Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670 690

www.elsevier.com/locate/epsl

Cretaceous alkaline intra-plate magmatism in the Ecuadorian

Oriente Basin: Geochemical, geochronological and
tectonic evidence
Roberto Barragana,*, Patrice Babya, Robert Duncanb
a

Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement (ex-ORSTOM), Unite de Recherche 104, Universite Paul Sabatier, Toulouse III,
38 rue des Trente-Six Ponts, 31400 Toulouse, France
b
College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Or 97331, USA
Received 27 September 2004; received in revised form 15 March 2005; accepted 31 March 2005
Editor: E. Bard

Abstract
Small volumes of Cretaceous alkaline basaltic magmas have been identified in the sedimentary infill of the Ecuadorian Oriente
foreland basin. They are characterized by a restricted range of compositional variation, low LILE/HFSE ratios and SrNd isotope
values within the range of oceanic island basalts (OIB). Reflection seismic data show that a pre-existing NNESSW Triassic and
Jurassic rift controls the location and occurrence of these alkaline eruptive sites. Radiometric ages (40Ar39Ar, incremental heating
method) and the biostratigraphic record of their surrounding sediments indicate a NNESSW systematic age variation for the
emplacement of this alkaline volcanism: from Albian (110 F 5.2 Ma) in the northern part of the Oriente Basin, to Campanian
(82.2 F 2.0 Ma) in the west-central part. The geochemical, geochronological and tectonic evidences suggest that asthenospheric
mantle has upwelled and migrated to the SSW, into the region underlying the pre-existing Triassic and Jurassic rift (thin-spot?).
We propose that subduction was abandoned, subsequent to the accretion of allochthonous terranes onto the Ecuadorian and
Colombian margin in the latest Jurassicearliest Cretaceous, causing the relict slab material, corresponding to the eastwardsdirected leading plate, to roll-back. Unmodified asthenospheric mantle migrated into the region previously occupied by the slab.
This resulted in partial melting and the release of magmatic material to the surface in the northern part of the Oriente Basin since
at least Aptian times. Then, magmatism migrated along the SSW-trending Central Wrench Corridor of the Oriente Basin during
the Upper Cretaceous, probably as a consequence of the lateral propagation of the transpressive inversion of the Triassic
Jurassic rift. Eventually, the Late Cretaceous east-dipping Andean subduction system was renewed farther west, and the
development of the compressional retro-foreland Oriente Basin system halted the Cretaceous alkaline magmatic activity.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Northern Andes; Ecuador; Oriente Basin; alkaline magmatism; Cretaceous; roll-back; transpressive inversion

* Corresponding author. OXY Ecuador, Ave. Naciones Unidas E7-95 y Shyris, Edificio Banco del Pacfico, Quito-Ecuador. Tel.: +593 2 299
3700; fax: +593 2 299 3701.
E-mail address: roberto_barragan@oxy.com (R. Barragan).
0012-821X/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.03.016

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

671

basin between 258 S and 08 [13]); (c) development of

slab windows associated with the ending of subduction processes along active continental margins following ridge cresttrench collision [1719] (e.g., Baja
California [4]; Southern Patagonia [57]; Antarctic
Peninsula [8 9]; British Columbia [10]); and (d) a
combination of slab roll-back associated with lateral
and vertical asthenospheric migration into the locus
of a pre-existing area of lithospheric thinning or
bthin-spotsQ (e.g., The Antarctic James Ross Islands
[11]).
Here we present evidence of active intra-plate alkaline magmatism from the Oriente Basin of Ecuador
associated with the evolution of the northwestern
margin of the South American plate during Cretaceous

1. Introduction
Intra-continental plate alkaline magmatism is
reported from numerous locations in Mesozoic and
Cenozoic strata along the Pacific margin of the
Americas and the Antarctic Peninsula [111]. Different models, each related to a tectonic setting, have
been proposed to explain the generation and occurrence of alkaline magma. Possible mechanisms
include: (a) mantle plumes with abnormally high
asthenospheric temperatures beneath continental
crust [1214] (e.g., Columbia River Basalts in the
NW United States [15]); (b) upwelling and decompressional melting due to lithospheric extension [16]
and rift propagation (e.g., Andean Jurassic back-arc

77 00' W

PUTUMAYO BASIN
(COLOMBIA)
TAPI

CAYAMBE

0o 00'

REVENTADOR

NAPO
UPLIFT
VISTA
ANTISANA

LAGUNA

SUMACO

AUCA
PUNGARAYACU JAGUAR
YURALPA
DAYUNO

PASTAZA
DEPRESSION
SUB-ANDEAN FORELAND BASIN

Quito

ECUADOR

ORIENTE
BASIN

GUAYANA
SHIELD

PUTUMAYO
BASIN

ORIENTE BASIN
(ECUADOR)
CUTUCU
UPLIFT

MARAON BASIN
(PERU)

Guayaquil

MARAON
BASIN

100 Km

Talara

Real Cordillera

Eastern Inverted System

Subandean System

Cretaceous Igneous Bodies

Central Corridor

Active volcanoes

Fig. 1. Regional location map. Synthetic tectonic map of the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin (modified from [20]).

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY

LITHOLOGY

50

CHALCANA
continental
ORTEGUAZA
shallow marine
UP. TIYUYACU
continental

EOCENE

LOW.TIYUYACU TRANSPRESSION
continental
PALEOCENE

60

UP. TENA
continental
LOW. TENA
continental

70
80

LATE

90

100
106 5
(40Ar/40K)

110

Basal Tena

v
v

TRANSPRESSIVE
INVERSION

UP. NAPO

82.2 2.0
(40Ar/39Ar)
91.2 4.6
(40Ar/39K)

Foreland
Isostatic
Rebound

FORELAND MEGASEQUENCE

40

MIOCENE

OLIGOCENE

30

TECTONIC EVENT

shallow marine

Initiation of Foreland

v
v

LOW. NAPO
shallow marine

CRATONIC BASIN

v
v

HOLLIN
shallow marine
continental

v
v

PRE-OROGENIC
MEGASEQUENCE

20

NEOGENE

10

ROCK UNIT
PALEOENVIRONMENT

MERA-MESA continental
CHAMBIRA/CURARAY
continental/shall marine
ARAJUNO continental

PLIOCENE

PALEOGENE

times. The Oriente Basin is part of the Amazonian

retro-foreland basin system of the present-day northern Andes (Fig. 1). The magmatism reported here
developed during deposition of a Mesozoic sedimentary series that was deposited within relatively stable
shallow marine conditions, corresponding to the
Aptian to Campanian, Holln and Napo formations
[21,22]. Furthermore, the geographic distribution of
this alkalic igneous activity is largely confined to a
major transpressive NNESSW corridor, in the central
part of the Oriente Basin, which formed by tectonic
inversion of an upper Triassiclower Jurassic rift,
starting in the Late Cretaceous [20].
This paper presents geochemical, geochronological
and tectonic data aimed at understanding the origin
and evolution of this intra-plate magmatic activity. The
focus is not only on the origin of this small volume,
mafic igneous province, here termed bOriente Basin
Basaltic volcanismQ (OBB), but also on its relationship with the geodynamic evolution of north-western
South America.

