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Nouns
A noun names a person, place, or thing. There are two types of nouns. Common nouns
identify generic people, places, or things, such as computer, desk, chair, and window. Proper
nouns name a specific person, place, or thing. Your name and your company's name are
proper nouns.
Pronouns
Pronouns take the place of nouns in sentences. They expedite writing and speaking. Below are
two sentences, one with no pronouns and one in which pronouns are used effectively. Notice
how much smoother the second sentence reads:
· Mary went to Mary's car to get Mary's briefcase so Mary could get the materials that
Mary needed for Mary's meeting.
· Mary went to her car to get her briefcase so she could get the materials that she needed
for her meeting.
Verbs
Verbs can be used to show action or a state of being. Action verbs tend to be easy to
recognize; you can picture people doing or performing action verbs. For example, if you were
to say, "George ran down the street," it's immediately obvious that the action is running.
The other type of verb is a being verb. These verbs simply describe a state of being, as in:
"John is here." There are eight being verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been.
Adverbs are modifiers that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They answer the
questions, "When?" "Where?" "Why?" "In what manner?" or, "To what extent?"
For example, the sentence, "My car is in the parking lot, " can be enhanced by adding
adjectives: "My little red sports car is in the parking lot." Notice how the adjectives little and
red create a more specific picture and give the car size, color, and form. That's the power of
adjectives.
Similarly, the sentence, "The man walked across the street as a car approached," can be made
much stronger and more clear by using adverbs "The man walked slowly and deliberately
across the street as a car approached."
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are connecting words. They can be used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.
The most commonly used conjunctions are: and; or; but.
Interjections
These are words that show a great deal of emotion or surprise. Typically, they are not
grammatically connected to other parts of the sentence, as shown in this example: "Wow!
What a fabulous painting!"
Prepositions
These are connective words that show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and some
other word in the sentence. Words such as from, to, in, on, of, at, by, for, and with, are some
common prepositions. The following sentences demonstrate how prepositions are used in
sentences, showing the relationship between the house and Spot, the dog.
Using Pronouns
Using pronouns correctly is necessary to speak and write effectively. Pronouns are one of the
eight parts of speech; they take the place of nouns in sentences and help you vary the pace of
your messages. They indicate a difference in person (I, you, he), number (he, they), and gender
(he, she). There are four types of pronouns:
When used as the subject of a sentence, the pronoun must be in the nominative case. For
example, "I reviewed the agenda." When complementing a being verb, the nominative case is
also used. For example, "The winner is she."
For example, consider which is appropriate in the following: "Who or whom is calling?" Use
the memory hook to determine whether you would say, "He is calling," or "Him is calling "?
The correct choice is "He is calling." Therefore, the sentence should read, "Who is calling?"
· Reflexive use—"I painted that portrait myself." In this example, the word myself is
reflexive in nature because it refers to the pronoun I which has already been named in
the sentence.
· Intensive use —"I myself painted that portrait." In this case, the word myself serves as
an intensive pronoun because it emphasizes the use of the pronoun I.
· Common error—"If you have any questions, contact Bob or myself." In this example,
myself is used incorrectly because it is not referring to a noun or pronoun that has
already been named in the sentence. The sentence should read, "If you have any
questions, contact Bob or me."
1. Read the sentence using only the pronoun to see if it sounds right. If you have the
slightest doubt, move to Step 2.
2. To check pronoun usage, read the sentence using just the pronoun. In this case, that
means eliminating the words "Max and." The error is now obvious. It sounds
uncomfortable to say, "Me went to the meeting."
3. Now substitute the correct pronoun in the sentence. Again, read it out loud: "I went
to the meeting."
4. The final step is to put the sentence back together. This process ensures that you've
used the correct pronoun.
Pronouns are used constantly in speaking and writing. They indicate a difference in person (I,
you, he), number (he, they), and gender (he, she). You now know how to use four types of
pronouns: nominative, objective, reflexive and intensive, and possessive.
Course: Foundations of Grammar
Topic: Pronouns
Adjectives and adverbs both function as modifiers or describers in sentences; however, they
modify different types of words.
· Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns and answer, "What kind?"; "How many?"; or
"Which one?".
· Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and answer when, where, why, in
what manner, or to what extent. They often end in -ly.
