15: Slope Distance.........................................................................................................19
Figure 16: Partial Tape Lengths................................................................................................21
Figure 17: Breaking Tape..........................................................................................................22
Figure 18: Hand Level.............................................................................................................24
Figure 19: Use of Hand Level...................................................................................................24
Figure 20: Standard Level Rod.................................................................................................25
Figure 21: Reading Telescope...................................................................................................26
Figure 22: Differential Leveling...............................................................................................27
Figure 23: Rock the Rod...........................................................................................................28
Figure 24: Level Notes..............................................................................................................29
Figure 25: Grid Notes...............................................................................................................32
Figure 26: Stadia Hairs.............................................................................................................33
Figure 27: Stadia Notes.............................................................................................................35
Figure 28: Pipe Alignment........................................................................................................37
Figure 29: Pipe Section.............................................................................................................38
Figure 30: Culvert Staking........................................................................................................39
Figure 31: Volume of a Cone....................................................................................................44
Figure 32: Angle of Repose......................................................................................................44
iii
Figure 33: Stockpile..................................................................................................................45

Figure 34: Bread ......................................................................................................................45
Figure 35: Hypotenuse..............................................................................................................48
Figure 36: Out of Square...........................................................................................................48
Figure 37: Drive Radii..............................................................................................................50
Figure 38: Taping Points...........................................................................................................50
Figure 39: Radii Hubs...............................................................................................................51
Figure 40: Title Sheet................................................................................................................54
Figure 41: Title Block...............................................................................................................55
Figure 42: Design Information..................................................................................................55
Figure 43: Typical Sections.......................................................................................................57
Figure 44: Close up of Survey Details......................................................................................58
Figure 45: Close up of Design Details......................................................................................59
Figure 46: Profile Information..................................................................................................59
Figure 47: Close up of Profile Information...............................................................................60
Figure 48: Revised Detail Table................................................................................................63
Figure 49: Ditch and Sideslopes...............................................................................................69
Figure 50: Crown......................................................................................................................69
Figure 51: Sideslopes................................................................................................................70
Figure 52: Grade of a Road (Profile)........................................................................................71
Figure 53: Culverts...................................................................................................................71
Figure 54: Example of Culvert Position...................................................................................72
Figure 55: Installing a Culvert at 2% Slope..............................................................................72
Figure 56: Installing a Culvert Across a Road..........................................................................73
Figure 57: Staking Roadway Culvert........................................................................................74
Figure 59: Examples of Grade Stake Marking.........................................................................75
Figure 58: Grade Stakes............................................................................................................75
Figure 60: Staking Catch Basins and Manholes.......................................................................76
Figure 61: Locating Ditches and Backslopes............................................................................77
1 - Introduction
Highway surveying is a specialized type of land surveying conducted for road and street projects.
A highway survey is often performed during project development to aid in determining location,
impacts to nearby properties and to determine the economics of the proposed facility. During
the construction phase, a highway construction survey will ensure that the project is proceeding
according to the plans and specifications and that the highway is located precisely where it is
intended. Upon completion of the work, a final survey is undertaken to provide an accurate
layout of the new features such as roadways, utilities, storm drainage systems, overhead wires,
nearby buildings, and other features of the landscape. This final survey can often be provided
in computer-aided drawing (CAD), and referenced to geographic information systems (GIS) in
many locales.
Surveyors assist engineers in the determination of how the land must be prepared before a
highway can be reconstructed. This includes determining the extent of slope grading, sharpness
and banking of curves and location of bridges or other drainage facilities along the highway
route. It is necessary to catalogue and understand the geographic restrictions for any project.
The most challenging part of highway planning may be the location of bridges or other
structures. Surveyors provide input on this, and also monitor the highway construction process
to ensure that these features are located properly. Once the earth has been graded and leveled,
a surveyor will again survey the area to ensure that the land has been prepared according to the
plans. Then, construction begins.
Before the advent of global positioning system (GPS) technology, this involved the use of
surveying stakes to mark road edges. Today, GPS has significantly reduced this process, making
it much easier to ensure that the road is aligned with the plans. However, it is still important to
understand the relationship of a survey to construction and how to properly lay out a project.
Once the road is built, additional surveys may be required for a wide variety of reasons,
including road repair or maintenance. Highway surveys are also used during the process of
accident reconstruction and investigations. The process of taking road measurements to construct
a survey once required closing the entire road so that the surveying team could set up equipment
on the roads surface. Today, specialized laser equipment allows this to be done from the
roadside, virtually eliminating the need for lane closures. The highly accurate data delivered by
these systems allow for the creation of detailed 3D maps showing not only the roadway but also
barriers, overhead wires, and other features.
Read more:
http://www.articlesbase.com/careers-articles/highway-construction-surveying-1948552.html#ixzz1Il2eBsnF
Under Creative Commons License: Attribution
It should be noted this workbook in focused on the practical problems encountered by local
highway and street officials and crews in their daily work activities. The list below is provided to
show the large variety of surveys conducted in and about highways. More details on surveying
can be found in the resources listed at the back of this workbook or by contacting the Cornell
Local Roads Program.
Plane versus Geodetic Survey
There are several ways to classify surveying: some by methodology, some by function. One
classification is based upon the assumption that the area surveyed will be either a curved surface
or a plane surface. If the scope of the survey involves a very large portion of the earth and
consideration of the shape of the planet, it is called a geodetic survey. These surveys take into
account the curvature of the earth. A survey that would cover an entire State, for example, would
be a Geodetic Survey. For most highway and other infrastructure projects confined to a few
miles or less, the area surveyed is assumed to be a plane. Different assumptions and adjustments
will need to be made in a geodetic or plan survey. Figure 1 shows the geoid of the earth. Figure 3
shows a flat projection of the earth known as a Mercator projection.
Figure 1: Geoid
Figure 2: Terrain
In plane surveying, basic assumptions are:

The mean surface of the earth is considered a plane
All level lines are considered to be mathematically straight
All plumb lines are considered to be parallel to each other
Elevations are referred to a spheroidal surface called a datum
2
1- Introduction
Figure 3: Mercator Projection of the Earth
Types of Surveys in Highway Projects

Another classification method uses the basic function or purpose of the survey. Each of these
types of surveys could apply to either a plane or a geodetic survey. Here is a list of some
common surveys used in highway projects.
Route Survey
Also referred to as a location survey, these surveys determine the ultimate location of a new
roadway, railroad, waterway, or sewer, water, or gas utility line.
Control Survey
This survey is conducted to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points
which will have profound importance throughout the project. Setting of benchmarks and other
reference points are parts of a control survey.
Property Survey
This survey is made to determine the location of boundary lines and the areas these lines
separate. These boundaries may be property lines, easements, or other jurisdictional lines. In
New York State, these should be done by a licensed surveyor or engineer.
Topographic Survey
This type of survey determines the configuration of the existing ground prior to the construction
of the new facility. The topography can have a profound influence on the location and the
economy of the project. Topographic maps used in drainage analyses are examples of the results
of topographic surveys.
Hydrologic Survey
A special survey to determine the configuration of a body of water, stream, or drainageway
including the shoreline and any wetlands or other protected areas. This information will be
used to locate and properly size any culverts or bridges structures. In many cases, a topographic
survey is used as part of this survey method.
Photogrammetric Survey
A photogrammetric survey uses aerial photography to map features along the proposed project.
Depending on the terrain, it is often cheaper than using conventional ground survey methods.
Surveys of this type are used by some highway agencies for planning and design purposes.
With good ground control, these surveys can be used as the basis for other construction and
design surveys.
2 - Surveying Location Control

Working within Property Margins or a Prescribed Right-of-Way
Development of a project within a specified area, must be in accordance with the provisions
of the right-of-way (ROW), temporary or permanent easement, or property boundaries. There
may also be limitations placed on the work area by utility easements, or regulatory permits. Be
respectful of the property rights of others. Whether building a road, bridge, parking area, mine,
building, or other facility, the finished product must lie on land that is under the control of the
project sponsor. Many local, state and federal agencies also have set-back requirements which
dictate how close the project may come to adjacent landowners or environmentally sensitive
areas. Setbacks that are specified in permits are NOT suggestions. They are REQUIREMENTS.
While some highway agencies are fond of the reasonable close conformity rule, many other
agencies have a much lower tolerance for close enough.
Figure 4: Right of Way Plan
Right-of-way plans define and dimension areas necessary to construct and maintain road
projects, including necessary entrances and crossroads. The right-of-way limits shall include
areas necessary for utility adjustments and maintenance activities.
The minimum width of right-of-way established for each project is that necessary to
accommodate construction and provide proper maintenance of the roadway without an undue
number of jogs in the right-of-way line. The established right-of-way width must be
sufficient to accommodate all roadway cross-section elements and required appurtenances. This
workbook does not cover the legal issues related to the right-of-way. For more information, see
the Cornell Local Roads Program workbook, Powers and Duties of Local Highway Officials, The
Office of Town Highway Superintendent (AOT), and Consolidated Laws for the
State of New York.
To be sure the project lies EXACTLY where the plans, specifications and permits indicate, it is
necessary to establish and maintain throughout the length and duration of the project
appropriate ground control. These control points are established with known x, y and z
coordinates, with respect to boundary limits that will allow for frequent measurements to
established points within the project. These measurements may be made by any of a variety of
surveying techniques including the use of tapes, levels, and other basic survey equipment. Many
departments now use an electronic distance measuring device (EDM) or even GPS to establish
the appropriate x, y and z of the finished product.
The objective of project control is to establish an interrelated system of points that have
redundancy, so that the exact location of the project can be reestablished at any time during the
project. In order to have confidence in the location of the project, there must be confidence in the
control system. A list of control points and an associated plan are provided with many highway
projects and are critical on most bridge projects.
FIELD LAYOUT FOR CR 3 from NY - 26 to Sta 56+00

INSTRUMENT POINT
NAME
TARGET POINT
DISTANCE
AZ IMUTH
DDD MM SS.s
NORTHING
EASTING
NORTHING
EASTING
Sta 27+00
1,559,038.8852
692,715.8983
1,560,019.5293
1,558,616.0855
1,558,400.9465
1,558,116.4189
693,533.7915
692,355.0206
692,139.4664
691,804.8130
1,276.954
555.871
859.790
1,296.542
39
220
222
224
49 45.7 Panel #4
28 55.8 PT 21+44.12
6 1.8 PC 18+39.25
38 39.7 sta 14+00
Sta 14+00
1,558,116.4189
691,804.8130
1,559,038.8852
1,557,649.1577
1,557,595.4418
692,715.8983
691,255.2337
691,192.0546
1,296.542
721.367
804.295
44
229
229
38 39.7 Sta 27+00

37 41.8 PT 6+78.63
37 41.8 PI 6+23.09
PI 6+23.09
1,557,595.4418
691,192.0546
1,558,116.4189
1,557,565.5483
1,557,523.4140
1,557,347.2404
1,557,267.8291
691,804.8130
691,156.9109
691,233.1518
691,333.6717
691,378.9817
804.295
46.138
82.928
285.761
377.189
49
229
150
150
150
37
36
17
17
17
PI 2+80.63
1,557,267.8291
691,378.9817
1,557,595.4418
1,557,215.6031
1,556,931.1142
691,192.0546
691,303.9378
690,895.1543
377.189
91.428
589.462
330
235
235
17 31.4 PI 6+23.09
9 51.9 PC 1+89.20
9 51.8 end -3+08.83
Sta 5+50 School
1,557,565.5483
691,156.9109
1,557,595.4418
1,557,513.6969
1,557,280.3653
691,192.0546
691,071.4041
690,686.6231
46.138
100.000
550.000
49
238
238
36 54.9 PI 6+23.09
46 2.4 sta 4+50 school
46 2.4 sta 0+00 school
Figure 5: Table of Ground Control Locations
41.8
54.9
31.3
31.5
31.4
DESC.
Sta 14+00
sta 5+50 school
PC 5+40.165
PT 3+37.33
PI 2+80.63
3 - Vertical and Horizontal