CRETACEOUS

672

EARLY

MIDDLE-UPPER
JURASSIC

v v v v
v v
v
v v
v
v

175

The Ecuadorian Oriente Basin [23] forms part of

the large present-day MaranonOrientePutumayo
foreland system [24], developed between the PreCambrian BrazilianGuyana basement shields to the
East, and the Andean Cordillera to the West (Fig. 1).
The Oriente Basin preserves a sedimentary infill, ranging in age from Paleozoic to Quaternary, overlying a
Precambrian cratonic basement [2225]. The stratigraphic column (Fig. 2) can be divided into a preCretaceous series [1], which is unconformably overlain by a continental to shallow marine Cretaceous
sedimentary cycle [22] and by a Cenozoic foreland
molassic and shallow marine cover [28].
The pre-Cretaceous series comprises Paleozoic
marine sediments, Triassic and Lower Jurassic marine
to continental rift deposits, and Late Jurassic back-arc
volcanoclastic sediments [1,23]. The tectonic setting
was dominated by Late TriassicLower Jurassic rifting [26], induced by the EW trending Tethyan system [29], followed by an Upper Jurassic back-arc
extensional regime initiated by the onset of Andean
subduction [1] and associated activity of the continental MisahualliColan volcanic arc [30]. At c 140

228

LOWER
JURASSIC
TO
UPPER
TRIASSIC

v
v
v
v

v
v

PA
L
B A EO
ZO
SE
I
M
EN C
T

130

2. Geological setting

MISAHUALLI /
CHAPIZA
volcanoclastic
continental
SANTIAGO
coastal plain
to shallow
marine
platform

BACK-ARC
EXTENSION
SUBDUCTION
ONSET

PRE-CRETACEOUS
MEGASEQUENCE

120

RIFTING

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column for the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin,

indicating major tectonic and magmatic events (modified from
[26,27]).

120 Ma [31], a major change in the geological

setting of the Oriente Basin occurred, with subduction and active arc magmatism ceasing, interpreted
as the result of the accretion of allochthonous terranes onto the Ecuadorian and Colombian margin
[29,3134].
After a major sedimentary hiatus (c 120110
Ma [21]), the Cretaceous sedimentary series was
deposited. It comprises fluvial to shallow marine
Aptian to Campanian deposits of the Holln and
Napo Formations [21,22,25,35,36]. The Holln-Napo
megasequence is characterized by cyclic sequences
of limestones, shales and sandstones. Its deposition
and distribution on a stable platform along a NWSE
depocentre were controlled by worldwide eustatic sea
level fluctuations during Cretaceous times [22,27].

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

sional systems, inherited from the NNESSW paleorift structures [26], have been tectonically inverted
along three major oblique NNESSW right-lateral
transpressive wrench-fault zones (Fig. 1), which
have deformed the foreland basin system since the
Late Cretaceous [20]. From west to east, these tectonic
domains are: (i) the northern Sub-Andean system
(Napo Uplift), formed by an echelon NNWSSE
positive flower structure, which was mainly active
during the Pliocene and Quaternary, but currently
still exhibits strong seismic and volcanic activity; (ii)
the Central Corridor, developed in Late Cretaceous

Finally, the Late CretaceousCenozoic sedimentary

series was deposited after a major sedimentary hiatus
at the base of the Maastrichtianlower Paleocene
sandstones and red beds of the Tena Formation, an
erosive event that may reflect the accretion of the
allochthonous Pallatanga, Macuchi Terranes and
coastal Pinon block [31,3740]. This Late CretaceousCenozoic cover represents the detrital section
associated with the development of the true Andean
foreland system [28].
Structurally, the Oriente Basin is characterized by
overprinted structures [41]. Pre-Cretaceous exten-

78

673

77

76

COLOMBIA

1105 Ma(a)

1065 Ma(a)

ANDEA

RIO AGUARICO

102.42.4 Ma(b)

Laguna

Jivino

Puma
Pungarayacu

Oso

RIO

NAP

RIO N

APO

93.3.4 Ma(b)

91.24.6 Ma(a)
Cononaco

Yuralpa

82.22 Ma(b)

Auca

Jaguar

Waponi

Shushufindi

Vista

N COR

DILLER

Tapi

Armadillo
Ginta

933.4 Ma(b)
Dayuno

842 Ma(b)
EXTRUSIVE EVENTS
basaltic tuff cones

Villano-1

INTRUSIVE EVENTS
gabbroic sills
Oil Wells
Sample Sites
2
RI

Central Corridor
(Pre-existing Triassic-Lower
Jurassic rift structural limits)

PA

Radiometric ages from

unpublished sources
ST

AZ

main wrench zones

Jaguar Seismic Section
(Fig. 4)
0

10 20 30 40 50
KILOMETERS

Fig. 3. Geographic distribution and location of Cretaceous extrusive and intrusive events along the Oriente Basin. Geochemically and
radiometrically analyzed sample sites are shown. Samples level with panel (b) are 40Ar39Ar and with panel (a) are 40Ar40K.

674

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

Fig. 4. Reflection seismic sections showing the emplacement of extrusive magmatic rocks facies in the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin during
deposition of the Campanian upper Napo Formation. Interpretation is based on well and seismic data correlations. Reflection seismic data show
the structural control of pre-existing extensional features on the emplacement of alkaline eruptive sites: (a) Jaguar extrusive structure (tuff cone).
(b) Puma structure (tuff cones). See Fig. 3 for the location of seismic profiles.

Extrusive events
Area (*)
NNE Tapi
Vista
Jivino
Laguna
IndillanaItaya
Auca
Armadillo
Cononaco
Puma
Jaguar
Pungarayacu
Waponi
M Yuralpa
WSW Dayuno

Intrusive events

Basaltic
Thickness Stratigraphic
glassy tuffs (m) (**) record
200250
180200

Biostratigraphic
age

Middle Albian
Hollin Fm
Upper HollinBasal Napo Middle Albian

30
1580
4080
5070
30
90135
10

LowerNapo
LowerNapo
Upper Napo Fm
Upper Napo Fm
Upper Napo Fm
Upper Napo Fm
Upper Napo Fm
Upper Napo Fm

Upper Alblower Cenom.

Upper Alblower Cenom.
TuronianSantonian
TuronianSantonian
TuronianSantonian
ConiacianSantonian
ConiacianSantonian
SantonianCampanian

80
70

Upper Napo Fm
Upper Napo Fm

SantonianCampanian
SantonianCampanian

Basaltic Gabbroic. Thickness

dikes
sills
(m) (**)

Radiometric
age (Ma)
110.2 5.2
106 5
102.4 2.4
92 3.9

12
12
125
5060
20
0.11

93.1 0.7; 91.2 4.6

50
150
5190
50

93.0 3.4
82.2 2.0
84 2

Radiometric
method
40

Ar/40K (***)
Ar/40K (***)

40
40

Ar/39Ar

40

Ar/40K (***)

40

Ar/39Ar;40Ar/40K (***)

40

Ar/39Ar
Ar/39Ar
40
Ar/39Ar (***)
40

Biostratigraphic information based on [21,22]. New 40Ar39Ar data are shown in Tables 3a and 3b. Bold ages in the right column indicate 40Ar39Ar plateau ages determined in this
study.
(*) Related to exploratory oil wells along the Oriente Basin of Ecuador (source: Petroproduccion-Geolab).
(**) Apparent thickness defined from well log analysis and the associated seismic section.
(***) Unpublished radiometric age data (source: Petroproduccion Library facilities). Age determinations on whole rock samples were performed by request of Texaco Petroleum
Company at the Geochron Laboratories Division, Krueger Enterprises, Inc.