Degrees of comparison
Special forms and phrases are used for the adjectives and adverbs in comparisons. The three
degrees of comparison are:
1. The positive degree—This expresses quality, quantity, or manner for one person
or thing. The following is an example of an adjective used in the positive degree:
Alice wrote a long letter. The following is an example of an adverb used in the
positive degree: Alice arrived early.
2. The comparative degree—This compares quality, quantity, or manner between
two people or things. The following is an example of a comparative adjective: Alice
wrote a longer letter than Betty. The following is an example of a comparative adverb:
Alice arrived earlier than Betty.
3. The superlative degree—This compares three or more people or things. The
following is an example of a superlative adjective: Alice wrote the longest letter. The
following is an example of a superlative adverb: Alice arrived earliest of them all.
The comparative of two-syllable words is formed by adding -er or by inserting less or more
before the word. The superlative adds -est or most or least before the word. Happier, happiest,
more happy, and most happy are examples.
The comparative of words with three or more syllables is formed by inserting more or less
before the word. The superlative is formed by inserting most or least before the word. Most
appropriate is an example.
Without adjectives and adverbs, your speech and writing would be dull and lifeless. However,
it's important to use these words wisely. This requires mastering the use of adjectives,
mastering the use of adverbs, and differentiating between the two.
Compound nouns follow few regular patterns and may be written as one single word, as
separate words, or as hyphenated words. Things you need to know about compound nouns
include using current guidelines, forming plurals, and handling gender differences.
Compound nouns can be written as one word, as separate words, or as hyphenated words.
They can be confusing because there isn't agreement among authorities on the rules for
forming them.
For example, in the sentence, "You can send your manager up-to-date reports using e-mail,"
the hyphens hold together the adjectives that precede the noun. However, in the sentence, "It's
important to keep your manager up to date on your progress," no hyphens are needed because
the adjectives follow the noun.
· -self—All compound adjectives formed with self require a hyphen. In a sentence, they
look like this: Alfred is a self-made man.
· -elect—Adjectives formed with elect are always hyphenated, as in this example: Owen
is the president-elect this year.
· Spelled-out numbers—Also included in this group of adjectives are those made from
larger numbers when they must be spelled out: twenty-one through ninety-nine are
always hyphenated.
A word of caution is necessary when dealing with hyphenating compound adjectives. If the
compound adjective includes an adverb that ends in ly, the hyphen is eliminated, as in the
following example: the newly trained workers, a highly valued employee, and clearly defined
values and goals
Compound adjectives are probably the greatest single cause of difficulty in writing, and
deciding if you should hyphenate them can be one of the most vexing problems you'll face.
You'll have an easier time if you concentrate on being able to recognize compound adjectives
and by understanding the rules that apply to hyphenating compound adjectives.
Forming Tenses
When it comes to parts of speech, verbs are second only to nouns in frequency of use. As you
write and speak, you use verbs to not only describe action, but also to indicate the time of the
action, condition, or state of being.
To form verb tenses properly, you must be able to use the principal parts of the verbs. Regular
verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding ed. Irregular verbs change form and
spelling. All verbs form their present participle by adding ing.
· Present—The present tense indicates action that is currently taking place or something
that is always true. For example, "Mickey manages people well." Mickey may not be
managing people this minute, but she does manage people well, and it's her habit to do
so.
· Past—The past tense indicates a definite past action or event—something that is
already completed. Regular verbs form their past tense by adding ed to the verb. For
example, "Mickey managed people well."
· Future—The future tense indicates action or events that will take place in the future.
This tense is formed by placing will before the verb. For example, "Mickey will
manage people well."
The past perfect and future perfect tenses also use the past participle of the verb. The past
perfect tense allows you to order two past actions clearly for your reader. It's formed by
adding had to the past participle. For example, "Gil had received the award before we
arrived."
The future perfect tense shows action that will be completed by a specific future time. The
action may have begun or will begin in the future. Form this tense by using will have. For
example, "Gil will have received the award by then."
· Present progressive—Think of this as action that's happening right now. Use am, is,
or are with a present participle. For example, "I am working on my report."
· Past progressive—Think of this as action that was happening for a certain amount of
time in the past. You have to use was or were with a present participle. For example, "I
was reviewing my report last week."
· Future progressive—This is action that will be in progress at a certain time in the
future. This tense is formed by using will be with a present participle. For example, "I
will be reviewing my report next week."
