variation. In addition there are skin depth limitations.

Without
saturation, the initial permeability of steel products can range from 50 to over 500. Since
depth of penetration is inversely proportional to the square root of permeability and test
frequency, to obtain equal penetration requires a reduction in frequency by the same factor of
50 to over 500. Unfortunately, lowering frequency will move the operating point to where
there is poor signal separation between lift-off, permeability and resistivity as well as reduced
sensitivity to defects. Therefore magnetic saturation is required to suppress effects of usually
harmless permeability variations, which could be mistaken for or obscure, defect signals.
4.4.1 Vibrations
Vibrations during probe motion can make undesirable signals, or so called probe wobble.
The multi-frequency technique can suppress this effect can by making the amplitude of its
response at the first frequency equal and its phase 180 degrees away from the response at the
second frequency and then adding the two signals together. The resulting sum will result in
cancellation of the responses and thus a zero signal for that particular condition.
When a surface coil is energized and held in air above a conductor the impedance of the coil
has a certain value. As the coil is moved closer to the conductor the initial value will change
when the field of the coil begins to intercept the conductor. Because the field of the coil is
strongest close to the coil, the impedance value will continue to change until the coil is
directly on the conductor. Conversely, once the coil is on the conductor any small variation in
the separation of coil and conductor will change the impedance of the coil. The lift off effect
is so pronounced that small variations in spacing can mask many indications.
The lift off effect is regularly used to measure the thickness of non conductive coatings.
The angle of orientation (tilt) of the probe will also have a significant impact of coupling
efficiency. The use of mechanical guide/holders and spring loaded probes can assist in
reducing the effect of lift off.
4.4.3 Centring, fill factor
In an encircling coil, or an internal coil, fill factor is a measure of how well the conductor (test
specimen) fits the coil. It is necessary to maintain a constant relationship between the
diameter of the coil and the diameter of the conductor. Again, small changes in the diameter
of the conductor can cause changes in the impedance of the coil. This can be useful in
detecting changes in the diameter of the conductor but it can also mask other indications.
For an external coil:
Fill Factor = (D1/D2)2