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

Table 1
Summary of the extrusive and intrusive events recognized within the Cretaceous section of the Oriente Basin and found at different exploratory oil wells

675

676

SiO2 (wt.%)
Al2O3
TiO2
FeO
MnO
CaO
MgO
K2O
Na2O
P2O5
LOI
Total
Ni (ppm)
Cr
Sc
V
Rb
Sr
Ba
Nb
Zr
Y

Jivino-1
DJGJ1

Auca-16
DJGA16

Auca-23 Auca-20 Pungarayacu-9 Pungarayacu-16 Pungarayacu-39 Yuralpa-1 Waponi-1 Yuralpa-2 Pungarayacu-10 Yur
Dayuno-1
DJGA23 A FLD DJGP9
P9BX16
P9BX39
DJGY1
RBTW1 RBTY2 PUNGA
Centro-1 ONI 2
AL C1

45.62
11.28
3.03
11.52
0.17
11.86
10.30
1.27
2.62
0.58
4.19
102.44
258.00
317.00
24.00
264.00
26.00
662.00
518.00
60.50
194.00
25.00

43.02
12.58
3.05
13.02
0.11
10.31
8.01
1.91
2.42
0.79
8.75
103.96
58.00
277.00
22.50
276.00
38.00
1008.00
697.00
84.00
246.00
26.00

43.47
9.51
2.61
11.48
0.13
11.81
13.63
0.77
1.85
0.73
7.12
103.11
344.00
482.00
21.20
250.00
16.00
460.00
380.00
60.00
187.00
23.00

43.25
12.33
3.06
14.12
0.12
10.31
8.24
1.90
2.19
0.82
8.88
105.22
75.00
304.00
21.70
266.00
35.53
916.66
605.38
73.76
223.17
26.10

42.31
10.85
3.15
11.97
0.19
12.22
12.37
1.17
3.13
0.84
2.48
100.68
234.00
314.00
28.00
297.00
14.00
782.00
559.00
81.00
233.00
26.00

42.04
10.31
2.89
11.85
0.18
11.78
14.56
1.20
2.98
0.78
1.77
100.35
409.26
550.30
24.90
242.33
16.53
873.67
478.02
76.29
207.95
24.87

41.83
10.91
3.11
13.17
0.20
11.80
12.54
1.54
2.64
0.83
1.95
100.52
264.66
348.78
27.20
263.82
21.59
740.36
507.61
79.11
219.38
26.79

46.29
9.53
2.54
12.43
0.18
11.10
15.86
1.09
2.57
0.44
0.46
102.49
404.00
535.00
32.50
246.00
17.00
383.00
301.00
93.28
168.00
32.41

41.69
9.22
3.74
12.42
0.20
11.82
15.47
0.23
2.14
0.97
5.93
103.83
329.00
520.00
30.60
286.00
6.43
726.12
621.77
100.04
290.15
29.90

46.22
12.76
3.29
11.38
0.16
10.69
9.27
1.61
2.85
0.70
2.32
101.26
178.00
256.00
23.90
264.00
29.13
740.55
460.91
62.71
252.50
28.28

43.01
10.75
3.06
12.52
0.18
12.48
12.84
0.96
2.77
0.82
3.70
103.09
323.00
410.00
19.00
272.00
12.16
860.44
514.21
73.78
209.41
24.85

45.23
9.14
2.45
12.25
0.18
11.07
15.54
1.08
2.56
0.47
0.65
100.60
404.00
557.00
24.10
225.00
19.01
519.80
317.22
40.04
150.74
18.92

41.70
9.42
3.73
12.88
0.21
12.37
14.41
0.23
2.66
0.97
4.33
102.90
334.00
524.00
22.60
279.00
4.73
706.27
601.66
99.44
281.61
26.31

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

Table 2
Representative analyses of major and trace elements by XRF. REE, Th, Ta, Hf, Sc, U and Cs were analyzed by ICP-MS

36.93
70.41
34.85
8.16
2.73
7.61
5.90
1.04
2.34
0.31

47.57
88.99
41.64
9.65
3.11
8.12
6.12
1.06
2.43
0.31

40.77
77.11
38.49
8.60
2.81
7.49
5.57
0.95
2.15
0.27

1.73
0.25
4.73
3.55
2.29
8.33
3.57
1.10
66.00
0.70519
0.70503
0.51282
0.51272

1.70
1.49
0.24
0.22
5.34
4.61
4.50
3.47
3.78
5.59
10.21
9.11
4.87
3.81
1.57
1.21
57.00
72.00
0.70442
0.70428
0.51284
0.51275

48.49
90.03
42.78
9.81
3.16
8.49
6.12
1.05
2.45
0.30
1.18
1.69
0.24
5.30
4.38
4.49
10.32
5.59
1.58
56.00

47.08
89.20
43.39
9.67
3.20
8.55
6.36
1.06
2.43
0.30
1.69
0.23
5.52
4.86
3.46
10.44
4.81
1.64
69.00

45.91
84.47
40.22
9.24
2.97
8.20
5.84
0.98
2.20
0.27
1.12
1.47
0.21
4.95
4.60
2.45
9.62
5.71
1.62
72.50

47.51
88.16
42.28
9.76
3.12
8.60
6.23
1.05
2.32
0.29
1.19
1.56
0.22
5.23
4.75
4.59
10.04
5.89
1.71
67.00

57.51
107.03
52.46
12.25
3.97
10.53
7.69
1.32
2.84
0.34
1.49
1.83
0.25
6.92
5.82
2.23
12.51
7.10
1.58
74.00
0.70355
0.70345
0.51282
0.51274

57.13
107.72
51.50
11.62
3.61
9.98
6.89
1.16
2.64
0.33
1.36
1.76
0.25
6.84
6.46
4.06
12.31
7.65
2.19
73.00

41.61
79.56
38.99
9.22
2.99
8.27
6.28
1.09
2.57
0.33
1.19
1.83
0.27
6.11
3.91
4.04
9.19
5.64
1.51
64.00

46.95
86.61
41.32
9.52
3.04
8.45
5.98
1.01
2.29
0.28
1.16
1.53
0.21
5.22
4.55
4.94
9.91
5.40
1.55
69.00

26.60
51.32
26.77
6.69
2.20
6.07
4.52
0.77
1.76
0.22
0.85
1.21
0.17
3.99
2.58
2.78
6.15
2.89
0.82
73.00

57.26
107.15
51.70
11.49
3.62
9.66
6.42
1.05
2.37
0.29
1.26
1.53
0.21
7.02
6.46
3.77
12.39
6.65
1.92
71.00

Representative samples of diabasic dikes and gabbroic sills come from well cores and cuttings (see Fig. 3 for location). The Mg number was calculated assuming FeO/Fe2O3 = 0.33.
FeO* is total iron as FeO. Sr and Nd isotopic ratios of three samples were calculated using international standards [43]. 87 Sr/86 Sr (i) and 143 Nd/144 Nd (i) are age corrected isotopic
data for approximately 100 Ma.

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

La
Ce
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Tb
Yb
Lu
Hf
Ta
Pb
Pr
Th
U
Mg/Mg + Fe
87
Sr/86Sr
87
Sr/86Sr (i)
143
Nd/144Nd
143
Nd/144Nd (i)

677

678

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

and Cenozoic times, resulting from the inversion of

the NNESSW Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic rift,
which emerges and crops out in the Southern SubAndean foothills [26]; (iii) the Eastern Inverted System, generated by the inversion of Upper Jurassic half
grabens, which developed along the eastern border of
the Oriente Basin [20].