Since verbs are the second most frequently used words, their role in language is significant.
Knowing how to use the simple, perfect, and progressive tenses of verbs will help you use
these words more effectively. You'll be better equipped to communicate in a more exact
manner that clearly identifies the order and time of events.
A prefix is a word part that is added to the beginning of a base word, while a suffix is added to
the end. As a skilled business writer, you'll want to know the guidelines to use when adding
prefixes and suffixes, and the errors to avoid when using prefixes and suffixes.
When to hyphenate
While it's a general rule that a hyphen is not usually needed when adding a prefix or suffix,
there are a few special circumstances in which a hyphen is required. When the prefix mid- is
followed by a number, the hyphen is used; for example, mid-50s. When adding less or like to
the end of a word, use a hyphen if three l's occur in succession; for example, bell-like.
The prefix re also seems to be a common concern. Re means again and doesn't usually need to
be followed by a hyphen. However, the hyphen is used when words with the same spelling
and different meanings need to be distinguished from one another. The following are some
examples:
· Release—You would release a statement to the press. However, you would re-lease
an apartment.
· Remarked—You may say, "John remarked to me that he was frustrated." But you
would say, "Shelly re-marked the ticket."
· Resort—It's proper to say, "We'll have to resort to other tactics." However, you would
re-sort a stack of cards.
· Compound nouns—Compound nouns are words formed from two words. When
adding a prefix to a hyphenated or spaced compound word, you need to use a hyphen.
Some examples include words such as pre-high school, ex-attorney general, and non-
interest-bearing.
· Common elements—If you're using two or more prefixes with a common element,
use a suspending hyphen after each prefix to show its relationship to the common
element: "We complete pre-, mid-, and post-training assessments."
· Self-words—Use a hyphen when self is used as a prefix; for example, self-confidence.
However, the hyphen is not needed when self is the base word and it's followed by a
suffix; for example, selfish.
· Capital letters—When you add a prefix to a word that begins with a capital letter, you
need to use a hyphen. This includes words such as mid-June, pre-World War II, and
trans-American.
The final two cases that require special attention involve adding prefixes to words with
specific spellings. When the prefix ends in a or i and the base word begins with the same
letter, use a hyphen. For example: ultra-active. When the prefix ends with e or o and the base
word begins with the same letter, omit the hyphen. For example: reeducate.
Using prefixes and suffixes correctly may seem like a minute detail of grammar. However, it's
senseless to risk a first impression or your reputation on something that can be corrected by
remembering a few basic guidelines.
As a skilled business writer, you need to know how to add prefixes and suffixes to words
properly, and you need to avoid common mistakes that can tarnish your writing ability.
Forming Plurals
Forming plurals correctly is necessary to write effectively. You will get a head start by
learning the basic rule for forming plurals, special rules for forming plurals, and handling
foreign nouns and proper names.
There are several rules for forming plurals. While each has some exceptions, the rules provide
a solid basis for ensuring correctly spelled words.
· Basic rule—The basic rule for forming plurals is to add s to the singular form.
Examples include checks, committees, ideas, leagues, menus, and quotas.
· Nouns ending in s, x, ch, sh, z—Add es to form plurals of singular nouns ending in s,
x, ch, sh, or z. Examples include businesses, faxes, sketches, and wishes. However, one
exception is quizzes.
· Nouns ending in y—Nouns ending in y and preceded by a consonant are formed by
changing the y to an i and adding es. Examples include copies, policies, and liabilities.
However, when a noun ending in a y is preceded by a vowel, add an s to form the
plural, as in attorneys, boys, and delays.
· Nouns ending in f, fe, ff—The plurals of nouns ending in f, fe, or ff are formed by
adding s, as in beliefs, safes, and tariffs. However, there are some common exceptions,
including halves, leaves, selves, and wives. Notice that these are formed by changing
the f or fe to ve and adding s.
Nouns ending in o are formed in different ways. When preceded by a vowel, add s to the
singular form, as in stereos, ratios, portfolios, and scenarios. However, nouns ending in o and
preceded by a consonant are formed in different ways. Some nouns add s: egos, logos, memos,
photos, typos, and all musical terms such as altos, cellos, pianos, and sopranos. Other words
add es: echoes, heroes, potatoes, tomatoes, fiascoes. Still other words have two plural forms:
zeros, zeroes. Check your dictionary to be sure.