Command and Control
Take charge of the work space. Whether it is a workbench, desk, computer screen or the
dashboard of a vehicle, there must be control of the working environment
Figure 6: Precast Bridge
When establishing a work area for a road, bridge or building site, very specific things have to
happen in a given 3D space. For example, bridge abutments MUST be spaced a given distance
apart, face one another and present themselves at specified elevations. They may or may not be
level to one another, but they must be a very precise distance and attitude to one another.
Figure 7: Pipe Installation

The same holds true for drainage structures, drop inlets, slotted drains, drive entrances, or
intersecting roadways. These items are just the elements of the highway project. Likely, there
will have to be coordination of underground and overhead clearances with multiple utilities.
Gas mains, sanitary and storm sewers, water supplies, telephone and electric all have specific
clearances that must be met. There may be a railroad, streambed or hydro flume, or perhaps
wetland encroachment. There are a myriad of other facilities that must coexist with the
project. Each of these other facilities will have stringent positioning requirements of their own,
determined by the regulating agency or sponsoring utility.
In order to accurately relate all the elements involved in a highway or bridge construction
project, a control survey is initiated to determine the relationship of all the elements to permanent
points. In this case, permanent means that the points selected must be preserved to outlive the life
of the facility. The size and scope of the proposed work will determine the extent of the control
survey. Essentially known horizontal and vertical points are established, from which all future
measurements of the project are referenced. The points selected may seem arbitrary, but their
selection can be influenced by the natural terrain and the availability of quality survey points.
The points selected will have qualities which support the horizontal or vertical needs of the
project. Occasionally, a single point can serve both needs. Points can be expensive to maintain,
replicate or replace, so they should be protected from damage for the duration of the project.
Horizontal points are established with known or assumed grid coordinates, or an x and y value.
They may be hubs pounded flush into the ground, or perhaps large dock spikes or rebar driven
into firm earth or into an intersection.
Within municipal boundaries, often a series of permanent monuments have been established
which are bronze markers set in concrete. The x, y, and z coordinates of these markers are tied
to a permanent state plane coordinate system by licensed surveyors, and should be maintained
diligently by the municipality. These monuments help to make permanent the property surveys.
Surveys taken from these markers have a very high confidence rate.
In more rural areas, permanent markers are rare, so an assumed grid system is often established
to tie together the elements of the project and the surrounding utilities or protected areas. If
a state or municipal project was in a nearby area, a coordinated survey could be started from
remnants of that work. It is possible to contract with a local survey firm to establish begin and
end pairs of points from GPS readings. The firm could establish control points for several years
of projects at once, from a single work order. If the project is of small scale, or remote location,
an assumed coordinate system (ie: x = 10,000.00, y = 10,000.00) could be used.
Vertical Control
Vertical control on a project is a series of bench marks, each of known elevation, from which all
levels used on the project, from conception to completion, will be taken. Bench marks are also
referred to as benches.
8
3 - Vertical and Horizontal Command and Control
The number of benches required will depend on the size and the terrain of the project. Typically,
in open flat terrain, a benchmark is required each 500 feet. This spacing would allow level
readings to be taken from up to 250 feet away; about the maximum distance of a highly accurate
survey measurement, before a turn is required. That equates to about 12 or so benches per mile
for a highway project. Hilly terrain may require more frequent benches, as a level rod is limited
in height. Where practical, vertical heights between benches should run 25 feet or less, and no
more than 50 feet. At bridge sites, it is desirable to have a bench on each side of the bridge,
within 250 feet.
a) Bronze Disk in Concrete Foundation
b) Chiselled Corner of Concrete Headblock
c) Railroad Spike in Utility Pole

Figure 8: Typical Bench Marks
Benchmarks
Bench
Number
1
Station
Offset
Side
Description
Elevation
6+48.5
49
Right
370.59
2
3
4
5
24+97
39+63
46+68
62+72
18.5
20.5
18
34
Left
Left
Left
Left
78+44
33
Right
6A
7
8
9
10
11
12
84+77.5
94+34
109+80
96
35
39
Left
Right
Left
Railroad Spike in
Utility Pole at School St. Intersection
Dock Spike in base of NYT 9, NM 19
Dock Spike in base of NYT 13
Dock Spike in base of CNP 25-1
Top of 8 Well Casing
Plate at Southeast corner of Barn
North Corner of a Concrete Slab
12x6x2 used for a Fence Gate Post
Chiseled X in Bedrock
Metal Plug Set in Bedrock
Dock Spike in base of NM 2, NYT 10
Dock Spike in base of NM 7 NYT 15
Dock Spike in Root of 16 Pine
378.13
385.42
361.73
358.21
346.65
338.16
350.16
369.47
381.22
389.50
390.35
388.43
Figure 9: Example Benchmark List
Benches ideally would be located along the edge of the new work limits, to avoid disruption
of the control system. This is often not a practical expectation, and benches must be relocated
during the prosecution of the work. When this happens, the new bench should be clearly labeled
with a new bench number, and the plans revised accordingly. Do not reuse a bench number, or
confusion will certainly reign.
Benches must be established which will not move during the course of the work. Large rock
outcroppings are ideal, as are building foundations. Boulders, sidewalks, driveway pipes or
culvert headblocks are not. Frost can and will move the latter.
Where necessary, a dock spike or a railroad spike can be driven into a utility pole for short term
projects. Utility companies prefer you use something else, so be judicious in using a utility
pole. As all poles lean, select the side of the pole that leans away from the vertical so it will not
interfere with an extended rod. The front 1/4 of the rod must be able to rock on the point, without
the rear of the rod being raised.
Horizontal Control
Using a modern EDM or theodolite, tangent lengths of 1200 feet to 2500 feet between horizontal
control points are possible if set prior to midday when heat waves can affect long sights. The
control points at each end of the project should be set in pairs and extend well beyond the limits
of work. It takes two points to get started, and if one of them is on the work site where it will be
torn up, it could cause trouble.
10
Figure 10: Theodolite
Horizontal control points can be pk nails, or 12d or 16d nails set in pavement or concrete. Ironbased nails are preferred, as they can be detected by magnetic locators. In soil, larger nails,
rebar or 2-foot long wooden hubs driven flush can be used. Anything that is subject to frost
movement should be considered a temporary point, and should be made redundant with another
point nearby. The area around the point should be free of vegetation, relatively level, and provide
for good sight in the direction of either approach tangent. Combined vertical and horizontal
points are always a good choice if the location meets both the vertical and horizontal ground
control requirements.
All points should be marked by a witness (or notations) with markings to describe exactly what
the point is and what agency set it. Before the project is completed, there may be an abundance
of witnesses set by various agencies and utilities. It is best if they are clearly marked or a utility
pole or other unanticipated feature may be seen sprouting from a point.
Side shots on visible landmarks, such as steeples, radio towers or distant silos, can provide
additional ties to the known geogrid or plane area.
Assign each horizontal and vertical control point a unique number, and mark it on the pavement
with white or pink paint. Once the notes are properly reduced, it is helpful if the elevations of
known or assumed points are marked directly on or near the point. Prepare a list of the control
points and include them with the plans for the project. Even a simple set of control points can
save time and money on a highway project.
11
Tangent
Circular curve
Tangent
Circular curve
Figure 11: Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment consists of a series of straight lines, called tangents, and connecting
curves which are portions of a circle. The larger the radius of the circle, the flatter the curve,
which if properly superelevated, accommodates higher speeds.
PVI1
Grade Line
Original Ground
g2
g1
L1
L1
PVI2
L2
L2
Figure 12: Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment also consists of a series of straight lines, called vertical tangents, and
connecting curves which are portions of a parabola. The larger the radius of the parabola, the
flatter the curve, and subsequently the greater the riding comfort and the available sight distance.
12
Minimum Stopping Sight

Distance values from
AASHTO Guide
25 mph
155
30 mph
200
35 mph
250
40 mph
305
45 mph
360
50 mph
425
55 mph
495
13
4 - Basic Surveying Techniques

Types of measurements
There are many types of measurements involved in road construction. Some of them include:
Linear - Feet and decimals of a foot are used.
Area - Measured in square feet and acres. One acre is the equivalent of 43,560 square
feet, or approximately 208.7 feet x 208.7 feet.
Volume - Computed in cubic feet or cubic yards.
Angular - Angles are measured in degrees, minutes and seconds.
A pocket guide, Inspectors Job Guide and Highway Maintenance Tables, available from the
Cornell Local Roads Program has a list of common measurements and conversion factors for
both US Customary and metric units.
Accuracy and Allowable Error
Measuring distances between points on the surface of the earth is one of the main concerns of
all surveying. There are accepted practices to assure the accuracy and meaning of all types of
measurements.
The tools used for the project at hand will depend on the distance to be covered, and the needed
accuracy of the task at hand.
The odometer in a vehicle will give a close approximation of lengths greater than a few hundred
yards or more than a quarter mile. On the other hand, a 6-foot rule, or perhaps a 25-foot tape can
be used to measure the width of a pavement. However, the layout of a bridge may require an
accuracy of fractions of an inch (or hundredths of a foot to use the typical surveying distances). A
surveyors tape or highly accurate GPS system may be needed to properly layout the location of
the bridge.
For most people, a constant gait can easily determine lengths of several hundred feet for
estimating purposes. A typical stride is just under 3 feet per step, or around 16 to 18 strides per
50 feet. To estimate an individuals stride, pace off a pre-measured 100-foot line. Use a smooth
pavement or shoulder area, to get an good idea of how many strides per 100 feet are taken.
Walking over uneven ground or in a mine area, will be less accurate. While it is possible to learn
how to pace over uneven ground, a surveying tape is preferred if there is a needed for precision.
15
Layout of a ditch can be done with a hand level or even by eye if the ditch is relatively steep.
However, if the ditch is very flat a level or laser may be needed to accurately determine the
proper slope.
Basic Surveying Tools
While there are more types of survey equipment than listed here, the list below is some of the
most commonly used tools in surveying and construction.
Horizontal Measurements
Cloth and metal tapes of various lengths, including 50-foot, 100-foot and possibly
300-foot are graduated flexible ribbons, typically cloth, plastic or fiberglass
composites used for measuring distances. They come in closed reels. Road
construction tapes are graduated into feet, tenths of a foot, and often half tenths.
They are relatively inexpensive and durable, and are used extensively during actual
construction. The often-used end of a tape (low numbers) may become stretched due
to constant use, and should be checked frequently against a known standard.
Figure 13: Survey Rods and Rules
Top to bottom: Engineers Rule; Surveying Tape; Surveying Rod

Surveyors tapes are often used during preliminary surveys to obtain more accurate
results, particularly while establishing the survey baseline during the control survey.
They are available in open reels, are heavy and expensive. They also conduct
electricity, so beware! Tapes are graduated into feet, tenths of a foot, and hundredths
of a foot.
16
4- Basic Surveying Techniques
Invar tapes (or chains) are made of a special nickel steel to reduce the effect of
temperature changes on measurements. The thermal coefficient is a small fraction
of that of ordinary steel chains, but the chains are very brittle, heavy and much more
expensive than a surveyors tape. They are used for precise geodetic work, or as a
standard to working tapes.
Measuring wheels are invaluable tools for laying out guiderail, pavement treatments
or other distance work and for estimating material quantities. They are relatively
accurate, if used on a smooth, debris-free surface.
Vertical Measurements
Hand levels are used for transferring grades from hubs to stakes, to assist in keeping
chains level during the taping operation, and in basic checks on a construction site.
The inexpensive models have no magnification, which limits their range to about
30 feet. Some models have a 2x magnification, but be cautioned that the tool is only
accurate to up to 0.1 feet, for up to 100 feet even with practice.
Level rods are used in conjunction with a level to determine differences in elevation
between two points. Its length and portability make it useful during the initial
planning and construction operations. During final grading operations, the 10-foot
adjusting Lenker Rod is sometimes used, as the rod can be adjusted so that the desired
elevation can be read directly from the rod. While a 15-foot rod is the most common,
there are 25-foot extendable rods for use in hilly terrain or in mining operations to
reduce the number of required instrument setups.
The engineers, builders or contractors level is a telescope with an attached spirit
level tube, all revolving about a vertical axis. The instrument is mounted on a tripod.
The typical engineers level is accurate for distances of 250 feet or less.
For including horizontal angular measurements with distances, the Transit or
Theodolite is used. A transit is a mounted telescope which may be revolved about
either a horizontal or vertical axis. It is used to determine horizontal or vertical
angles, or to project a straight line. Modern versions of the transit are called an
electronic distance measuring device (EDM), are highly accurate and are easy to
setup and use. With modern equipment, a days worth of surveying notes can be kept
in the equipments memory, and downloaded directly to CAD-ready computers.
A rotating Laser can be used to set the grade of a construction site and with a
targeting rod, can be used in many applications.
17
Other Basic Equipment