3. Characteristics and regional distribution of the

Oriente Basin basaltic volcanism (OBB)
The regional distribution of the Cretaceous extrusive and intrusive bodies recognized within the Hollin-Napo sedimentary infill of the Ecuadorian Oriente
Basin is shown in Fig. 3. Although the volume of
eruptive products is relatively small, the OBB is a
NNE-trending system made up of at least 30 isolated
eruptive centers. They comprise tuff cones or monogenetic volcanic fields mainly characterized mostly by
hyaloclastites, the largest being only 200250 m thick
and covering an area of 23 km2 (e.g., Fig. 4Jaguar
and Puma areas, see also Fig. 3 for location). In
addition, several basaltic dykes, 110 m wide, and
at least four major shallow intrusive fine-grained gabbroic to diabasic sills have been identified, the largest
being 80200 m thick and covering an area of 1520
Km2 (e.g., YuralpaDayuno and Laguna areas, see
Fig. 3 for location).
The extrusive facies are mainly characterized by
tuff cones and tuff rings interpreted on several seismic
cross sections (Fig. 4) and corroborated by several
drill core samples, well logs and outcrops (Table 1,
see Fig. 3 for sample locations). Volcanoclastic components of the volcanic piles consist of stratified, thinbedded, basaltic tuff units of well-to-poorly-sorted
fine ash. The fragments consist mainly of hypocrystalline basalt (hyaloclastites). Accretionary lapilli are
also very common, indicative of sub-aqueous depositional conditions. Much of the basaltic glass is altered
to palagonite. The volcanoclastic deposits which are
mainly altered tuffs and palagonitized hyaloclastites,
recognized at different locations within the shallow
marine Cretaceous section [21,22], suggest that the
Cretaceous extrusive bodies in the Oriente Basin
resulted from hydrovolcanic eruptions with a characteristic Surtseyan eruptive style [42]. No basaltic lavas
have been identified.

The time-equivalent intrusive igneous bodies are

characterized by alkalic fine-grained gabbroic to diabasic sills and basaltic dykes, identified at different
locations from well-preserved cores and cutting samples (Table 1, see Fig. 3 for location). They were
emplaced stratigraphically at various horizons within
the Cretaceous sedimentary series. Despite the variable emplacement, there remains a strong compositional and mineralogical uniformity among the
gabbroic to diabasic sills and dikes. Petrographically,
the alkaline sills show a fine-grained phaneritic texture, and are primarily composed of ophitically intergrown olivine, labradorite and augite phenocrysts.
The diabase dykes typically contain olivine as the
dominant phenocryst phase with subordinate labradorite and clinopyroxene. The intergranular groundmass
contains plagioclase microlites and granules of clinopyroxene, olivine and magnetite.

4. Analytical procedures
The abundance of major and trace elements in the
alkaline magmas from the Cretaceous Oriente Basin
was determined from 12, well-preserved, core samples
(Table 2). The samples are dykes or shallow intrusive
sills that microscopically do not show significant
alteration to palagonite, if any.
A relatively high LOI of some samples, with values
of up to 8 wt.%, appears to demonstrate a certain
degree of alteration. Nonetheless, based on the Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW [44]), the Chemical
Index of Alteration (CIA [45]), and certain elemental
ratios such as Th/Ta, La/Ta, La/Nb or Ba/Zr besides
many others, lead to the conclusion that even samples
with high LOI do not shift out of the general scheme
demonstrated by samples with usually low LOI which
are considered to be fresh or unaltered of the same
sample set. In particular, CIW values of 2837 and
CIA values of 2736, fall within known fields of
unaltered Mesozoic Basalts [46].
Fig. 3 shows the location of these samples and their
characteristics are listed in Table 1. The distribution of
the OBB was determined by reflection seismic sections provided by the Ecuadorian National Oil Company (Petroproduccion). However, the thick overlying
Cenozoic section severely limits the amount of Cretaceous sedimentary outcrops in the Oriente Basin,

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

K/Ca

A)

679

Jivino-1 whole rock

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0040

240
210

102.41 2.37 Ma

150

36Ar / 40Ar

Age (Ma)

180
120
90
60

0.0020
0.0010

MSWD = 0.18

MSWD = 1.93

30

0.0000

0
0

B)

101.70 2.41 Ma

0.0030

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

0.000

90 100

0.008

0.016

0.024

0.032

WAPONI-1 whole rock

K/Ca

0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.0040

160
140

36Ar / 40Ar

Age (Ma)

120
100
80

93.02 3.42 Ma

60
40
20

MSWD = 0.50

10

20

30

40

50 60

70

80

90 100

0.008

0.016

0.024

0.032

Yuralpa-1 whole rock

2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
160

0.0040

140
120

0.0030

36Ar / 40Ar

K/Ca
Age (Ma)

0.0010
0.0000
0.000

C)

0.0020

MSWD = 0.94
0

91.44 3.87 Ma

0.0030

100
80
60

82.15 1.99 Ma

40

0.0010

MSWD = 7.03

20

81.47 2.60 Ma

0.0020

MSWD = 0.00
0.0000

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Cumulative 39Ar Released (%)

90 100

0.000

0.010

0.020

0.030

0.040

39Ar / 40Ar

Fig. 5. Representative age and K/Ca spectra (left) and inverse isochron (right) plots for 40Ar39Ar incremental heating experiments, performed at
Oregon State University on diabasic dikes (Waponi-1 and Jivino-1) and a gabbroic sill (Yuralpa-1) in drilled, whole rock, core samples of the
OBB. The vertical range of horizontal boxes indicates the estimated analytical error (F 2j) for each step age. A plateau age (indicated) has been
determined from the weighted mean of contiguous, concordant step-ages. The 36Ar/40Ar vs. 39Ar/40Ar isotope correlation diagrams are
constructed from the step Ar-compositions measured. The isochron age (indicated) is calculated from the best-fitting line through collinear step
compositions. Tables 3a and 3b present full isotopic data for the new 40Ar/39Ar plateau and isochron ages from the Oriente Basin Basaltic
Volcanism (OBB). Analytical procedures are described in [47,50].

680

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

addition, the 87Sr/86Sr (i) and 143Nd/144Nd (i)

values (Table 2) are age corrected isotopic data for
approximately 100 Ma.
40
Ar/39Ar incremental heating experiments were
performed for five drill core gabbroic to diabasic
samples from the Oriente Basin (Figs. 3 and 5; Tables
3a and 3b). Age determinations on whole rock samples were performed at Oregon State University using
standard 40Ar39Ar incremental heating techniques
[47]. Because of the aphyric nature of the samples,
no preparation other than coring, cutting and washing
~ 100 mg mini-disks of rock from hand specimens
was performed prior to neutron irradiation in the OSU
TRIGA reactor for 6 h at 1 MW power. Individual
ages for each 40Ar39Ar temperature step were calculated (using the ArArCALC software, [48]) after correction for background, mass discrimination, isotopic
interference and atmospheric argon content. All ages
are calibrated to the FCT-3 biotite standard (28.04 Ma,
[49]) and uncertainties are 2 S.D., based on errors in
both peak height fitting and the interpolation of neutron fluence measurements ( J-values). Age spectra

concealing the true amount of magmatism generated

during the OBB igneous event.
Major-elements and Ni, Cr, Sc, V, Ba, Rb, Sr,
Zr, Y and Nb were analyzed by XRF procedures in
the Geoanalytical Laboratory at Washington State
University (Johnson et al., pers. comm., 1998).
The precision of the data and sample heterogeneity
were tested by multiple analyses of a single specimen. Major-element precision is b 2% of the absolute abundance; trace-element precision is b 5%
except for Nb and Rb, which are 10% in low-abundance samples. Rare-earth elements (REE) were analyzed by standard Inductive by Coupled Plasma Mass
Spectrometry (ICP-MS) techniques, at Washington
State University. In addition, Sr and Nd isotopic
data, listed in Table 2, were determined at Cornell
University using a VG Sector Mass Spectrometry.
They were calculated using the NBS 987 Sr-isotope
standard (Mean: 0.7102452 F 0.000023; 2j S.D.:
2.30391E-05) and the Ames Nd-standard (Mean:
0.51213433 F 0.000008; 2j S.D.: 8.3267 E-06).
Further procedural details can be found in [43]. In