· Proper nouns—When forming the plural of proper names, the main rule to remember
is never change the original spelling of a surname. For example, Mr. and Mrs.
McCarthy become the McCarthys, not the McCarthies.
· Foreign nouns— Foreign nouns use different rules to form plurals. Words ending in o
change to i (concerto/concerti); words ending in on and um change to a
(criterion/criteria); words ending in x change to ces (index/indices). Consult a
dictionary to be certain.
· Irregular nouns—Some nouns are irregular because their plurals are formed by
changing letters within the word or adding letters other than s or es. Man/men,
woman/women, mouse/mice, child/children are some examples.
Learning the rules for forming plurals will help ensure that your message is clear and accurate,
and will help you avoid embarrassing spelling errors. This can be accomplished by becoming
familiar with the basic rules, rules for words ending in specific letters, and rules for foreign
words and proper nouns.
Forming Possessives
Errors in the use of possessive forms of nouns are very common and noticeable both in writing
and in speaking. However, you can easily master the correct usage by learning the basic
guidelines for forming possessives, the rules for handling joint and separate ownership, and
the guidelines for making gerunds, compound nouns, and appositives possessive.
Forming possessives
The possessive form of a noun allows you to show that one noun is the owner of, author of, or
origin of another noun. Possessive nouns make writing and speaking more clear and concise.
You can use the following four-step process when determining how to form a possessive.
1. Ask yourself, "Who owns what in this sentence?" By identifying the ownership
involved, you can avoid the common mistake of putting apostrophes where they don't
belong.
2. Once ownership is established, check to see if the noun does or does not end in s.
If the noun doesn't end in s, add an apostrophe plus s, as in the following example: The
company's assets totaled over $1 million.
3. If the noun that is showing ownership ends in s, add only an apostrophe to the
word, as in this example: The employees' teamwork was impressive.
4. If the noun ends in s, say the word aloud to determine if an extra pronounced
syllable has been added. If it has, you must show it as in the following sentence: The
witness's reply was direct and clear.
The following three situations require close attention when dealing with possessives:
1. Gerunds—A gerund is a verb form that ends in ing and is used as a noun. A noun
or pronoun used before a gerund must be in the possessive case. For example: Larry's
singing was irritating to his office mate.
2. Compound nouns—These become possessive by making the last word in the
compound possessive. For example: My father-in-law's business operates throughout
the country.
3. Appositives—An appositive is explanatory word or group of words that gives
additional information about the noun that precedes it. If the noun that precedes the
appositive would ordinarily be possessive, then the appositive must be in the
possessive case. For example: Our doctor, Andy Brown's, practice is continuing to
grow.
Since possessive appositives often form awkward constructions, you may want to rewrite the
sentence for ease of reading and comprehension.
Mastering the use of possessive nouns will assist you in eliminating noticeable mistakes in
writing and in speaking.
Two of the most commonly confused and misused words are anxious and eager. Undoubtedly,
you have heard these two words used interchangeably. However, each word has a distinct
meaning and a specific usage.
Disinterested and uninterested are also misused in many instances. Disinterested means that
you're impartial. The following is an example of how it is used: To ensure that the decision
was fair, it was made by a disinterested party.
Uninterested means that you're bored or lacking interest. For example: Shelly was
uninterested in the conversation at dinner.
Two sets of words that deal with measurement or degree often cause confusion:
Further refers to additional time, quantity, or degree. For example: "We need further
discussion before we can vote on the idea."
2. Fewer/less—Fewer refers to a specific number and is used with plural nouns. For
example: "There were fewer jams in the copy machine after it was serviced."
Less refers to a degree or bulk amount and is used with singular nouns. For example:
"The copy machine is jamming less now that is has been serviced."
Possibly the words you see confused most often are there, their, and they're. This troublesome
trio pops up as an error when the writer is in a hurry and more prone to oversight. They should
be used as follows:
Another pair of words that is commonly misused and confused is stationary versus stationery.
Stationary means not moveable, for example, "The work stations were stationary." Stationery
refers to the paper and envelopes used to write letters. For example: "The new stationery will
arrive on Monday."
The word pairs above are not interchangeable. The first step in mastering the usage of these
word pairs is to recognize commonly confused words. Then, by following the tips and
guidelines given, you'll be able to determine the appropriate usage in a variety of writing
situations.