Range poles are steel, wood, or aluminum poles, with alternating red and white
markings, which are used for sighting long distances while using a transit. They are
so colored to make them relatively easy to sight. The stripes are one-foot each, which
assists in estimating heights. The typical rod is one-inch in diameter, and is typically
in increments of three feet in length.
Plumb bobs are used to provide a vertical sight while using a transit for a short
distance, or for transferring vertical points by hand. They should have a minimum of
6 feet of knot-free quality mason line attached.
Taping pins or hubs are driven into the ground at intervals (typically each 50 feet or
100 feet) to assist in making a lasting measurement that may be used by others.
Figure 14: Dumpy Level
The traditional survey crew once consisted of an instrument person, a chainman, a rod hopper
and a note taker. Depending on terrain, it could take weeks to survey a mile of roadway. It could
take additional weeks to reduce and plot the notes for that mile of road survey. Today all those
functions can be easily fulfilled by one or two people with a fully functioning EDM, and all the
notes can be downloaded directly to a CAD drawing package.
18
Horizontal Measurements
All horizontal distances are taken in a horizontal plane, not along the slope of the ground.
Stations are placed at 100-foot intervals, measured horizontally. This way, ALL 100 stations
are exactly the same distance apart. The person using the chain in the downhill position, uses a
plumb bob or a range pole to keep the chain level.
To convert distances from or to slope distance, one uses the familiar equation a2 + b2 = c2 .
Figure 15: Slope Distance
In this case, the square of the slope distance would be equal to the square of the horizontal
distance added to the square of the vertical distance.
Slope Distance (S)2 = Horizontal distance (H)2 + Vertical distance
(V)2 or S2 = H2 + V2
S = (H2 + V2)
H = (S2 - V2)
Reading the Tape or Chain
Engineering tapes, chains, rulers and level rods are all read in feet, tenths and hundredths of
a foot. There are no fractions, no adding or subtracting 1/8s, 1/4s or 1/16s. Computations
involving engineering measurements are just like making change. Feet and hundredths resemble
working with dollars and cents.
Tapes or chains should be laid out so that they are horizontal, and the graduations are facing the
two users. The tape should be pulled taut, the reading taken by the lead user and announced to
the note taker. Care should be taken that the tape does not become snagged on any other object,
and that no sag is present while the reading is taken. If either end is higher, then the other end
shall be elevated by use of a range pole, plumb bob or hand level to assure that an accurate
reading is taken.
19
The line to be measured should be definitively marked at both ends and at intermediate points,
where necessary, to ensure unobstructed sight lines. Range poles are ideal for this purpose.
The forward tape person is lined in by the rear tape person (or by use of a transit for greatest
accuracy). Directions are given by vocal or hand signals .
Applying Tension
The 100-foot end of a tape is held over the first (rear) point by the rear tape person, while the
forward tape person, holding the zero end is lined in. For accurate results the tape must be
straight, and the two ends held at the same elevation. A specified tension, generally 10, 15, 20 or
25 pounds is applied.
To maintain steady pull, tape persons wrap the leather thong at the tapes end around one hand,
keep forearms against their bodies and face at right angles to the line. In this position, they are
off the line of sight. Also, the body need only be tilted to hold, decrease, or increase the pull.
Sustaining a constant tension with outstretched arms is difficult for a pull of 15 pounds or more.
Good communication between head and rear tape persons will avoid jerking the tape, save time,
and improve results.
Plumbing
Weeds, brush, obstacles and surface irregularities may make it undesirable to lay a tape on the
ground. Instead, the tape is held above ground in a horizontal position. Each end point on the
tape is marked by placing the plumb bob string over the proper tape graduation and securing it
with one thumb. The rear tape person continues to hold a plumb bob over the fixed point, while
the forward tape person marks the length. In measuring a distance shorter than a full tape length,
the forward tape person moves the plumb bob string to a point on the tape over the ground mark.
When a surveyor is working on pavement, the plumb bob is eased to the surface, and the points
position is marked by a scratch, spike, marking pen, nail or other means.
Reading the Tape
There are common styles of graduations on surveyor tapes. It is necessary to identify the style
being used to avoid making one-foot mistakes repeatedly.
The more common type of tape (an adding tape) is calibrated from 0 to 100 by full feet in one
direction. It has an additional foot beyond the zero end graduated from 0 to 1 foot in tenths (and
perhaps hundredths) in the other direction, making the complete tape 101 feet long. With a fullfoot graduation held by the rear tape person at the last point set (like the 87-foot mark in figure
14), the graduations between zero and the tape end should straddle the closing point
20
To ensure correct recording, use the following procedures:

1. The rear tape person calls 87.
2. The head tape person repeats and adds the partial foot reading, calling 87.68. Since
part of a foot has been added, this type of tape is known as an adding tape.
Another type of tape (a subtracting or cut tape) found in practice is calibrated from 0 to 100 by
full feet. The first foot at each end (from 0 to 1 and from 99 to 100 feet) is graduated in tenths
(and perhaps hundredths). Thus, the complete tape is 100 feet long.
With a full-foot graduation held at the last taping point set, the graduated section of the tape
between the zero mark and the 1-foot mark should straddle the closing point. The 88-foot mark
is being held on the last taping point and the mark at the end of the line is opposite 0.32 feet read
from the zero end.
1. The rear tape person calls 88.
2. The head tape person reads the length of 0.32 feet on the zero mark.
3. The head tape person (or note taker) subtracts the partial foot reading, calling
87.68.
Figure 16: Partial Tape Lengths
Cut tapes and adding tapes both provide for increased taping errors when used. For this reason,
it is recommended that a direct reading tape, with graduations throughout the length of the tape
be used. One can obtain an accurate reading using such a tape, regardless of the length of the
measurement.
1 The rear tape person hold the zero end of the tape at the taping point. The rear tape
person calls ready.
21
2 The head tape person reads and calls the length of 87.68 feet directly on the
measurement point.
3 The head tape person (or note taker) repeats the final reading, calling 87.68.
Taping on Uneven Ground
When taping on uneven or sloping ground, it is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally
and use a plumb bob at one end or perhaps both ends. It is difficult to keep the plumb line
steady for heights above the chest. Wind exaggerates this problem and may make accurate work
impossible.
If a 100-foot length cannot be held horizontally, with plumbing from above the shoulder, shorter
distances are measured and accumulated to total a full tape length. This procedure is called
breaking tape.
As an example of this operation, assume that when the zero foot end of the tape is held at the
rear point, the forward tape person can advance only 30 feet without being forced to plumb
from above the chest. A point is therefore set beneath the 30 foot mark. Figure 15 illustrates the
procedure for breaking tape.
Figure 17: Breaking Tape
The rear tape person moves ahead to this point and holds the 30-foot graduation while another
point is set at, say, the 75-foot point. Then, with the 75-foot graduation over the second mark,
the full 100-foot distance is marked at the 100 point. If this technique is used, do not wind up
the tape by dragging it along the ground. The rear person should go back and pick up the tape
instead. Some surveyors will just measure each distance from zero and calculate the 100 stations
rather than lay the tape on the ground.
22
Care of the Tape or Chain

Never pull a tape or chain around a post, stake or other sharp object.
Do not allow any tape or chain to be run over by any vehicles.
Be very careful to avoid kinks or sharp bends in the tape.
Do not hold a chain or tape by the leading loop. A passing vehicle could easily rip an
appendage off.
Do not hold the tape or chain by bending it around your hand or standing on it.
Use the chaining clamps.
Do return the tool to its proper case immediately after use.
When the tape gets wet, it should be wiped dry and treated with a rust preventive spray. A chain
on a reel should be wound backwards until the tape is loose and then be sprayed. The chain does
not have to be dry since the spray will displace the water.
If the tape is muddy, wash it before treatment. After a while, the spray will cause the chain to get
oily and hard to read. Therefore, periodically wipe it with a clean dry cloth. A tape cared for in
this manner will last for many years, even when it is used daily in sandy or salty areas. Corrosive
or abrasive materials left on a tape will eventually destroy the graduations rending the tool
useless.
On construction projects, one of the most used tools is a simple wooden engineers ruler. These
are about 5/8-inch wide, typially available in 6-foot lengths, are of durable construction, and are
graduated on one side in feet, tenths and hundredths. The other side may be feet and inches, or in
metric. These simple tools are not cheap, costing about $15 each (in 2010). Another model is one
that is 1-inch wide, about 6 feet in length, and a bit more durable. They run about $35 each (in
2010), but are easier to read and more durable during construction operations.
Six-foot rules are invaluable for both horizontal and vertical distance measuring. In fact, they
may well be the most used tool on the jobsite.
Paired with a hand level, most of the earthwork and gravel grading requirements of a project can
be met, once the initial staking provides the projects vertical control.
23
Vertical Measurements
A Level is a Level is a Level
All sorts of levels can be used on various phases of project development. A carpenters level may
be used for drainage installation, slope work or grading the subgrade. A simple string level may
be the easiest tool to transfer a grade while performing drainage or foundation excavation. A
builders level, or a surveyors level, would be used to establish bench marks for the project, or
perform the initial stakeout.
Figure 18: Hand Level
The hand level shown above, is a non-magnifying tube fixing a line

of sight, with a bubble level attached.
For personal grade related work on the site, the
hand level, coupled with a 6-foot rule, is the
tool of choice. It is portable, easily workable
by one person, and provides sufficient accuracy
within 50 feet for most grading operations.
The simple hand level is a non-magnifying
tube which fixes a line-of-sight, with a bubble
level attached. Magnifying models can also be
found. With moderate care, they are durable
and a cost efficient method to transfer grades
from the initial stakeout.
Figure 19: Use of Hand Level
24
Upon looking through the tube, the observer sees the target and the bubble simultaneously.
Common practice is to use a level rod, 6-foot rule, or measured PVC pipe, at a fixed distance
above the ground or against a grade stake to determine the cut or fill required at a specific
location. For setting slope stakes on a highway or giving a rapid reading for construction grading,
for example, it serves a useful purpose.
Taking Vertical Measurements
Vertical measurements are taken and recorded in the same manner as horizontal (or ground)
measurements. They are all in feet, tenths of a foot, and hundredths. Think of the readings as you
would about making change from a dollar. A distance of 5.25 feet would be five feet plus one
quarter foot. Adding an additional one foot plus 25 hundredths would be the same as adding 1.25.
So the new height would be 5.25 + 1.25 = 6.50. It is the same as making change.
Important terms and concepts in leveling (vertical readings)
A bench mark (sometimes labeled BM) is a permanent point of known elevation. Benchmarks are
established by using precise leveling techniques and instrumentation. Benchmark elevations and
locations are published by the federal, state and municipal agencies and are available to the public.
Figure 20: Standard Level Rod

25
A backsight (BS) is a rod reading taken on a point of known elevation in order to establish the
elevation of the instrument line of sight.
Height of instrument (HI) is the elevation of the line of sight through the level (i.e., elevation of
BM + BS = HI or a BM of known elevation 525.33 + BS of 5.22 = HI of 530.55).
Foresight (FS) is a rod reading taken on a point of unknown elevation, such as a turning point
(TP), benchmark (BM) or temporary benchmark (TBM) in order to determine its elevation. (i.e.,
HI - FS = elevation of TP, BM, or TBM. An HI of 530.55 and a FS of 12.32 would provide a new
TP elevation of 518.23).
A foresight (FS) can also be taken on any random location in order to determine its elevation,
such as a drainage ditch, the top of a pile, a sidewalk, or any other location. Foresights are
always subtracted from the HI in order to determine the elevation of a point.
Figure 21: Reading Telescope
Adding backsights (BS) to benchmark (BM) elevations, and subtracting foresights (FS) from the
HI values is a function of the note taker on a survey project and should follow strict protocol.
Within a days work, several hundred rod shots can be taken and recorded, and unless recorded in
a precise format, an entire days work can be rendered useless.
26
This determination of elevations is called leveling. Measuring relative elevation changes is a

comparatively simply process. Precise and accurate control of relative elevations are critical to
most construction projects.
Differential Leveling
Equipment
Method
Calculations
Figure 22: Differential Leveling
Setting up the Self Leveling Level