Table 3a
40
Ar39Ar incremental heating results for sills from the Oriente Basin (Ecuador)
36

Sample, material

Heating step
(8C)

Yuralpa-1, whole rock

( J = 0.001651)

550
0.00035
750
0.00121
950
0.00100
1150
0.00011
1250
0.00001
1300
0.00007
Weighted plateau age (steps
550
0.00783
750
0.00209
950
0.00315
1150
0.00055
1250
0.00031
1300
0.00016
1400
0.00026
Weighted plateau age (steps
550
0.00044
750
0.00167
950
0.00270
1150
0.00007
1250
0.00014
1300
0.00021
Weighted plateau age (steps

Waponi-1, whole rock

( J = 0.001440)

Jivino-1, whole rock

( J = 0.001534)

37

Ar

37

Ar

39

Ar

40
Ar
(r)

0.02881
0.07585
2.08924
0.95230
0.17775
5.18536
0.05468
0.21133
6.08387
0.07595
0.18560
5.21339
0.98607
0.16004
4.50298
0.57876
0.01561
0.30627
25): 82.15 F 1.99 MSWD: 7.03
0.02832
0.00501
0.20698
0.01204
0.00820
0.29889
0.01639
0.00862
0.34621
0.01382
0.00589
0.21375
0.04887
0.00673
0.24391
0.14883
0.00534
0.19296
0.65012
0.00769
0.27829
17): 93.02 F 3.42 MSWD: 0.94
0.03429
0.01956
0.79728
0.10707
0.09928
3.80170
0.14306
0.18253
6.97685
0.08652
0.15655
5.90993
0.12646
0.11576
4.39505
0.96509
0.08736
5.33395
25): 102.41F2.37 MSWD: 1.93

Age F 2s
(Ma)

%40
Ar (r)

%39
Ar

K/Ca

80.23 F 1.16
84.86 F 2.11
83.77 F 0.93
81.78 F 1.12
81.92 F 0.33
57.50 F 6.79

95.3
93.5
95.3
99.3
99.9
93.6

9.2
21.5
25.6
22.5
19.4
1.9

1.132
0.803
1.662
1.051
0.070
0.012

104.22 F 19.59
92.33 F 5.96
101.41 F 8.75
91.84 F 8.09
91.77 F 6.42
91.56 F 8.03
91.70 F 5.29

8.2
32.7
27.1
56.6
72.4
80.7
78.3

10.6
17.3
18.2
12.4
14.2
11.2
16.2

0.076
0.293
0.226
0.183
0.059
0.015
0.005

109.42 F 5.52
102.98 F 0.85
102.79 F 1.05
101.56 F 0.94
102.12 F 1.21
161.51 F1.74

86.0
88.5
89.7
99.7
99.0
98.9

3.0
15.0
27.6
23.7
17.5
13.2

0.245
0.399
0.549
0.778
0.394
0.039

Ar has been corrected for decay since irradiation. K/Ca ratios are determined from measured

39

Ar/ 37 Ar.

40

Ar (r) is radiogenic

40

Ar.

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

681

Table 3b
Summary of radiometric dating results for five samples from the Oriente Basin basalts
Sample, material

Total
2j
Plateau
fusion age error age
(Ma)
(Ma)

Auca-16, whole rock 165.63

3.64

Pungarayacu,
231.7
whole rock
Yuralpa-1, whole rock 82.38
Waponi-1, whole rock 94.91
Jivino-1, whole rock
110.48

4.98
1.93
3.96
2.50

2j
N
error

None
developed
None
developed
82.15
1.99
93.02
3.42
102.41
2.37

MSWD Isochron
age
(Ma)

4/6 7.03
7/7 0.94
4/6 1.93

(age vs. % 39Ar released) and 36Ar/40Ar vs. 39Ar/40Ar

isotope correlation (isochron) diagrams are shown in
Fig. 5. Plateau ages were calculated where appropriate, using the procedure described in [47,50].
Two samples produced ideal gas release patterns,
from which reliable crystallization ages can be calculated. The Jivino-1 sample exhibits a 4-step plateau
with a weighted (by 1/variance) mean age of
102.4 F 2.4 Ma. The corresponding isochron age is
concordant, at 101.5 F 2.4 Ma and yields a 40Ar/36Ar
intercept (329 F 29) very close to the atmospheric
value (296). The statistical measure of significance,
MSWD or mean square of weighted deviations, is
appropriately low (below the ~ 2.5 critical value)
that the plateau age can be accepted as a reliable
estimate of the crystallization age. Similarly, a 7-step
plateau age of 93.0 F 3.4 Ma for the Waponi-1 sample
passes all tests of reliability as a crystallization age.
The Yuralpa-1 sample produced a pattern that approximates a plateau at 82.2 F 2.0 Ma, but with a slightly
decreasing age with increasing temperature trend that
reflects 39Ar recoil within the sample during irradiation. In this case, the MSWD is larger than the critical
value, indicating dispersion of the step ages beyond
that expected from the step age errors. Because the
near-concordant trend in the central four step ages
accounts for 89% of the total gas released, the calculated age is probably close to the crystallization age;
however, we cannot discount some Ar-loss. Reliable
crystallization ages were determined despite significant groundmass alteration (smectitic clay) in Jivino-1
and Waponi-1, indicated by LOI of 46%. We conclude that our standard 400 8C pre-heating was successful in removing much of the loosely-held Ar from
non-retentive alteration phases. The lowest temperature step in each of these experiments reveals the

2j

MSWD

None
developed
None
developed
81.47
2.60 0.002
91.44
3.87 0.50
101.7
2.41 0.18

40

Ar/36Ar
initial

2j error J

0.001477
0.001402
469.0
299.8
328.8

166.9
4.86
28.8

0.001651
0.001440
0.001534

effect of greater proportions of atmospheric Ar (larger

age uncertainties) and Ar-loss (sample Yuralpa-1).
The remaining two samples contained significant
amounts of excess Ar (undegassed at cooling) that produced old and variable step ages. The isochron plots for
these samples do not reveal any common component of
initial Ar than can be subtracted from the step ages,
hence the only useful age estimates are the ages of the
youngest steps (least excess Ar), which are 93.1 F 0.7
Ma (Auca-16) and 123.8 F 0.9 Ma (Pungarayacu). We
note that these are maximum age estimates only.
Finally, other 40Ar/39Ar and 40Ar/39K radiometric
ages were obtained from unpublished sources (Petroproduccion National Oil Company, pers. comm.,
1998). The values are shown in Table 1 (see Fig. 3
for location) for comparison purposes.