Troublesome Verbs
To write correctly, you must be able to distinguish between the following commonly misused
verbs:
Lay means "to put" and requires an object to complete its meaning. For example, you
should say, "He lays the book on the table" because lay can be replaced with place by
saying, "He places the book on the table."
Lie means "to recline, rest or stay" and is not followed by an object. For example, you
should say, "He lies on the sofa," because lie cannot be replaced with place by saying,
"He places on the sofa."
Misused verbs are sometimes hard to spot and can cause subtle but critical differences in
meaning. Proper use of verbs can sharpen your writing and speaking skills.
· Agree with/agree to—The phrase agree with should be used to concur with a person
or an idea. For example, "Pete agrees with Bob." The phrase agree to should be used
to show acceptance of another person's plan. For example, "Pete agreed to their
terms."
· Angry with/angry at—Angry with is used when the object of the anger is a person.
For example: Karen was angry with Albert for forgetting the appointment. Angry at is
used when the object of the anger is not a person. For example: Karen was angry at the
condition of the office when she returned.
· Part from/part with—These are also differentiated by whether you're dealing with a
person or an object. For example, it is correct to write, "As soon as we part from
Jackie Benedict at the conference, we'll return to the hotel," but you must write, "Allen
Tucker hated to part with his favorite old jalopy."
· Different from/different than —Different from is the correct usage in most cases. It
is correct to say, "This computer is different from the one I normally use." It would not
be correct to say, "This computer is different than the one I normally use."
· Identical with/identical to—It is correct to use the term identical with, but the term
identical to is incorrect. For example, "This seminar is identical with the one I attended
last year."
· Between/among/all/all of—While these last four prepositions may not technically fit
into the idiomatic category, they are misused as frequently as many idiomatic
expressions.
Use between to refer to two people, places, or things. For example, "The money was
divided between Kate and Michele."
Use among to refer to three or more people, places, or things. For example, "The
money was divided among Kate, Michele, and Lynn."
Use the word of after the word all when all refers to a pronoun. For example, "All of
them went on vacation."
Omit the word of after all when all refers to a noun. For example, "All the developers
went on vacation."
Idiomatic expressions are not based on regular grammar rules; instead, they have become
acceptable over time through repeated usage. Using these expressions correctly will ensure
clear, error-free writing and speaking.
Adjectiv
e and
Adverb
Compari
son
Source:
Foundations
of Grammar
Instructions: Use this SkillGuide when forming the comparative and superlative
degrees of adjectives
and adverbs.
· Subjects—These are the center of attention, the focus of the sentence. They can,
however, be understood rather than stated. For example, in the phrase "Come here,"
"you" is understood.
· Verbs—are the workhorses of sentences. In one way or another, they link, explain, or
show what's happening to the subject.
In its simplest form, the predicate is the verb. But the predicate also includes any other
phrases or clauses that describe what is happening to the subject.
Inverted sentences
In most English sentences, the subject comes before the verb. However, some sentences have
an inverted subject/verb order. The following explains some examples:
· Questions—"Has a copy of the annual report been mailed?" The subject of this
question is "copy." The verb is "has been mailed."
· Phrases—The words there is, there are, here is, and here are often begin sentences.
For instance, "Here are copies of the annual report." However, "copies" is the subject,
not "annual report" or "here." Here or there can never be the subject of a sentence.
· Compound subject—"Striding purposefully into the meeting were the CFO and the
COO." There is a compound subject in this inverted sentence: "the CFO and the
COO." Both are in the predicate; they follow the verb.
A phrase is defined as words that are used as a single group. Because of this, as a group, they
become a part of speech. There are three primary types of phrases under whose umbrellas the
others fall. These phrases add detail, make your meaning more precise, and allow you to
include additional information:
1. Prepositional phrases—These begin with a preposition and end with one or more
nouns or pronouns. For example: "We are going to the meeting." These phrases show
time, space, or position. They can also be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
2. Appositive phrase—These contain nouns or pronouns that add information to the
noun or pronoun they describe. For example: "John, the head of security, is arriving."
If the sentence would be complete without the appositive phrase, set it off with
commas.