The self leveling level is in common use throughout the industry. Through the use of a prism
that swings on a small wire, the sight line remains parallel to the earths surface, as long as the
instrument remains relatively level. These instruments are less sensitive to vibrations from earth
moving equipment than direct optical instruments, which can affect the leveling process.
These instruments typically have a small centering bubble with a circle within on one side of the
level. The instrument has only three leveling screws, which are rotated to keep the bubble within
the center of the circle. First the telescope is rotated so that it is parallel with two of the screws,
27
and the level adjustment is made. The telescope is then rotated 90 degrees, and an adjustment is
made on the lone remaining screw. A quick turn to the original screws should verify that the gun
is leveled. If the lens is rotated 180 degrees, the bubble should remain within the circle. If it does
not, then an instrument adjustment by a qualified technician may be in order.
In order to take a rod reading, the rod face must be held plumb. When using the level, you can
tell whether the rod is plumb in one direction by noting if it is parallel to the vertical cross hair.
Unfortunately, you cannot tell if is leaning toward you or away from you. You can balance the
rod between your fingers, if the wind is not blowing, or you can wave it slowly toward and then
away from the level, called rocking the rod, or waving the rod, as demonstrated in the figure.
The least (smallest) reading obtainable is the proper one. Any tilt in the rod will increase the
measurement seen through the level. Errors from failure to hold the rod plumb will be much
greater on readings near the top of the rod than for those near the bottom. For this reason, special
care should be exercised when making high-rod readings. All shots taken on benchmarks and
turns shall be accomplished by rocking the rod.
Figure 23: Rock the Rod
28
Elev.
B.M. A
100.00
10.63
100.63;5
T.P.-1
9.92
1.15
109.48
1.35
118.05
119.40
B.M. B
Figure 24: Level Notes
Notekeeping for Differential Levelling (Standard notekeeping)
Common avoidable leveling mistakes
Mistake
Solution
1. Reading wrong
foot reading foot mark above
Always read up the rod/ruler

Raise for red (foot marks on rod are in red)
2. Reading wrong foot rod partially obscured
Have rod person point to reading
3. Rod section skipped
Raise rod sections in sequence
4. Rod section not locked
Pull sections all the way out
5. Rod not vertical
Stand directly behind rod

Hold rod on sides with two hands
Hold rod plumb (upright)
Balance rod when no wind
Rock the rod (read lowest reading)
6. Rod held on the wrong point

(Example: top of culvert vs. invert)
Communicate clearly to rod person

Never assume, things are not as they appear
looking from behind instrument
Physically show rod person the desired
measurement location
29
5 - Advanced Surveying Techniques

Grid (or Tape or Chain) Layouts vs. Radial Layouts
There are times when information about an area has to be gathered, to determine the physical
constraints on a given design resolution. The ground data collected is then used to map the
area in three dimensions to provide plan and profile views of the affected area, and to provide
the designer with the information required to determine the scope of the work, the Right-ofWay required, utilities affected, bill of materials to be ordered, and equipment and manpower
requirements.
Once the work plan has been determined, then a construction layout ensues which will provide
the information that the construction crews will require to transform the area into the completed
project. Whether the plan calls for a structure, drainage facility, parking lot, or a roadway or
driveway the layout will convey the x, y and z of the solution to the construction crew.
The typical methods for gathering the site survey, or for laying out the construction stakeout is
either a grid layout or a radial layout.
Grid Survey
When conducting a grid survey, a baseline is projected across the site. This line, often referred
to as the centerline of the project has to be set with permanent points for a begin and an end,
so that the line is reproducible. In this case, permanent means that the survey line must last
at least as long as the project progresses, and must be tied to a datum that allows a survey crew
to replace the line should it become disturbed. The new centerline can be thought of as an X
coordinate, as the station of each physical parameter is recorded, along with the distance to the
left or right of this centerline, becoming the Y coordinate.
Chain Survey
Chain (Tape) surveying is the simplest form of detail surveying. In this method a simple baseline
is marked out, and the termini are tied to known objects. The length of the baseline marked
on the field is measured, while the details are measured by offsets and ties measured from the
baseline. Should there be any angles in the baseline, the angles are measured and described in the
field notes.
To establish a suitable chain survey baseline, a reconnaissance is undertaken of the area
required to be surveyed. Any obstacles to the eventual construction project should be noticed,
such as buildings, utilities above and below ground, drainages, curblines, streams, vegetation,
and neighboring improvements. Property margins, streets and other easements should also be
established or estimated. The selected baseline should produce a well formed system of linked
triangles or braced quadrilaterals. The principles to be considered are:
31
Figure 25: Grid Notes
32
5- Advanced Techniques
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Baselines should be reproducible. Select ends that can be tied to permanent objects.
Avoid any obstacles to ranging or chaining, such as thick brush, buildings, water.
Angles should be greater than 30 and less than 120 degrees.
Make check lines when possible to detect errors when plotting.
Baselines should be close to the details. Avoid long offsets (>40 ft) and provide ties.
After selection of the baseline, which is the framework of your survey, you should draw a sketch
of the area and mark the stations by wooden pegs or marker paints, and give a unique number for
each station using its plus from the begin point.
Walking along the baseline, the offset to each physical feature is measured perpendicular from
the baseline to the front face of the feature. The dimensions of the feature is also noted, such as
tree diameter, drop inlet size, or fence height and materials used to build.
All notes are recorded in a field book which should be neat and consistent. Entries start at the
bottom of the page. Features that are on the right-hand side of the line are recorded on the righthand half of the face page and vice versa. The lengths from the beginning of the line are written
along the left margin of the facing page, while the offset lengths follow the feature description.
The left page is used to note any angles or ties along the route, as well as a sketch of any
dimensioned items, such as buildings, bridge approaches, treelines, etc.
Radial Survey (Stadia)
Figure 26: Stadia Hairs
Arrangement of cross hairs
33
In conducting a Radial Survey, the same information is gathered, but primarily from a single
instrument setup. If the site is complicated or extensive, more than one site may be required, but
the information is obtained by use of a transit or theodolite survey instrument. While a rodman
walks from item to item, the instrument man records the radial angle and distance to each
feature. Again, a permanent baseline, that is reproducible is required, but the measurements are
made from radial points rather than from along an axis.
In order to determine the distance from the instrument to the rod holder, the instrument man
uses a unique tool contained within the theodolite. Notice in Figure 24, Stadia Hairs, that the
instrument depicted on the right has an extra pair of cross hairs, called stadia hairs. The hairs are
calibrated such that the reading on the rod of the top and bottom cross hairs will give the distance
to the rod holder. The readings of the top and bottom cross hairs are recorded in the notes. Later
the difference between the two readings will be calculated. Multiplying this difference by 100,
known as the stadia interval for the instrument used, will provide the exact distance from the
instrument to the rod.
The survey crew continues to record, in prescribed fashion, the centerline station, and the left or
right distance, to each landmark within the range of the proposed work. Typical items recorded
are utility poles, hydrants, valves, sidewalks, curbs, foliage, wells, known underground utilities
or features, dwellings or other structures, pipes, drainages, and other natural or manmade
features.
Once all this information is gathered, the notes are taken to a technician who will manually or
electronically plot all the information for further processing. Upon completion of the design,
notes are produced which will provide the stakeout crew with either a grid layout, or a radial
layout.
Roadwork, being linear, is most conducive to grid layouts, where a series of stations and offsets
determine the location of the new highway appurtenances. Fencing might be laid out via station
and offset, i.e., 34+50 @ 35 OC Rt to 39+75 @ 35 OC Rt. A new pipe might be installed at
Station 45+36 with inlet @ 35.5 OC Rt and outlet @ 37.5 OC Lt.
Specific features which lie within a confined area, might be laid out via a radial plan, such as a
new bridge structure, or a landscape plan. A single setup point is determined (and maintained)
which allows each stage of the work to be defined as the work progresses. The abutments will
be defined from the same setup point as the preceding footings, and the bridge deck and the
approach roadway will follow from the identical point.
Obviously, the security of these control points is of utmost concern.
34
5- Advanced Techniques
Figure 27: Stadia Notes

35
6 - Common Field Applications

Culverts
A culvert is an opening in the embankment that allows water to pass from one side of the
embankment to the other. Culverts are placed in valleys that would otherwise be dammed by
the highway embankment. Culverts are typically a polyethylene or metal pipe, but may also be
concrete pipe, metal pipe arches, or concrete box culverts. The amount of water passing through,
the height of the fill, and the proximity to valued property determine the size and type of culvert
to be installed.
Figure 28: Pipe Alignment
If the culvert is to be constructed for a flowing stream, a channel change is often desirable, to
either provide a more efficient flow alignment, or perhaps to reduce the length of the culvert
required. The culvert is constructed on the new channel alignment and the stream is then diverted
through it. If the channel is dry at the time of construction, the contractor may be required to
partially build the embankment before placing pipe.
37
How to stake out culvert installations:

1. Consult project plans to determine the station and offset for the ends of the
drainage installation. In some cases, you may be required to field fit drainage
crossings. If so, determine the slope catch in the channel bottom for each end of
the culvert. To perform this, multiply the height of each shoulder above each invert
elevation, times the slope of the embankment (say, 1 on 3). Compute this figure for
both sides of the road. Next, add the width of the roadway, shoulder to shoulder,
to this figure. If the height of the shoulder above the invert is greater than 6 feet,
it may be necessary to widen the embankment for guardrail installation, and add
sufficient width (typically an additional 2 feet, each side) for railing. For a crossing
that is perpendicular to the roadway, this should be the total length of the installation,
including end treatment. If the installation is skewed, then apply the law of cosines to
determine the required length.
Figure 29: Pipe Section
2. Set a stake at the indicated positions for each end of the culvert. Mark the station,
pipe size, and need for end treatment on the face of the stake. Apply blue flagging
to the top of the stake. Typically, an offset stake is established at either 6 feet or 10
feet past the end of the pipe with a grade to the pipe. A 6-foot stake is desirable if the
excavation is minimal, as a 6-foot builders rule can be used to measure this distance.
Should the excavation required for the invert of the pipe be more than 2 feet deep,
then an offset of 10 feet or more may be required (slope of 1:3).
3. Measure distance between stakes, and validate your previous calculations for length
4. Set a parallel offset line at a distance convenient for the contractor. Typically 10 feet
is adequate to allow for the excavation width and backslope. A greater width may be
required for deeper trenches.
5. Beginning at the downstream end, set and station hubs along the offset line at 20-foot
intervals, the length of a section of pipe. Place the beginning hub at station 0+01 or
greater.
6. At the downstream end, set a second hub to ensure proper positioning of the first
section of pipe.
38
6- Common Field Applications
7. Obtain elevations on all offset hubs and corresponding ground elevations at the
centerline of the pipe
Figure 30: Culvert Staking
8. When the trench will be excavated to a depth of 4 feet or more, obtain elevations at
the horizontal limits of the trench.
9. Compute the flow line grade of the culvert for each offset hub. Subtract from the hub
elevation and record on the plans.
10. Mark and place stakes at the hubs, recording the station, offset, pipe size and cut.
11. Check all computations and check all stakes for accuracy in recording.
Structure Layout
This addresses the procedures to be followed for surveying and staking structures, such as
multiplate pipes, three-sided or four sided concrete culverts, and bridges.
Review the plans, specifications, and special provisions before proceeding.
39
Horizontal Control
For structure layout, establish a horizontal control network using second order procedures. Place
control points in strategic locations so that any point within the bridge site can be set from at
least two control points. Provide control points that are substantial enough to remain in place and
undisturbed for the duration of the bridge construction. A rebar and cap set in concrete can be
used for these control points. Always use the same set of control points to build the bridge from
one side to the other.
The next step is to establish the structure center line. Sometimes this center line differs from the
line used to construct the roadway. Study the plans carefully to determine the correct line. This
is not always plainly marked, and it is easy to overlook some variation in the alignment. Resolve
any problems before setting stakes.
Run the center line (make sure it closes within the site location) and all other controls that are
pertinent to the structure. Check distances across streams, highways, or other obstructions by use
of an approved electronic distance measuring device (EDM).
Never rely on any existing station to establish pier or bridge footing locations without checking
it first. Always double check all distances to all existing or proposed structure features to ensure
constructibility. Errors in locating the footing might necessitate extensive revision in the design
of the structure or removal of the incorrectly located foundation.
Staking
Stake pier or abutment locations in accordance with the footing layout included in the plans.
After the abutments have been staked, stand back and eyeball the entire layout, if possible, to
determine if it looks correct. Check the depth of footing compared to the ground line, cut or fill
slopes, or stream bed. Take profiles along the center line of each pier or bent and at all corners
for use in excavation calculations.
Vertical Control
Set the vertical control after the horizontal control. Set temporary bench marks (TBM) in readily
accessible locations where they will also be safe during construction. Extra TBMs are advisable
to ensure survival. When setting TBMs for structures, remember that structures are susceptible
to settlement. Not only do the piers settle but the ground in the area of the piers can also settle.
It is essential to set a control TBM outside the area of influence so that it can be used to monitor
TBMs near the structure. Settlement can occur on the day of the pour or more than a year
later, so it is something that requires close attention. Settlement is common in some concrete
structures. Notify the inspector and project engineer when settlement is detected.
Layout and References
Stake the piers/footings at the locations shown in the plans. These may be staked directly by
station and offset from the center line (grid style) or from the control points established
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previously (radial style). Stake reference points (RP) in line with the center of the pier or footing
to ensure recovery of the pier after excavation.
Consider the following concepts when setting reference points.
Consider the length of time that the point must remain in a precise, fixed position and be resistant
to outside forces such as traffic, excavation, and frost heave. Hubs are susceptible to heave
regardless of depth of planting. If not driven straight, small diameter rebar has a tendency to
straighten during weather cycles. If a rock is driven along the side of a rebar to get it on line, it
will only remain in that position until the next heavy rain or frost.
Place the reference points so they are clear of other construction features and so they will not
be affected by ground movements caused by large excavations or embankments. Set adequate
references so that if some are lost, the pier can still be easily reestablished (redundancy).
References are a very critical item in the layout of the structure. A little extra time spent placing
good references can save time throughout the life of the project.
Profiles
Staking out a highway profile is a linear operation. The stakeout is similar to that of a mine
operation or the measurement for a stockpile, just longer. A grid is established along the existing
ground to mark the location of the proposed facility. First, the centerline of the roadway is
established, using a transit to layout a series of straight lines, or tangents. Curves are then
established by designing a series of circular arc segments, depending on the speed of the
roadway and the clearance to obstructions. Generally, the flatter the curvature, the safer the
roadway. Determining the curvature to be used is an engineering decision, and should be left to
qualified practitioners.
The centerline of the proposed facility is laid out in stations of 100 feet each. Intermediate
stations are also established, typically at 50-foot intervals between the stations. Sometimes points
are established at shorter intervals to determine the location of culverts, bridges, driveways, or to
assist in laying out radii for intersecting pavements or curb lines. The beginning of the roadway
might be referred to as Station 0+00, and extend to station 52+80. In this example, the roadway
ends one mile from its beginning. You may begin your stationing at any convenient number, but
it is often useful to add an extra 10 stations to the start number in case you later decide to extend
the project past the begin intersection.
Your centerline will consist of a series of straight tangents, and portions of circles which round
out the curves.
Stakes are typically cut from wood and measure 2 inches x 1inch x 48 inches for the initial ROW
staking. These are stout enough to weather the season in clay soils, and tall enough to be seen in
high grass or brush. Subsequent staking along the gravel layers may require 1inch x 1inch x 36
inch stakes, which will be easier to drive into the granular materials.
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A good idea is to use different colored engineer flagging to denote the type of stake: blue stakes
for drainage layouts, orange flagging to denote the edge of the ROW; and yellow and green
ribbon to denote cut and fill areas, respectively. With the advent of modern engineering printers,
these color schemes right on the plan sheets are of enormous assistance. Where possible, you
should insist that underground utilities are plotted in the proper underground marking colors
colors, too.
Staking and Side Slopes
Procedure for efficient setting of grade stakes:
1. Temporary bench marks (TBMs) shall be set every 500 feet, or for each 25-foot
change in elevation, are recommended on construction projects. Run the center line.
2. Go through and set a stake at each 50 station, both sides of the road if possible. If you
cannot stake one side because of an obstruction, place 2 hubs on the opposite side, 10
feet or 15 feet apart, and in-line with the station.
3. Drive through with the survey truck and throw out hubs and witnesses at each 50
station. 2 inch x 2 inch x12 inch hubs are typically used along the ROW margin,
along with a 1inch x 2 inch x 48 inch witness.
4. If rocky or stubborn soil is encountered, a 1inch x 1inch x 48 inch or 36 inch witness
can be substituted.
5. Set up the level. If a direct-reading Lenker rod is available, set the Lenker rod on the
bench mark, and read the elevation. Set the rod to the BM elevation and read the rod
with the level. This involves moving the tape on the Lenker rod up and down and
rechecking the reading of the elevation on the bench mark through the level. It is a
good idea to mark the side of the Lenker rod with a pencil mark. This lets you know
immediately if it has slipped.

or,
5. If a direct-reading Lenker rod is not available, then a regular survey rod is used to
establish the instrument height, and notes are taken of the elevation of the top of each
of the hubs previously set. These notes are then reduced, and the difference between
the hub elevation and the desired CL elevation is calculated. The resulting cuts and
fills are then transferred to the hubs, and to the witness and marked.
6. The rod person sets the rod on top of to the stake and calls out the station.
7. The level person reads the rod and indicates how much up or down to grade, by calling
out the amount of cut or fill.
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8. Typically, a gradeline is established on the witness, by measuring up to the nearest

whole foot increment either above (cut) or below (fill) the desired grade. A line at
the desired grade is marked. A crows foot and line with the indicating arrow pointing
down to the top of subgrade or surfacing, indicates a cut-3 (or whatever) while the
crows foot pointing up indicates a fill-3 (or whatever).
9. If cross sections were prepared for the project, then the toe of slope, or top of cut
stakes can be measured and installed to indicate the limits of the required excavations
or fills. The appropriate flagging can be applied to the tops of all stakes, providing an
instant indication to the operators of the work required from quite a distance.
Calculating Stockpiles
Highway departments typically come upon valuable materials at one time of the year, which
they will save for use during subsequent activities. For this reason, it often becomes necessary
to compute the volume of stockpiled materials. Sand, salt, gravel, earth and stone are frequently
stockpiled after processing or purchase, for use later.
One community once had a mountainous pile of bagged leaves and yard waste. What started
as a seasonal cleanup effort, over time became a mountainous pile of plastic and rotting leaves.
Looking at the prospect of hauling these materials to another site for disposal, the superintendent
had to determine the truck count, and thus the hauling time, to move the aging product.
Whether they are extracted materials, such as screened aggregates or salt, or processed
commodities such as grains, matchsticks or cobbed corn, the principals of determining the
volume are the same.
The approach to determining the stockpile volume will depend on the method of creating the
pile. The easiest pile to calculate is one that resembles a cone, such as those made using a
conveyor. The formula for determining the volume of a simple cone is quite straight-forward.
Calculating the Volume of a Cone
A cone is a three-dimensional shape that has 2 faces: 1 base, 1 vertex and 1 edge. The formula
for the volume of a cone can be determined from the volume formula for a cylinder. In fact, you
apply the same formula, and then you divide your answer by 3.
For a cylinder, the volume is the area of the base multiplied by the height. For a cone of similar
dimensions, it becomes the area of the base multiplied by the height divided by 3.
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Figure 31: Volume of a Cone
You can calculate the volume of a cone using these simple steps, taking all measurements in feet.
1. Measure the radius of the base of the cone. Radius is the distance from the outer edge
to the center of the circle, or one half the measurement from edge to edge, measured
through the center of the pile.
2. Measure the height of the cone.
3. Square the radius (Multiply it by itself).
4. Multiply by the height of Pi (3.14).
5. Multiply by the product from
Step 3 times the product from Step 4.
Figure 32: Angle of Repose
6. Divide the product of Step 5 by 3.

7. If you made all measurements in feet, divide the answer in Step 6 by 27. This will
give the answer in cubic yards.
If there is a pivoting elevator, and a complete 90 degree pile, the resulting pile will be 4 times the
value of a simple cone.
If the cone has two heads, calculate the volume of the larger cone as above, then estimate the
value of the smaller siamese as a percentage of the larger one.
Stockpiles do not always take on geometric shapes. Sometimes they take on irregular shapes,
becoming elongated along one axis, and of varying widths or heights. The resulting shape can
resemble that of an irregular loaf of bakery bread. Not to fear, there is an app for that.
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Figure 33: Stockpile
Much like a loaf of Italian bread, the surveyor takes a series of slices of the resulting pile to
determine the internal volume.
Figure 34: Bread
A straight baseline of the pile is established. This is a reproducible line that can run along one
edge of the pile, or even through the center axis of the pile. What is important is that each end of
this straight line be fixed and protected from disturbance. That requirement may necessitate that
each end of the line be established quite some distance from the pile, in order to allow loading
and hauling equipment sufficient room to do their jobs. Each end of the line is then secured with
stakes and flagging.
After establishing the line, one end is designated the zero end of the line, typically the southern
or western-most end of the line. The resulting sketch of the area will then put the north arrow
rising to the top or right side of the page.
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Cross sections are then taken perpendicular to the baseline. Think of these as essentially cuts
taken through the pile, in order to determine the end area of each slice. The section locations
should be predetermined, and are taken at each location that either the height or the width of the
pile changes substantially.
Record the sections in a field book noting the stationing along the baseline, the offset of each
shot, and the rod reading. Upon reducing the notes for elevation, plot the sections on standard
graph paper, preferably 5 x 5, so that 1inch = 5 feet. Determine the area of each section either by
counting squares, or by use of a planimeter.
The next step is to set up a worksheet to determine the volume of the pile. To determine the
volume of each slice of the pile, add the end area of each side of the slice together, divide
by 2, then multiply by the length of the particular slice. Do the same for each slice of the pile.
Remember that the side 2 area for one slice, is the side 1 area for the adjacent slice.
End Area 1:
256.3 sf
Distance between: 25.0