5. Geochemical character and petrogenesis

The composition and abundance of major and trace
elements from representative rock samples of the Cretaceous OBB are summarized in Table 2. In spite of
their different geographic location and age distribution
(11080 Ma), they exhibit a restricted range of compositional variation, both in major and trace elements.
On a total alkali vs. silica plot (Fig. 6), the OBB
igneous rocks fall into the alkaline basaltic field.
They are also characterized by high contents of TiO2
(2.53.7 wt.%), K2O (0.231.91 wt.%), Na2O (1.85
3.13 wt.%) and P2O5 (0.4440.967 wt.%), with most
values being greater than 1.0, 1.2, 2.4 and 0.7 wt.%,
respectively. They yield a high abundance of MgO
(8.0115.8 wt.%), Ni (58404 ppm) and Cr (277557
ppm) suggesting a primitive nature. Mg numbers
(100  Mg/(Mg + Fe2+)) range from 56 to 73 and

682

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

K2O+NaO (% wt)

OBB

e
lin
ka ite
l
A le
o
Th

MORB
1
41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

SiO2 (wt%)

Fig. 6. Plot of Na2O + K2O vs. SiO2 of 13 samples from the OBB,
showing the divide between alkaline and tholeiitic basalts [51]. Midocean ridge basalt (MORB) composition from [51].
1000

most values are greater than 64 (Table 2). These

primitive compositions suggest the samples crystallized from a magma, which had experienced minor
fractionation since its origin in its mantle source
region, assuming a typical Mg number of 8890 for
the mantle [52].
The range of trace-element compositions for the
Cretaceous OBB relative to average mid-ocean ridge
basalts (MORB) is shown in Fig. 7a. With the exception of two samples (RBTW-1 and ONI-2) that show
low contents of K and Rb, all the incompatible element concentrations in the OBB lavas are elevated in
comparison with normal MORB. However, K/Rb
DJGJ1
DJGP9
RBTY2
ALC1

DJGA16
DJGY1
P9BX16
ONI2

DJGA23
RBTW1
PUNGA
AFLD
P9BX39

Rock/MORB

100

10

0.1

Rb BaTh U Ta Nb K La Ce Sr Nd P SmZr Hf Eu Ti Gd TbDy Y Er Tm Yb Lu

1000

OBB
Antartica Pen.

Galapagos (OIB)
San Quintin

Patagonia (CAB)
Reventador (CALC-ALKALINE)

Rock/MORB

100

10

0.1

Rb Ba Th U Ta Nb K La Ce Sr Nd P Sm Zr Hf Eu Ti Tb Y Yb Lu

Fig. 7. MORB normalized incompatible trace element distribution from the Cretaceous OBB, showing (a) the restricted range in compositional
variation, and (b) a comparison of the OBB rocks (representative sample) with selected oceanic island basalt (OIB), calc-alkaline and continental
alkaline basalts (CAB). Data sources are shown in Tables 3a and 3b. MORB average data are taken from [53].

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690
continental
magmatic arc

600

=20

/La

Ba

Ba/Ta

ratios in all the OBB samples are relatively constant

(~ 500). Table 4 shows selected incompatible ratios
for the Cretaceous OBB rocks and from several other
basaltic tectonic settings. Overall, the Cretaceous
OBB samples show trace-element abundances similar
to alkaline magmas from several continental (slab
window-related basalts) and intra-oceanic settings
(OIB), with low large-ion-lithophile element (LILE)/
high-field-strength element ratios (HFSE) (e.g., Ba/
Nb c 6.338.56; Th/Ta c 1.001.44; La/Ta c 8.84
11.75; La/Nb c 0.570.67; Ba/Zr c 1.792.83).
For comparison, primitive-mantle normalized
incompatible element abundance patterns for alkaline
basalts from San Quintin, Baja California [55], basalts
from the Antarctic Peninsula [8,9] and Patagonia
[6,7], and for oceanic island basalts from Galapagos
Islands [51,56] are given in Fig. 7b. In general, the
OBB rocks exhibit similar trace element abundance
patterns to OIB and some continental basalts. Low Th/
Ta (0.981.44), La/Ta (8.8411.75) and Ba/Ta (52
155) ratios are typical of intra-plate alkaline magmas
that have not interacted with enriched lithosphere and/
or continental crust (Fig. 8), as is suggested for the
Antarctic Peninsula basalts [8]. The high absolute
HFSE abundance in the OBB lavas, coupled with
the lack of depletion of Nb and Ta that is characteristic
of subduction-related magmas [5], corroborate this
observation. For comparison, Fig. 7b shows typical pri-

683

400
=10

Ba/La

OBB

200

OIB
MORB
0
4

30

20

10

La/Ta

Fig. 8. (a) Plot of Ba/Ta vs. La/Ta ratios (modified from [14])
showing the similarity between OBB magmas and ocean island
basalts (field labelled OIB). The field for Andean continental magmatic arcs is also shown [5].

mitive-mantle normalized incompatible element abundance patterns of a calc-alkaline lava (Reventador

volcano) from the sub-Andean zone of Ecuador [57].
The relatively consistent abundances of the HREE,
the typical profile of alkali basalts and the geochemical
signature of this alkaline magma (LaN/YbN c 1527,
Sr/Y c 12.432.9, Ce/Yb c 40.762.3 and Sm/Yb c
4.76.9) indicate low degrees of partial melting from a
predominantly asthenospheric mantle source region, and
suggest that residual garnet was present during partial
melting yielding unevolved basalts [58]. Such a garnetbearing mantle source requires melt generation at high
pressure, typically at depths of z 6080 km [59].

Table 4
Selected incompatible-element ratios for basaltic rocks of the Cretaceous Oriente Basin and for basalts from several other tectonic settings
OBB

Subduction-related basalts

Oriente Basin IAT

MORB OIB

HAB and CA

CAB
Mantle plume origin

Slab window

Roll-back

San Quintin Cameroon (Antarctic Penins) James Ross Island

K/Zr
Rb/Zr
Ba/Zr
Ba/Nb
Ba/Ce
La/Nb
Zr/Nb
Zr/Y
Ce/Yb
Sm/Yb
CeN/YN

35.567.8
0.060.15
1.792.83
6.338.56
4.937.83
0.570.67
2.633.89
7.769.46
4060
4.716.86
6.518.35

147
0.21
5
157
30
1.86
31
1.8

1.2

216
0.35
7.5
214
13
7.14
29
2.7

3.5

12
0.01
0.1
4
1
0.97
27
2.9

0.7

44
57.560.08
0.1
0.1280.138 0.129
1.7
1.541.83
1.93
7
7.149.19
8.09
5
5.526.86
5.25
0.66
0.660.74
0.8056
4
4.55.37
4.194
7.3
9.647.807 10.34

24.6135.29

2.693.72
4.739.1 4.887.825 8.78

0.0380.119
0.3991.188
2.698.21
1.815.4
0.610.881
4.6577.66
5.4318.57
15.6744.978
2.6064.387
2.589.15

0.090.125
0.8771.43
4.736.14
7.168.52
1.223.47
5.8710.6
4.8110.46
10.9745.33
2.614.6

OBBOriente Basin basalts (Fig. 3). Subduction-related basalts: IATisland-arc tholeiite; HABhigh-alumina basalt; CAcalc-alkaline
basalt (data source: [54,57]). OIBocean island basalt. Data from the Galapagos Islands ([51,56] CABcontinental alkaline basalts; mantle
plume origin. Data from the Cameron line [58], San Quintin [4,55]; slab window-Antarctic Peninsula [8,9], Southern Patagonia [57]; RollbackJames Ross Island [11]).