3. Verbal phrases—These combine a verb form and modifiers. A participial phrase
is used as an adjective. All gerunds end in ing and are used as nouns. To in front of a
verb creates an infinitive and can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
There are nine types of clauses. However, if you know two of these types of clauses well, the
others will rarely be a problem. These two clauses are the independent clause and the
dependent clause.
Independent clauses
Every sentence is an independent clause. It has a subject and a verb. You can join two
independent clauses by words such as therefore, also, nevertheless, and however, or by a
coordinating conjunction such as and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet. For example: "The meeting
started at 10 a.m.; however, John did not attend." Both clauses can stand alone as sentences.
"The meeting started at 10 a.m. John did not attend."
Dependent clauses
Dependent clauses are linked to independent clauses by words such as unless, if, because,
while, once, since, and until. These words establish a relationship between the clauses by
expressing time order, result, effect, condition, reason, choice, or contrast. For example:
"Unless you get me those numbers by noon, we will not be able to complete our report."
"Unless" shows a condition, but the clause by itself is not a sentence.
Well-crafted phrases and appropriately used clauses will make your writing clearer and more
effective. Used correctly, your ideas and thoughts will flow naturally from one to another.
1. Imperative sentences
The imperative sentence communicates a complete thought. It is the sentence that gives orders
or directions. It can end with an exclamation point or with a period. One of the more familiar
imperative sentences is: "Please fasten your seat belts when the overhead sign is illuminated."
The subject "you" is understood and omitted. Even when couched in the politeness of "Please
fasten...," this is still an imperative, an order.
2. Interrogative sentences
Every interrogative sentence asks a question and ends in a question mark. An interrogative
sentence begins with one of the following questions:
· Who?—"Who" questions focus on people and give you information and facts about
them. For example: "Who’s coming to the meeting?"
· What?—These questions help you gather details and facts that help you make
decisions. For example: " What did you mean?"
· When?—"When" questions elicit important time and date information. For example:
"When will you have that project done?"
· Where?—These questions give you specific information about the location of events
or people. For example: "Where is the next board meeting?"
· Why?— This interrogative helps you discover the reasons for actions, ideas, and
decisions. For example: "Why did you do that?"
· How?—This "nuts and bolts" type of question is the mainstay of most organizations.
"How will we get that project done on time?"
3. Exclamatory sentences
These sentences end in an exclamation point. They demonstrate strong feelings or emotions:
"Profits are down!" The exclamation point is an attention getter. It can be used to draw
attention to an unlikely point: "Look at this!" As a general rule, using such sentences should
be kept to a minimum so that their emphasis is not diluted or your message is not weakened.
4. Declarative sentences
These sentences are the primary way to convey information in written communications. They
end with a period. They express ideas. Most of your writing will be in declarative sentences.
To be an effective business communicator, use the four types of sentences to convey exactly
what you mean.
Exceptions
As important as it is to avoid fragments in your written communications, there are exceptions.
Some commonly accepted fragments can stand alone for emphasis because their meaning is
clear: "Big deal." "Fat chance." "No way."
Once you identify a sentence fragment, you can make it a sentence by adding the missing part
of the sentence, or omitting the subordinate conjunction and including the appropriate
punctuation.
Few people always speak in complete sentences. However, it's important to use complete
sentences to make your written words clear.
Identifying and Eliminating Comma Splices
Comma splices are created when two sentences are incorrectly joined with a comma. You
need to know how to recognize comma splices and how to fix—and eliminate—them.
To identify a comma splice, first identify the two independent clauses—the sentences being
connected. Examples of comma splices are:
Comma splices are common problems in writing. The first step in eliminating them is to
recognize the errors. The second step is to punctuate sentences correctly.
Run-on Sentences
Run-on sentences dilute your ideas. Their effect on your written communications can range
from confusing to embarrassing. To correct them, you must first be able to identify them.
· Create two sentences—The first one can be written as two different sentences.
Punctuation changes the meaning. It could be: "Leo the lion roared in the jungle. He
was king." Or it could be: "Leo the lion roared. In the jungle, he was king."
· Create a sentence and a question—Change the second example into a sentence and a
question: "Time stands still. Do you?"
· Create a compound sentence—A compound sentence has a coordinating conjunction
or a semicolon that joins two independent sentences. You can write: "Leo the lion
roared in the jungle, so he was king." Or you can say: "Leo the lion roared in the
jungle; he was king."