EA 1 + EA 2 x 25 = 5550 cf

2
End Area 2:
187.7 sf
End Area 2:
187.7 sf
Distance between: 25.0

EA 2 + EA 3 x 25 = 4142.5 cf

2
End Area 3:
143.7 sf
Greater accuracy can be obtained by selecting more frequent sections, to a point. Overkill will
only make more work for diminished results.
Combine all the volumes, which are now in cubic feet, and divide by 27 to obtain the answer in
cubic yards. Depending on the number of sections chosen, whether the pile has been driven on
or not, and the length of time that the pile has been sitting, you should be able to estimate the
volume within 10 percent of the actual volume.
Borrow Pits and Stockpiles
One of the many tasks required of survey crews is to gather field data of pit site areas for the
purpose of generating quantities for the project sponsor to pay suppliers or contractors. When
possible, a base survey is taken of the area prior to any materials processing being performed.
This will establish the original ground, or the before value of the soon-to-be-stockpile. Upon
completion of the screening or crushing operation, and prior to any materials being taken for
project use, an after value is established by cross sectioning the new pile.
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With current surveying practices, the before and after scenarios are referred to as a digital terrain
model (DTM) or a topographic model (Topo). The data is gathered of the pit site area before
any work is done (original ground) and then new DTM data is gathered after work has been
performed (remeasure).
Manual cross section methods may be used instead of DTM methods. The procedures for either are:
1. Gather crew together and discuss strategy for collecting data. Study the contract plans
to determine the number of stockpiles or borrow areas required for various materials,
which stockpiles or sources are to be surveyed for pay quantity, and quantity of
aggregates required in each stockpile. Establish areas that are large enough to host the
stockpile, the processing equipment and the hauling equipment. Keep adjacent areas
far enough apart that materials are not co-mingled. Watch for overhead wires.
2. Establish a base line and reference it in a safe location so that it can be replaced after
the material has been removed. 50-foot intervals are typically used, but closer
spacing (say 25 feet) might be necessary if the ground or the stockpile is very
irregular. Set a minimum of two control points to establish a begin station and a back
sight. Assumed coordinates and elevations may be used for this type of work since the
object is a volume.
3. Set additional control points, as necessary, to be able to Topo or section the entire pit
site or stockpile area. Establish temporary bench marks (TBM) for vertical control.
Set 2 or 3 TBMs around the pit for backup. Locate all control points where they will
not be disturbed by the work.
4. Set up a new survey in the project notebook with a note that includes the pit or
stockpile location, date, project name, and the names of survey crew members.
5. Gather data for DTM or cross section the ground prior to removal of any material. It
is very helpful to mark each point where a shot is taken with a paint spot so you can
visually see areas where shots are needed.
6. On completion of the removal, or at any time an estimate is required, reestablish the
base line and cross section the area. Pick up any terrain changes from the original
ground (first DTM or original cross sections).
7. Plot the sections and determine the change in volume. Be aware that it is possible for
one area of the stockpile to increase, while other areas decrease (or vice-versa).
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How to Square Work

A crucial aspect of any project that a professional will encounter is to ensure that their project is
properly squared upon completion. For a layout to be squared, the completed project does not
have to be a square, but it is essential that it have right angles, which are angles at 90 degrees.
A square and a rectangle both have 90 degree corners.
Many tasks taken on by professionals require proper squaring of the job. Examples include
erecting the frame for a building, pouring a concrete pad for a structure, and constructing the
frame for a small item, such as a vehicle frame or a table. In most projects, if an error is made
in the squaring, everything that follows will be wrong and could involve extensive costs to
rectify. If a concrete pad is poured for a new shop or shed, and it is out of square, there will be
serious problems when it is time to erect and install the wall units or the roof and everything that
follows.
To properly square a job, use a small calculator that will compute the square of a number, or
access a computer with a numbers program that will compute the square of a number. There are
also less expensive, hand-held contractors calculators available.
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Figure 35: Hypotenuse
Figure 36: Out of Square
Diagram 1
Diagram 2
Referring to the diagrams above, it is more accurate to measure Diagram 1 as opposed to the
skewed outline shown in Diagram 2. While the opposing sides of the outline in Diagram 2 are
indeed equal, the shape of this outline is obviously not square. Unfortunately, small errors in
measuring are not always obvious, but can still have devastating results as work progresses. Here
is how to get the look of Diagram 1.
The measurements of the works sides should be on the plans. These lengths are all that is
needed to compute the third side, or the hypotenuse. The length of the hypotenuse is used when
measuring and marking to ensure that the work is perfectly squared.
The formula for computing a hypotenuse is: A + B = C
The square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides. Or, using
Diagram 1:

A + B = Hypotenuse
To solve the problem to its completion:

Hypotenuse = A + B (the square root of A + B)
Plug in some real numbers and work step-by-step to further clarify the formula:
Side A = 30

Side B = 40

Side A (30 x 30) = 900

Side B (40 x 40) = 1600

A + B = 2500

The square root of 2500 is 50.00
The hypotenuse of a rectangle with one leg of 30 and the other leg of 40 is 50.00.
This 3, 4, 5 relationship is very important in highway construction, as many aspects of layout
and construction rely on squared measurements. Use this 3, 4, 5 relationship for the layout of a
driveway or an intersection.
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Figure 37: Drive Radii
Select the location for the proposed installation. Along the centerline of the roadway, place a nail
or stake at that location. Measure along the proposed centerline a distance of 30 feet, and place
another nail or stake.
Figure 38: Taping Points
Then taking two tapes, measure 40 feet from the initial point and 50 feet from the second point,
and where the two measurements intersect, that is the center of the new installation. Place a
stake here.
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To continue the stakeout of the drive, place a stake at an offset from center of the road at 35 feet.
This will be the end of that standard drive entrance. Continuing, one can place the radii pins
at 21 feet + the drive width on each side of the driveway. Swinging a distance of 21 feet from
this pin and using a can of paint, one can easily paint the outline of the radii of the drive. Rural
intersections would require a radii of 50 feet, and would be placed at a distance of 50 feet + the
width of the travel lane.
Figure 39: Radii Hubs
The measurements do not have to be specifically 30, 40, and 50, but they do have to be in
the ratio of 3, 4, 5. These ratios can be multiplied by any common multiplier to achieve the
desired result, such as all by 100, or all by 5, or all by 3.279, for example, as long as they are all
multiplied by the same factor.
This technique can be used to layout a variety of highway attributes such as drainages, pipes,
curbing, guiderail, landscaping or many other permanent items, or for a wide variety of
temporary layout needs.
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7 - Getting Your Thoughts on Paper

Preliminary Project Plans
The project development process results in a set of plans, and quite possibly several variations
on those plans, before a final solution is selected. Project development encompasses all the
activities which precede construction. They include survey and mapping, regulatory review,
budgeting, bidding, right of way acquisition, and a myriad of other activities. Throughout the
project development phase, a great deal of information is gathered and shared, any of which may
alter the outcome of your project. As such, it is a circular process.
The purpose of the plans is to inform a variety of individuals, Boards, groups and Agencies of the
extent of the proposed project. Typically, the preliminary plans allow these Agencies and groups
an opportunity to review and comment on the extent of the work. Some of those interested in the
scope of the work include:
The budget gatekeepers,
Adjacent property owners,
Utility owners,
Regulatory agencies,
Material suppliers,
Community Groups
Other interested stakeholders, and finally,
The field crews, whether they be your staff or contractors.
In order for most Agencies, such as the DEC, the Army Corps or the Department of
Transportation, to properly review the project plans, there are certain items that each will require.
Foremost, the presentation of the plans should be well constructed and clearly focused on the
work that is proposed. Depending on the funding source, a set of plans does not necessarily need
to be prepared by a professional engineer, but it should none-the-less conform to a generally
accepted outline.
The plan for a roadway or bridge project should contain sheets which each contain specific
information: a detailed plan view; proper profile view; typical cross sections; tables of certain
details such as driveways, drainages, and a bill of materials; detailing which depicts specific
installation details; a cover sheet which introduces the project to the reviewer.
53
Entire tomes have been written which provide the plan format expected of many agencies. That is
beyond the scope of this chapter. Lets just skim through the basics of a well-developed plan set.
The Cover sheet introduces the reviewer to the subject project. The details given will
differentiate this project from the dozens, perhaps hundreds, of other projects undertaken. The
cover sheet should proclaim, in bold letters centered on the page, just which project, or portion
of a larger project, that this plan set contains. Some agencies devote substantial space to a list of
local politicians who may have passed the budget for the project, but what is really important is
the name and the location of the project-at-hand.
Figure 40: Title Sheet
In the lower right corner of each page, a Title Block explains exactly which sheet you are
working on. Styles vary on the information presented, but the important information includes
the project name, the sheet number, and the name of agency sponsoring the project. Information
often included would be the names or initials of the primary sheet developers. The date that the
plan was developed is also crucial.
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Figure 41: Title Block
In the lower left corner, information pertinent to the project is also provided, including the Design
Speed, the project classification, current and project traffic counts, and the type of construction.
Also, the NYS Department of Transportation develps and publishes Standard Structure Sheets,
which provides standardized methods of construction and materials. Inclusion of these detail sheets
by reference avoids the necessity to provide duplicate detailing within your plans, simplifies cost
estimating, and shows that your project conforms to accepted industry standards.
Figure 42: Design Information
55
Access to NYSDOT Standard Structure Sheets:

https://www.dot.ny.gov/main/business-center/engineering/cadd-info/drawings/standard-sheets-us
https://www.dot.ny.gov/main/business- center/engineering/specifications
56
GROUP ID
SPECIFICATION SECTION
203
Excavation and Embankment
204
Controlled Low Strength Material(Flowable Fill)
209
Soil Erosion and Sediment Control
212
Rock Slope Reinforcement & Catchment Systems
402
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) Pavements
554
Fill Type Retaining Walls
601
Architectural Pavements and Treatments
603
Culverts and Storm Drains
604
Drainage Structures
605
Underdrains
606
Guide Railing
608
Sidewalks, Driveways and Bicycle Paths
609
Curb and Curb & Gutter
611
Planting
619
Work Zone Traffic Control
624
Paved Gutters
625
Survey Operations, ROW Markers, &

Permanent Survey Markers
630
Barricades
645
Signs
646
Delineators, Reference Markers and