684

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

Sr and Nd isotopic ratios of three OBB samples are

shown in Table 2. The OBB magmas exhibit values
within the range of those observed for the OIB main
array [9]. They show a wide range of 87Sr/86Sr values
(0.7034500.705027) and restricted 143Nd/144Nd
(0.5127240.512751) ratios, similar to values yielded
by cratonic continental alkali basalts from Patagonia
[6] and close to those fields occupied by OIB basalts
(e.g., Azores Island [4]) and the James Ross Island
Antarctic Peninsula [11].

6. Geochronology: timing of the OBB

Three new 40Ar/39Ar radiometric ages from drill
core basaltic samples combined with unpublished
40
Ar/39K and 40Ar/39Ar radiometric ages from different locations within the Oriente Basin are summarized
in Tables 1 and 3b (locations shown in Fig. 3). These
ages, combined with biostratigraphic ages of the surrounding Hollin and Napo sedimentary rocks [e.g.,
20,21,23,25,34,35], indicate a systematic age progression of the mafic magmas with geographic position
for the emplacement from Albian through Campanian
times (i11080 Ma) (Table 1). However, no evidence
of basaltic volcanism has been found in younger
Tertiary sediments.
The oldest volcanic episode, a basaltic tuff cone,
was emplaced in the Middle Albian Hollin Formation
within the northcentral part of the Oriente Basin
(Vista and Tapi areas, Fig. 3). Radiometric ages of
diabase dikes intersected by the Tapi-5 and Vista-1
exploratory wells (40Ar/39K i 110.2 F 5.2 Ma and
106 F 5 Ma, respectively [27]), corroborate the biostratigraphic record at these locations.
Evidence of diachronous volcanism is found during deposition of the AlbianCampanian Napo Fm.
with volcanism advancing towards the SSW. Thus,
alkaline basaltic volcanism was coeval with sedimentation of the upper AlbianCenomanian lower Napo
section in the central part of the basin (Laguna and
Jivino areas), the Turonian middle Napo Fm (AucaArmadillo and Waponi areas) and the Campanian
upper Napo Fm in the westerncentral part of the
Oriente Basin (Yuralpa and Dayuno areas). Radiometric ages of gabbroic to diabasic sills and dikes
recovered from several exploratory wells at the corresponding geographic locations confirm the biostrati-

graphic record for these volcanic events, respectively:

40
Ar/39Ar i 102.4 F 2.4 Ma (Jivino-1), 40Ar/39K i
91 F 4.6 Ma (Auca-16, Petroproduccion, pers.comm)
and 40Ar/39Ar i 93.1 F 0.7 Ma maximum age (see
above), 93.0 F 3.4 Ma (Waponi-1) in the central part
of the basin; 40Ar/39Ar i 84 F 2 Ma (Dayuno-1, Petroproduccion, pers.comm.); and 82.2 F 2.0 Ma (Yuralpa Centro-1), in the westerncentral part of the basin
(Table 1, locations shown in Fig. 3).
Therefore, the systematic age progression from
Albian (~110 Ma), in the northern part of the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin, to lower Campanian (~82 Ma),
in the west central part of the Ecuadorian Oriente
Basin, suggests that magmatism migrated towards
the SSW along the active Central Corridor (Fig. 3).

7. Structural control of cretaceous basaltic

magmatism in the Oriente Basin
The geographic distribution of the Cretaceous alkaline extrusive and intrusive bodies, in the Ecuadorian
Oriente Basin, is mainly restricted to the NNESSW
Central Corridor (Fig. 3). Reflection seismic data
evidence that major pre-Cretaceous extensional structures largely control the location and occurrence of
these alkaline eruptive sites, particularly along deep
NNE normal faults bordering TriassicJurassic grabens and half-grabens (Fig. 4). Some of these normal
faults were reactivated as transpressive, right lateral
strike-slip structures related to major tectonic inversion. Seismic evidence of some compressional synsedimentary deformation suggests that this regional
tectonic event occurred from Turonian to Maastrichtian times in the Oriente Basin [20,27]; however, it
started probably in Middle Albian, as it is evident in
the eastern Maranon Basin of Peru [60], where this
period is marked by compressional inverted structures. Nonetheless, it can be related to the Peruvian
contractional phase defined in the northern Central
Andes, corresponding to a period of high convergence
rate between the Farallon and the South American
plates [61]. The structural association with volcanism
suggests that pre-existing extensional structures
exerted fundamental control over the generation of
alkalic magmatism during the evolution of the Cretaceous Oriente Basin. Magma ascent was channeled by
pre-existing structural discontinuities, corresponding

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

to areas of previously thinned lithosphere that were

related to the TriassicJurassic rift system and Late
Jurassic back-arc extensional features. As suggested
by [15], these areas of continental weakness may
produce asthenospheric upwelling, which eventually
triggers partial melting.
During the Upper Cretaceous, magmatism
migrated to the SSW, along the Central Corridor of
the Oriente Basin, probably as a result of the lateral
propagation of the transpressive inversion of the
TriassicJurassic rift. Given the strong dextral
wrenching component of northern Andean deformation during this period and the NNWSSE orientation
of the paleo-rift, the inversion was probably a strikeslip dominant inversion with reactivation of NESW
to EW extensional faults, which permitted ascent of
magma.

8. Discussion: relations between OBB and the

geodynamic evolution of north-western South
America
The Ecuadorian Oriente Basin records drastic geodynamic changes associated with major tectonic plate
reorganization within the northwestern margin of
South America during Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous times. This period was marked by significant
geodynamic changes, with the end of subduction
and the generation of the consequently active arc
magmatism (MisahualliColan arc) [29,30]. This
magmatic gap is considered a result of the oblique
accretion of oceanic and continental exotic terranes
onto the Ecuadorian and Colombian margin [2934].
The eastern boundary of these accreted terranes is
marked by the occurrence of tectonic slides of HP
metamorphic rocks [34], which yield Early Cretaceous cooling ages (i.e., 132 Ma K/Ar age [62], 130
115 Ma Ar/Ar [63,64]) and are thought to represent a
suture zone [33,38,40,62,6567].
Independently of the nature of these allochthonous
terranes, during collisional events of continental and/
or oceanic fragments, the margin is uplifted and submitted to hiatus and/or erosions [68]. This may be a
consequence of the subduction blocking and tectonic
underplating of oceanic material beneath the continental margin [69]. Along the Oriente Basin, these processes are clearly evident, resulting in important