· Create a complex sentence—A complex sentence consists of one independent clause
and one or more dependent clauses. You can write: "Leo the lion roared in the jungle
because he was king."
Sometimes it's easy to recognize run-on sentences. They are usually long and poorly
punctuated. However, run-on sentences can also be short.
Subject/Verb Agreement
When you write with certainty and knowledge, you create powerful messages. Using subjects
and verbs correctly will enable you to enhance meaning in your writing.
The most basic rule of sentences is that the subject and verb must agree in two ways. The first
is number. Are they both singular? "The memo says tomorrow is a holiday." Or are they
plural? "The memos explain the procedure." The second way they must agree is in person: I
am, we are, it is, they are.
· Book titles—No matter how long a book title is or if it sounds plural, the title of one
book is always singular and so is the verb. For example: "War and Peace takes a long
time to read."
· Compound subject—If the subject of a sentence connects two or more people, places,
or things by the words and or both...and, the verb must be plural. For example: "Both
Dr. Smith and Ms. Jones are reviewing the contracts."
· Alternatives— If two subjects are joined by neither...nor or but, the verb should agree
with the subject closest to it. For example: "Neither management nor the employees
are right."
· Single units—Some words look like they are plural but actually function as a single
unit. Some of those words include: spaghetti and meatballs, news, and milk and cereal.
Each of these takes a singular verb. For example: "The news was good."
· Collectives— Words such as team, staff, or company can be either singular or plural.
A group acting as a single unit takes a singular verb. For example: "My staff works
hard." If it's a group of individuals acting separately, the verb is plural. For example:
"The movie's crew are preparing the sets."
· Measurements—Even though they look plural, most measurements are considered
singular and take singular verbs. For example: "Twelve inches is a foot."
· Indefinite pronouns—Pronouns that end in one or body are always singular and
should be used with a singular verb. These are words such as: anybody, everybody,
someone, and no one. However, both, few, many, and several are always plural.
To test for subject/verb agreement in an inverted sentence, turn it around and leave out
distractors. This means changing, "What is the question?" to, "The question is this." Then the
verb is clear. Below are more examples:
· Questions—Remember that in questions, the verb comes first. For example, in the
sentence, "Are copies of the annual report available?" The subject is "copies." The
verb is plural, "are." The subject is not the singular "annual report."
· Phrases—The words, there is, there are, here is, and here are often begin sentences.
For instance, "Here are copies of the annual report." However, the word "copies" is the
subject, not "annual report" or "here." The verb must be plural.
· Contractions—Be especially careful when using contractions for the phrases. In
colloquial English, people may say, "There's the reports." But the contraction means
"there is." Because "reports" is plural, the correct wording would be "there are" or
"there're."
· Compound subject—"Striding purposefully into the meeting were the CEO and the
COO." In this inverted sentence, the verb "were" is plural because the subject of the
sentence is two people: "the CEO and the COO."
You should also be aware that the following words are singular: anything, each, each one,
either, every, everything, neither, someone, and no one.
There are four important areas in which pronouns and the words to which they refer—their
antecedents—must be clear. They must agree in gender, be consistent in person, avoid number
problems, and refer to the right antecedent.
1. Agree in gender
Sometimes you need to use gender discrimination to make your writing clear and logical.
Gender agreement between pronouns and antecedents depends on it. The following examples
demonstrate how to achieve clarity in gender agreement:
2. Be consistent in person
To make pronouns agree in person, the primary rule is: Do not switch from one person to
another in the same sentence. For instance, do not write: "You shouldn't have to come in early,
although one should never say never."
It is incorrect to say, "If an employee wants to change insurances, they must do so in the open
enrollment period." The antecedent, "an employee," is singular. The pronoun, "they," is plural.
The sentence should be reworded to avoid this. Make the subject the plural, "employees."
Referring to the right antecedent shows careful writing and helps your reader understand
exactly what you mean.
Antecedents are the words to which pronouns refer. Pronouns and their antecedents must
agree in number, person, and gender, and pronouns must refer to the right antecedent. When in
doubt, reword the sentence.
Dangling modifiers
Dangling modifiers are phrases in which essential words are missing—or the phrase may
describe something that is not mentioned in the sentence. Without those words, the meaning of
the sentence becomes unclear, sometimes illogical. Consider the following example:
· "Hidden in a vault for the past 75 years, the original owner of the company decided to
display the company's first stock certificate."