Snowplowing Markers
649
Audible Roadway Delineators
655
Frames, Grates and Covers
663
Water Supply Utilities
664
Sanitary Sewer Utilities
680
Traffic Signals
685
Pavement Markings
Lastly, the cover sheet typically has a Table of Contents, which eliminates the guesswork of
where the details for your project can be found. Whether your plan set is five sheets or 105
sheets, finding the detail specific to the issue at hand should be as easy as you can make it.
Sheet two is typically devoted to the cross sectional details of the project. The typical sections
will show the widths and depths of the various items of work. Also, special notes can explain
the limits of the work. Where there is room, often a Table of Lengths and Equalities will show
precisely the station limits of each of the various Typical Sections.
Figure 43: Typical Sections
Sheets 3 (and on, as necessary) are typically Detail Tables which may list Bench Marks,
Drainages, Driveways, Table of Quantities, perhaps Tables of Fencing, Poles, or Earthwork.
Another worthwhile Table would cross-reference various granular and bituminous items by
Mainline, Drive, Drainage, or Intersection location, finally aggregating these items prior to
inclusion in the Table of Quantities. The detail tables are structured to provide greater details
than those snippets offered on the plan view.
Once the Detail Tables are presented, then the plan and profile sheets of the subject project are
presented. The plan sheet show the planemetric features that will influence the placement of the
highway elements, such as traveled areas, trees, drainages, fencing, buildings, and above ground
and below ground facilities of all Agencies or utilities. In modern times, the boundaries of
wetlands, flood zones, farmlands, or other special zones would also be depicted. Lastly, the various
elements of the new road would also be shown, usually with references to the tables within, in
order to provide a minimum amount of information at the plan level, and to increase clarity.
57
For small projects, say of a mile or so, these features are determined by virtue of a chain survey,
which is a linear survey undertaken on the ground by a crew of 3 to 5. A centerline is established
on the ground, the planemetric features are determined with a distance along the centerline
and an offset to the object from the centerline. The features and these distances are carefully
cataloged in a notebook, then the information is plotted on a plansheet to scale. Road plans are
often plotted at 50 to the inch. If the area to be worked upon is quite dense with features, such
as at a bridge or a village site, then a scale of 20 to the inch is used.
While chain surveys are still often used, lengthier projects typically employ aerial mapping to
establish the location of the planemetric features. When employed for larger projects, aerial
mapping is substantially cheaper than ground methods. The resulting map can establish features
as small as guide posts and street signs. Some confirmation of small objects, such as meter pits,
shut-off valves and such may still be required. The biggest advantage in aerial mapping is that
the end product can have a bandwidth of information much wider than is capable with ground
methods. The aerial mapper is also able to produce contours and spot elevations to within tenths
of a foot nearly anywhere that the ground is visible to the air. Such accuracy and extent of
survey would take a ground crew of 3 to 5 individuals several weeks to survey and plot.
Figure 44: Close up of Survey Details
Regardless of origin, the plans use universal linetypes (dots, dashes), linewidths, markings,
or colors to depict the work to be done. Today, with the pervasive use of modern plotters, all
existing utilities should be shown in their mark-out colors within the plan sheets, thus clarifying
those areas with numerous overhead and underground wires or pipes.
58
Figure 45: Close up of Design Details
The profile also uses generally accepted linetypes, linewidths and markings to convey specific
information to the user. The profile is a slice into the project along the linear axis, which shows
the relative elevations of the existing and the proposed facility. For a good roadway profile, sight
distances, drainage structures and special underground work will be depicted, along with the
elevations of the proposed elements of work.
Figure 46: Profile Information
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Remember, there is a long list of stakeholders who will be interested in various details of this
work. In order for all facets of the work to be properly coordinated, significant detailing and
clarity must be provided. Likewise, it will take significant time to review all the interactions and
to fully appreciated the 4-dimensional problem which is presented.
Figure 47: Close up of Profile Information
Final Plans, Record Plans, and / or As-Builts as they are variously known as, shall be prepared
for archiving. These plans are created to document the actual features constructed or installed
during the course of the reconstruction activity. These features shall include features installed by
others, such as utility firms, contractors or municipal crews. Proper preparation of the Record
Plans can take some time, and perhaps many inquiries of those on site during the work. But the
benefits far outweigh the investments, as these Plans may well be referenced many times in the
future, and can become part of someones historical record.
The Record Plans of a project includes a clean set of the original project plans, all shop drawings,
and a set of the original plans which have been edited by hand to show all revisions of the plans,
profiles, and detail tables. To accomplish this, a set of field revision sheets are kept during the
course of the work, which become the basis for the draft As-Built Record Plan Sheets. A clean
set of revised prints is then prepared from this information and from any Inspection Reports
generated during the course of the work. The cover sheet shall be signed by the Superintendent
or Engineer in charge of the work, to validate the authenticity of the record. The Record Plans
should be kept in a clean, permanent environment, available for inspection by interested parties.
60
Those plans should never leave the archive, once completed. Most Offices have permanent
copies made of the Plans photocopied onto mylar. Unlike paper sets, the mylar plans are
dimensionally stable, resist moisture, finger oils, and cracking. Copies can later be made from
these mylars.
It is critical that ALL underground facilities be carefully located and documented during the
course of the work, as the information cannot be collected later without excavation, restoration,
and disruption.
Carefully revise all detail tables as work progresses, by striking revised figures ONCE with a
red pen (on the work sheets), and noting the new figure immediately beside same. It is typically
desirable to list a brief, but concise note of the reason for the change, immediately below,
numbering changes in sequence. Each sheet shall also have a REVISIONS: box, and a concise
note indicating which details have been revised should be noted within this box.
Steps to be taken to ensure the clarity of Final Record Plans for both viewing and reproduction
purposes are:
1. Title Sheet
a. The words RECORD PLANS must appear in at least 1 inch tall letters on D size or
inch letters on B size near the lower right corner of the Cover Sheet. This makes it
easy to discern plan types while thumbing through flat files.
b. The title sheet of the Record Plans shall show the Year that the project was completed,
and the name of the Engineer-In-Charge, and / or the Project Superintendent, the
Contractors name if there is one, the date of award, and date of project final acceptance.
2. As-Built Revisions / Signature Box
a. All as-built revisions made shall be noted in the box provided on each sheet, i.e.,
Drainage Revision, Sta. 10, Driveway Table, Lengths and Equalities, etc. If no
as-built changes were made, write the words No As-Built Revisions in the box.
b. All as-built record plan sheets shall be signed and dated by the preparer. Initials
shall be sufficient on subsequent sheets, if a signature table is provided on one of the
first sheets of the Plans.
3. A list of Standard Structure Sheets (on the Cover sheet) should reflect corrections /
additions made by amendment or Order On Contract.
4. Original lines or lettering shall not be erased when making revisions. Line revisions
shall be made by using heavy weighted lines which stand out clearly. Revisions
should be made in dark (black/blue) contrasting ink, as pencil and red ink do not
reproduce reliabl.
61
5. Revisions to the notes and written matter should be made by crossing out the original
and inserting the revision as close to the original as is possible without impairing the
legibility of the original. New lettering should be similar in size and spacing to the
original lettering so that it will be legible. Notes should be oriented with and readable
from the bottom edge or right margin.
6. Earthwork and Earthwork Summary Sheets on the plans need not be revised for Record
Plans. However, the Estimate of Quantities table should be revised upon completion.
7. Tables
Tables should be revised by single strikeout and replacement or by inserting a new
table if the changes are extensive. Revisions shall be shown within the General Plans
and adequately labeled, and all tables shall be updated to as-built conditions. In
particular, the Drainage Table, Driveway Table, Lengths and Equalities Table, and
Item Summary Tables shall be revised accordingly.
62
1+75
4+30
5+81
12+75
20+98
54+77
2A
Station
Number
Install New 24 x 40 Smooth

Bore Polyethylene Pipe with 2
End Sections
Install new 18 x 60 Smooth

End Sections Skew 28 AHD Rt
Filled Ditch 17 Left 2.5 Deep

12 x 150 Perf Polyethylene
Pipe with 2 End Sections
Install New 18 x 78 Smooth

End Sections 30 Skew AHD Lt
Filled Ditch 20.5 Left 2.5 Deep

12 x 66 Perf Polyethylene Pipe
with 2 End Sections
Filled Ditch 21 Right 2.5 Deep

12 x 174 Perf Polyethylene
Pipe with 2 End Sections
Drainage Description
A Revised Drainage Table:
47
65
145
155
83
71
183
179
Length
ft
4.07
4.07
Item
203.01
Unclssfd
Embkmnt
cy
87.51
20.57
29.75
37.19
Item
203.21
Select
Structure
Fill
cy
138.68
25.22
50.43
63.03
Item
206.02
Trench &
Culvert
Excavation
cy
12"
Poly
SmBore
ft
390
386
140
150
66
180
174
12"
Poly
Perf
ft
Drainages County Road 3 Part 1
138
60
78
18"
Poly
SmBore
ft
40
40
24"
Poly
SmBore
ft
18"
24"
4
5
1
2
Polyethylene End
Sections
Each
12"
88.02
87.11
30.51
33.76
15.2
46.40
39.06
Item
605.0901
Underdrain
Filter
cubic yards
Figure 48: Revised Detail Table
63
Appendix I - Glossary
Accuracy - The degree of conformity with a standard, or the degree of perfection attained in a
measurement. Accuracy relates to the quality of a result, and is distinguished from precision,
which relates to the quality of the operation by which the result is obtained.
Bench Mark - A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, bearing a marked point
whose elevation above or below an adopted datum is known. Usually designated as a BM,
such a mark is sometimes further qualified as PBM (permanent bench mark), or
TBM (temporary bench mark).
Contour Line - An imaginary line on the ground, all points of which are at the same elevation
above or below a specified datum.
Contour Interval - A predetermined difference in elevation (vertical distance) at which contour
lines are drawn. The contour interval is usually the same for maps of the same scale.
Contour Map - A map that portrays relief by means of contour lines.
Control - A system of points whose relative positions have been determined from survey data.
See: Basic Control, Horizontal Control, Vertical Control, and Picture Point.
Control Point - A point whose position (horizontal or vertical) has been determined from survey
data, and is used as a base for a dependent survey.
Control Station - A station whose position (horizontal or vertical) has been determined from
survey data, and is used as a base for a dependent survey.
Control Survey - A survey which provides positions (horizontal or vertical) of points to which
supplementary surveys are adjusted.
Coordinates - Linear or angular quantities, or both, which designate the position of a point in
relation to a given reference frame.
Data Collector - Electronic Field Notebook
Datum - A reference element such as a line or plane, in reference to which the positions of other
elements are determined. See: Horizontal Datum, Level Datum, and Vertical Datum.
Discrepancy - (1) The difference between duplicate or comparable measures of a quantity.
(2) The difference between computed quantity values obtained by different processes
in the same survey.
DTM, Digital Terrain Model - A representation in graphic form, on the computer, of the terrain
through the area being surveyed.
65
Easting - One of the two values indicating the position of a point on a grid system. The easting
coordinate is abbreviated: E. See: Grid Coordinates.
Fixed Elevation - An elevation obtained, either as a result of tide observations or previous
adjustment of leveling, which is held at its accepted value in any subsequent adjustment.
Fixed Position - An adjusted value of the position of a point on the earth. The positions obtained
by the adjustment are called adjusted positions, and when used as control for other survey work
they are called fixed positions.
Grid - A network composed of two sets of equidistant parallel lines intersecting at right angles.
Grid Azimuth - An azimuth measured from grid north.
Grid Coordinates - The numbers of a coordinate system that designate a point on a grid.
Grid Declination - The angular difference in direction between grid north and true north at any
given place.
Grid Distance - The straight line distance between two points, obtained by computations from
their grid coordinates.
Grid Position - The grid coordinates of a point.
Ground Control - In photomapping, control obtained from surveys as distinguished from
control obtained by photogrammetric methods.
Guard Stake- A stake driven near a point usually sloped with the top of the guard stake over the
point. The guard stake protects, and its markings identify the point.
Horizontal Control - Control stations whose grid coordinates are known.
Horizontal Datum - In plane surveying, the grid system of reference used for the horizontal
control of an area; defined by the easting and northing of one station in the area, and the azimuth
from this selected station to an adjacent station.
Horizontal Position - The grid position of a horizontal control point.
Hub - A wooden stake set in the ground, with a tack or other marker to indicate the exact
position. A guard stake protects and identifies the hub.
Latitude - (1) The angular distance north or south of the equator. (2) In plane surveying, the
amount that one end of a line is north or south of the other end. As the plane coordinates of a
point are known as the easting and northing of the point, the latitude is the difference between
the northings of the two ends of the line, which may be either plus or minus. See: Departure.
66
Appendix I - Glossary
Level Datum - A level surface to which elevations are referred. The generally adopted level
datum for leveling in the United States is mean sea level. For local surveys, an arbitrary
level datum is often adopted and defined in terms of an assumed elevation for some physical
mark (bench mark).
Level Net - Lines of spirit leveling connected together to form a system of loops or circuits
extending over an area. Also called a vertical control net.
Mean Sea-Level - The average height of the sea for all stages of the tide. Mean sea level at
numerous tide-gauging stations usually forms the basis of a level datum for large areas.
Meridian - A north-south line from which longitudes (or departures) and azimuths are reckoned.
Monument - Any object or collection of objects (physical, natural, artificial) that indicates the
position on the ground of a survey station.
Northing - One of the two values indicating the position of a point on a grid system. The
northing coordinate is abbreviated: N. See: Grid Coordinates.
Offset Line - A supplementary line close to, and usually parallel to a main survey line to which
it is referenced by measured offsets. When the line for which data is desired is in such position
that it is difficult to measure over it, the required data is obtained by running an offset line in a
convenient location and measuring offset from it to salient points on the other line.
Order of Accuracy - A mathematical ratio defining the general accuracy of the measurements
made in a survey. The orders of accuracy for surveys are divided into four classes named:
first-order, second-order, third-order, and fourth-order.
Parallax - A change in the position of the image of an object with respect to the telescope cross
hairs when the observers eye is moved. This can be practically eliminated by careful focusing.
Permanent Bench Mark - A bench mark of as nearly permanent character as it is practicable to
establish. Usually designated bench mark.
Picture Point - In surveying, a terrain feature that is easily defined on an aerial photograph,
and whose horizontal or vertical position has been determined by survey measurements. Picture
points are marked on the aerial photographs by the surveyor and are used by the photomapper.
Plane Coordinates - See: Grid Coordinates.
Plane Survey - A survey in which the effect of the curvature of the earth is almost entirely
neglected, and computations of the relative positions of the stations are made using the principles
of plane geometry and plane trigonometry.
Position - The place occupied by a point on the surface of the earth. Data that defines the
location of a point with respect to a reference system.
67
Precision - The degree of refinement in the performance of an operation, or the degree of

perfection in the instruments and methods used when making measurements. Precision relates
to the quality of the operation by which a result is obtained, and is distinguished from accuracy,
which related to the quality of the result.
Prime Meridian - An initial or zero median from which longitudes are reckoned. At an
international conference in 1884, the Greenwich Meridian was adopted by most countries as the
prime meridian for the earth.
Prime Vertical - A vertical circle perpendicular to the plane of the celestial meridian. The plane
of the prime vertical cuts the horizon in the east and west points.
State Plane Coordinate System - A coordinate system that accounts for grid lengths, sea level
factors, and grid azimuths.
Systematic Errors - An error that, as long as conditions are unchanged, will always have the
same magnitude and the same algebraic sign.
Target - Any object to which the instrument is pointed. A target may be a plumb bob or cord,
a nail in the top of a stake, a taping arrow, a range pole, a pencil, or any other object that will
provide a sharply defined, stationary point or line. A target is usually placed vertically over an
unoccupied transit station.
Tie - A survey connection from a point of known position to a point whose position is desired.
Total Station - An electronic theodolite that provides both angle and distance measurements and
displays them automatically.
Transit Station - A mark over which the instrument is, has been, or will be accurately positioned
for use.
Turning Points Temporary points of know elevation.
Vertical Control - Established benchmarks.
68
Appendix II - Field applications

Converting Inches per Foot to Percent
inch = 2.1%
inch = 4.2%
inch = 6.3%
Figure 49: Ditch and Sideslopes
Pavement area
Paved surfaces: Crossslope should be a minimum of inch per foot of lane width.
Example: What is the crown for a 12foot wide lane?