685

paleogeographic changes [70]: uplift and erosion of

the pre-Cretaceous section, as shown by a major
sedimentary hiatus and regional unconformity at the
base of the Hollin Formation; installation of stable
platform conditions corresponding to the Cretaceous
shallow marine Oriente Basin system [21,22]; and
development of intra-continental alkali basaltic magmatism oriented parallel to the previous subduction
zone and located coincident to the major Triassic
Jurassic rift system in the central part of the Basin
(Central Corridor [20]). Unfortunately, the geophysical record does not constrain the timing and geometry
of subduction and plate collision. Consequently, one
can only speculate on the relationship between the
alkaline magmatism and subduction along the Ecuadorian margin during Cretaceous times.
The occurrence and generation of the OBB alkalic
intra-plate magmatism in the Oriente Basin could be
explained either by the interaction of a deep mantle
plume or hot-spot [1214], by rifting [16], slab window formation [17,18] or a droll-backT [11] mechanism. Any model for the magmatic and tectonic
evolution of the Ecuadorian Cretaceous Oriente
Basin has to fit with the following observations: (i)
the volume of eruptive products generated by the
Cretaceous magmatic event is small; (ii) the geochemical and isotopic OIB-type signature is consistent with
an asthenospheric source with no evidence of a component from the subducting slab; (iii) paleo-Triassic
and Jurassic rift structures, inverted in a transpressive
regime during Cretaceous times, exerted a tectonic
control on the location and occurrence of major eruptive sites; and (iv) magmatism migrated to the SSW
along the active Central Corridor, starting in the
Albian (~ 110 Ma), in the northern part of the Ecuadorian Oriente Basin and finishing during the Campanian (~ 80 Ma), in the west-central part.
The present-day back-arc position of OBB volcanism suggests that it erupted in an extensional
regime. However, as there is no evidence of there
having been enough lithospheric extension to cause
decompressional melting during Cretaceous times in
the Oriente Basin, it seems unlikely that the alkaline
magmatism is associated with rifting. In contrast, the
major alkaline eruptive sites are controlled by transpressive inversion of a rift [20]. In such system,
strike-slip dominant inversion, only few antithetic
faults can be reactivated in extension. The mantle

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R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

model would explain the generation of small volumes

of alkalic melts in an area not affected by major
lithospheric extension after the cessation of active
subduction processes. However, the main element of
the slab window model is missing in the Cretaceous
Oriente Basin. Slab windows are formed consequently
to ridgetrench collision [17] and there is no geological evidence of this interaction during the Latest JurassicEarliest Cretaceous. In fact, during the

plume model can explain the SSW migration of magmatism over time, as suggested by radiometric data
combined with biostratigraphy. However, the relatively small volume of volcanism generated by the
OBB magmatic event (50100 Km3) is not consistent
with this model.
Is it possible then that the OBB alkaline event is an
indicator of slab-window formation in the Ecuadorian
margin during Cretaceous times? The slab-window

Misahualli
Arc

TRIASSIC-MIDDLE JURASSIC

(Syn-Rift ) Triassic-Lower Jurassic

and Jurassic Back-Arc Basin

Allochthonous Plate

LATE JURASSIC
EARLY CRETACEOUS (130-120 Ma)

end of Jurassic Back-Arc Basin

Collision, end of subduction

and active arc magmatism

subduction is
abandoned

beginning of
Slab Roll-Back

CRETACEOUS (110-80 Ma)

Alkaline volcanism

Possible Slab
break-off ??

Slab Roll-Back

Tectonic
Inversion

Oriente Cratonic Basin

Thin-Spot
(previous lithospheric thinning)

Asthenospheric
Migration

Fig. 9. Schematic model of the geodynamic origin and evolution of the intra-continental thin-spot along the Oriente Basin. (A) TriassicMiddle
Jurassic rift system and post rift back-arc basin associated with the Jurassic Misahualli arc [32]. (B) Collision of an allochthonous terrane (i.e.,
ChauchaArenillas) ([29,3134]) and cessation of the active subduction system ([29,30,60]). Beginning of slab roll-back. (C) Cretaceous (110
80 Ma), progressive slab roll-back and migration of unmodified asthenospheric material towards a region of previously thinned lithosphere
beneath the Central Corridor.

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

collisional event (~ 140120 Ma) [29,3134], subduction was merely blocked and abandoned along the
Ecuadorian margin. Therefore, the Cretaceous OBB
alkalic event is not likely to be related to slab-window
formation.
We propose that slab roll-back, associated with
asthenospheric migration towards areas of continental
weakness (previously thinned lithosphere), can
account for the characteristics described for the origin
of the Cretaceous intra-continental alkalic magmatism
in the Oriente Basin. Similar examples include the
cratonic Patagonia Plateau lavas [6] and basalts from
the James Ross IslandAntarctic Peninsula [9]. Fig. 9
illustrates this possible mechanism. After subduction
ceased (~ 140120 Ma), either the relict slab material,
corresponding to the eastwards-directed leading plate,
was simply rolled-back or detached and sunk as a
result of the large density contrast between the subducted part of the lithosphere and the surrounding
asthenospheric mantle. In both cases, this resulted in
lateral and vertical migration of unmodified asthenosphere, which moved into the region previously
occupied by subduction-modified mantle wedge. Consequently, considerable slab roll-back has occurred
since Early Cretaceous times and may have started
in the north allowing unmodified asthenospheric
material to upwell into the region underlying the
pre-existing TriassicJurassic paleo-rift or lithospheric pre-existing thin-spot [15]. This resulted in
partial melting and the subsequent input of magmatic
material into the northern part of the Oriente Basin.
Major tectonic inversion occurred during Upper Cretaceous times [20,27,60], reactivating pre-existing
extensional features within a dextral transpressive
strike-slip system. As a consequence of the lateral propagation of the transpressive inversion of the Triassic
Jurassic rift, magmatism migrated to the SSW along
the Central Wrenchfault Corridor during the Late
Cretaceous.
Pre-existing structures clearly excerted a fundamental control on the generation of alkalic magmas
during the evolution of the Cretaceous Oriente Basin,
and focused partial melting by facilitating asthenospheric upwelling. Eventually, the Cretaceous alkaline magmatic event was halted by the progressive
effects of east-dipping subduction that was renewed
further west in the Late Cretaceous after the accretion of allochthonous terranes currently exposed in

687

the Cordillera Occidental (i.e., Pallatanga [38,39])

and the fore-arc [31,37], as well as the development
of the subsequent compressional Oriente foreland
basin system.

9. Conclusions
The Oriente Basin of Ecuador offers new evidence
of a Cretaceous intra-plate alkaline magmatic activity
associated with the evolution of the northwestern
margin of South America. The geochemical and isotopic compositions of these basaltic rocks are consistent with an asthenospheric source unmodified by
subduction, similar to an OIB-type mantle source. A
slab roll-back mechanism, associated with lateral and
vertical asthenospheric migration, is thought to have
facilitated the generation of alkalic magma when subduction was abandoned possibly after the accretion of
oceanic and continental allochthonous terranes
between the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous.
Pre-Cretaceous rift and back-arc extensional structures influenced the generation and location of magma
emplacement, by acting as pre-existing lithospheric
thin-spots, promoting asthenospheric upwelling and
partial melting. Cretaceous tectonic inversion in the
Oriente Basin resulted in the reactivation of extensional features within a dextral strike-slip transpressive system causing a southsouthwestward migration
of magmatism within the Upper Cretaceous section
following the trend of the Central Corridor. East-dipping subduction resumed in the Late Cretaceous and
placed the Oriente Basin into a compressional regime,
which resulted in a cessation of OBB magmatism.

Acknowledgments
We thank D. Geist, T. Toulkeridis, R. Fleming, D.
Quirk, M. Weber, R. Spikings and anonymous for
stimulating comments and informal reviews. We are
grateful to John Huard (Oregon State University) and
Bill White (Cornell University) for assistance in
40
Ar/39Ar radiometric dating and Sr and Nd isotopic
analyses, respectively. We thank the University Paul
Sabatier of Toulouse (France) and Petroproduccion,
especially Jorge Toro for valuable help and discussion. This research was supported by Kerr McGee Oil

688

R. Barragan et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters 236 (2005) 670690

and Gas Corporation and by the Institut Francais de

Recherche pour le Developpement. We want to dedicate this study to our friend and colleague Michel
Monzier.
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