12 feet x inch/foot = 3 inches
Figure 50: Crown

69
Gravel surfaces: Crossslope should be inch to inch per foot of lane width.
Example: What is the crown for a 12foot wide lane?

12 feet x inch/foot = 6 inches or

12 feet x inch/foot = 9 inches (see Figure XX, page XX)
Sideslopes
1:3 Slope slope drops 1 foot vertically for every 3 feet of horizontal distance.
1:2 Slope slope drops 1 foot vertically for every 2 feet of horizontal distance.
1:1 Slope slope drops 1 foot vertically for every 1 foot of horizontal distance.
Converting to % slope and degrees

Slope
1:1
1:2
1:3
1:4
1:5
1:6
% Slope
100%
50%
33.3%
25%
20%
16.7%
Figure 51: Sideslopes
70
Degrees
45
26.5
18.5
14
11.3
9.5
Centerline profile
The steepness of grade of a road is measured by percent slope. For example, a steep grade would
be 8 percent or more.
% slope = rise/run x 100
Figure 52: Grade of a Road (Profile)
Example 1: A road rises 6 feet over a horizontal length (run) of 100 feet. The slope is 6%.
6 ft
/100 ft x 100 = 6%
Example 2: A road rises 1 feet over a horizontal length (run) of 25 feet. The slope is 6%.
1.5 ft
/25 ft x 100 = 6%
Culverts
Figure 53: Culverts

71
Figure 54: Example of Culvert Position
Q: How much lower is the outlet than the inlet?

S = 2% = 0.02 feet/foot
A: V = H x S = 60 ft x .02 = 1.2 ft
Figure 55: Installing a Culvert at 2% Slope
Note: .01 feet = 1/8 of an inch

Your job is to install a new culvert across a road at a 2% slope.
2% = 2 ft/100 ft = 0.02 ft/1 ft = 0.25 in/1 ft
72
1. What is the vertical drop from point A to B when you install the first 20foot pipe?
0.25 in
/1 f x 20 ft = 5 in
2. What is the vertical drop from A to C?

0.25 in
/40 f x 40 ft = 10 in
3. What is the vertical drop from A to D?

0.25 in
/1 f x 60 ft = 15 in
Figure 56: Installing a Culvert Across a Road
Your job is to install a new culvert across a road. Using a hand level, you figure the elevation
difference between point A and D is 30 inches. Across the culvert, the drop per foot is
30 in
/60 ft = 0.25 in/1 ft
1. What is the vertical drop from point A to B when you install the first 20foot pipe?
0.25 in
/1 f x 20 feet = 10 inches
2. What is the vertical drop from point A to C?

0.25 in
/1 f x 40 feet = 20 inches
Note in drainage book and on stakes, the distance from stakes to centerline.
73
Figure 57: Staking Roadway Culvert
74
Grade stakes
Grade stakes are not only used to set grades but are also used to tie down control points such as
center line stations, inverts of culverts, and other various construction points.
There are four basic parts to grade stakes:
Station
Where the stake is in relation to the base line.
1 + 00
2 + 34
7 + 50.7
Offset distance
Where the stake is in relation to the point that
is being identified.
10 feet right (RT)
25 feet left (LT)
Grade elevation
Cut C 3 feet
Fill F 2 feet
Finish V
Grade identification
Centerline
CB #
INV. culvert
Bottom ditch
Figure 58: Grade Stakes
Figure 59: Examples of Grade Stake Marking

75
Figure 60: Staking Catch Basins and Manholes
76
Figure 61: Locating Ditches and Backslopes
77
For example: If we desire a twofoot difference in elevation from edge of road to bottom of
ditch, we are going down one foot, two times, for a 1:2 slope.
Slope
Change in
elevation
Multiplication
factor
Horizontal distance
1:2
1:3
1:4
2 feet
2x
2 x 2 = 4 feet
2 x 3 = 6 feet
2 x 4 = 8 feet
1:2
1:3
1:4
2.5 feet
2.5 x
2.5 x 2 = 5 feet
2.5 x 3 = 7.5 feet
2.5 x 4 = 10 feet
1:2
1:3
1:4
3 feet
3x
3 x 2 = 6 feet
3 x 3 = 9 feet
3 x 4 = 12 feet
4x
4 x 2 = 8 feet
4 x 3 = 12 feet
4 x 4 = 16 feet
5x
5 x 2 = 10 feet
5 x 3 = 15 feet
5 x 4 = 20 feet
1:2
1:3
1:4
1:2
1:3
1:4
78
4 feet
5 feet
Appendix III - Field Book Notes

A blank form can be found on the following page
79
80
Appendix IV - References
The Civil Engineers Handbook, I.C.S.Archibold DeGroot (ed.), International Textbook Co.
(Pennsylvania, 1949)
Construction Measurements. B. Austin Barry, FSC, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (New York, 1973)
Differential Leveling [Class notes]. University of Memphis Surveying 1101.
http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/surveying/surveying_levling.pdf
Elementary Surveying, Ninth Edition. Paul R. Wolf and Russel C. Brinker, Harper and Row
Publishers (New York, 1989)
Elements of Surveying. TMS232, Department of Army Technical Manual (1964)
Field Practice, Second Edition. Elwyn E. Seelye, John Wiley & Sons (New York, 1961)
Geometric Design. In Introduction to Transportation Engineering, Second Edition. James H.
Banks, MaGraw Hill Higher Education (2001)
Handbook of Survey Notekeeping. F. William Pafford, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company
(Malabar, Florida, 1983)
Highway Construction Surveying. Articlesbase under Creative Commons License: Attribution.
http://www.articlesbase.com/careers-articles/
highway-construction-surveying-1948552.html#ixzz1Il2eBsnF
Highway Engineering, Fourth Edition. Clarkson H. Oglesby and R. Gary Hicks, John Wiley &
Sons (New York, 1954)
Highway Geometry and Driver Performance. In Synthesis Of Human Factors Research on Older
Drivers and Highway Safety, Volume II: Human Factors and Highway Safety Research Synthesis.
Loren Staplin et al, FHWA. http://ntl.bts.gov/DOCS/97095/ch02/ch02_01.html
Horizontal Curves [Class notes ]. Iowa State University, Institute for Transportation, CE353.
http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/educweb/ce353/lec05/lecture.htm
Inspectors Job Guide and Highway Maintenance Tables. Cornell Local Roads Program in
cooperation with Michigans Local Technical Assistance Program (2009)
McKinneys New York Rules of Court - State, Federal District, Federal Bankruptcy, and Local,
2013 ed. (Vols. I-III, New York Court Rules). West Group, Eagan, MN (2013)
The Office of Town Highway Superintendent (AOT). The Association of Towns of the State of
New York (2005)
81
Powers and Duties of Local Highway Officials. James Gelormini, Esq., Cornell Local Roads
Program (2010)
Roadway and Roadside Drainage. David Orr, Cornell Local Roads Program (2003)
South Dakota Construction Survey Specifications.
Stadia Surveying [Class notes]. University of British Columbia Civil Engineering 235.
http://www.civil.ubc.ca/courses/civl235/Course%20Notes%20 %20Student%20Access/09
Civl235 Stadia.pdf
Survey Methods. Baystate Roads Program Tech Note 11, Fall 1996
Surveying Methods for Local Highway Departments. Paul Cooney, P.E., L.S., Cornell Local
Roads Program (2006)
Surveying [Class notes]. S Balasubramanian. Department of Civil Engineering Surveying I,
Einstein College of Engineering. http://www.scribd.com/doc/63716977/4/Chain Survey
Surveying and Measurement [Lecture Notes]. Course in Surveying.
http://sudeshnairs.webs.com/Surveying/5_UELSurveyingMeasurement.pdf
videos
The videos listed below are available on line at YouTube.com. Their use should conform to any
policies of You Tube and may be unavailable in some cases.
Read an Engineers Rule: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hPisflhOvsw&feature=related
Read an engineers rule 2: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qww-YELEmzU
Using an Hand Level: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76OHo7HjoBU
Set Up a Dumpy Level: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L54T4uvpMTg&feature=related
Set up a level: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=czPibdRDDUU&feature=related
Setting over a point with Theodolite: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6AkDchtPreE
Set up a digital theodolite: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BZi0owCSsso&feature=related
Explaining Horizontal Curves: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5P0W9spnPZ8
Measuring and Distance (PARTS ONLY !):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BapoW7wY0yc&feature=endscreen&NR=1
Appendix V - Some Common Hand

Signals
1. All Right!(or wave

two hands overhead)
2. Move right (or left) speed

of hand indicates distance
3. Give me a Backsight
4. Put me online
5. Plumb the rod left (or right)

6. Establish a Turning Point
83
7. This IS a Turning Point

8. Wave the Rod
9. Face the Rod

10. Reverse the Rod
11. Raise the Rod

12. Move Forward
84
Appendix V - Some Common Hand Signals
13. Move Back

14. Up or Down
15. Pick up the Instrument

16. Come In
85

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CLRP No. 12-04

Kevin Wilder, Circuit Rider/Instructor, Watertown

Paul Male, P.E., P.L.S. Circuit Rider/Instructor, Saratoga Springs

Randy Ensign, Superintendent of Highways, Town of Marathon

Martin Roberts, Superintendent of Highways, Town of Reading

Larry Wagner, Commissioner of Public Works, Town of Big Flats

Joe Slatter, Engineer Technician, Town of Ithaca

Cornell Local Roads Program

Appendix III - Field Book Notes................................................................................................. 79

List of Figures & Tables

Figure 33: Stockpile..................................................................................................................45

Under Creative Commons License: Attribution

Cornell Local Roads Program

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In plane surveying, basic assumptions are:

Cornell Local Roads Program

Figure 3: Mercator Projection of the Earth

Types of Surveys in Highway Projects

Cornell Local Roads Program

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Cornell Local Roads Program

2 - Surveying Location Control

Figure 4: Right of Way Plan

Cornell Local Roads Program

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FIELD LAYOUT FOR CR 3 from NY - 26 to Sta 56+00

38 39.7 Sta 27+00

Sta 5+50 School

Figure 5: Table of Ground Control Locations

Cornell Local Roads Program

3 - Vertical and Horizontal

Figure 6: Precast Bridge

Figure 7: Pipe Installation

Tapes, Tripods and Transits

Cornell Local Roads Program

3 - Vertical and Horizontal Command and Control

a) Bronze Disk in Concrete Foundation

b) Chiselled Corner of Concrete Headblock

c) Railroad Spike in Utility Pole

Cornell Local Roads Program

Tapes, Tripods and Transits

Figure 9: Example Benchmark List

Cornell Local Roads Program

3 - Vertical and Horizontal Command and Control

Figure 10: Theodolite

Cornell Local Roads Program

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Figure 12: Vertical Alignment

Cornell Local Roads Program

3 - Vertical and Horizontal Command and Control

Minimum Stopping Sight

Cornell Local Roads Program

4 - Basic Surveying Techniques

Cornell Local Roads Program

Tapes, Tripods and Transits

Figure 13: Survey Rods and Rules

Top to bottom: Engineers Rule; Surveying Tape; Surveying Rod

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4- Basic Surveying Techniques

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Other Basic Equipment