According to this sentence, the original owner of the company has been hidden in a vault for
75 years. The dangling modifier is "hidden in a vault for the past 75 years," because it is
closest to the word "owner," which it doesn't modify. To make the meaning clear, the sentence
should be rewritten to say: "The original owner of the company decided to display the
company's first stock certificate. It had been hidden in a vault for 75 years."
Another way to eliminate the dangling modifier is to say, "The company's first stock
certificate had been hidden in a vault for the past 75 years, and the original owner of the
company decided to display it."
Misplaced modifiers
Misplaced modifiers can be words, clauses, or phrases that are so far from the noun or
pronoun they're modifying that the meaning of the sentence is distorted. For clarity and logic,
the two elements—the modifier and the word being modified—should be next to each other.
Consider the following example:
· "The PR employees created a presentation for the company that they called Getting
Ahead." If the company's name isn't Getting Ahead, reword the sentence. For clarity
and logic, word the sentence: "The PR employees created a company presentation
which they called Getting Ahead."
Misplaced or dangling modifiers can also create confusion. However, well-placed modifiers
increase the clarity of what you write.
Tone
Tone varies according to your audience and your purpose because it reveals your attitude
toward the content and the reader. The tone of a report or a letter might be academic, didactic,
pedantic, or pompous. It could also be conversational and personal.
Word choice
The words you choose create the tone. Your words are as important to the style and tone as
correct grammar is to the professional image of your message. Your words must fit the topic,
the audience, and your purpose. However, there are three specific areas you need to be aware
of when choosing words:
1. Fog index—Experts say that words of three syllables or more in sentences create a
"fog" index. The more syllables in your words, the denser the "fog," and the more
difficult it is to understand your meaning.
2. Dazzle factor—The dazzle factor of long, pretentious words is overrated. You
may have colleagues who enjoy the flowery, well-turned literary phrase. However,
most well-constructed business sentences use simple, concrete words.
3. Business jargon—This can generate a positive comfort zone or distance between
you and your reader. Ask yourself if the words you are using are necessary terms that
will communicate effectively to the audience. If not, will they obscure the meaning for
the people who read it?
Audience
Effective writers understand their audience and adjust their styles, tone, and word choices
accordingly. Tailor your writing style to the audience's interests, objectives, or needs.
Understanding how broad your audience might be can help you write more effectively. There
are four audiences to keep in mind.
When writing, always keep in mind your tone, word choice, and audience.
Active voice
The active voice conveys strength and action. For example, in the sentence, "Photographers
create [active voice] startling results with black and white film." The photographers are doing
something. The verb is active. The action is directed toward "startling results."
Sentences written in the active voice name the doer of the action. For example: "Pete fell from
the train." An active voice verb usually creates a stronger mental image of what the subject
[Pete] is doing.
Passive Voice
Active verbs stand alone. But when you combine some form of the helping verb to be with the
past participle of the main verb, you create the passive voice. Helping verbs include: is, are,
was, were, can, could, do, did, has, had, have, may, might, must, will, shall, should, and
would. Past participles of a verb are often, although not always, the same word as the past
tense of the verb, such as: arrived, came, flew, and issued.
As a general rule, use the active voice because it is more direct, concise, and forceful.
However, use the passive voice if your purpose is to:
You can select either the passive or the active voice to achieve a specific meaning. Both will
serve you well when used wisely.
1. Parallel construction
A parallel construction is a way of writing a sentence, a list, ideas, or items that are related in
the same form. One famous example of this was in Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.
He said, "But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate...we cannot consecrate...we cannot hallow
this ground." By the similarity of form, the parallel phrase "we cannot" adds emphasis and a
mental rhythm that people remember.
The following is a nonparallel construction: "The order you placed is exciting and a
challenge." This isn't parallel because it combines an adjective, "exciting," and a noun,
"challenge." Saying, "The order you placed is exciting and challenging," would be parallel
because you'd use two adjectives to describe the order.
· Simple—Simple sentences have one independent clause. They do not have any
subordinate clauses. Simple sentences can be quite short. A series of them can convey
energy or emotion.
· Compound—Compound sentences contain two or more independent clauses, and they
are joined by a comma before the coordinating conjunction. They can also be joined by
a semicolon; however, compound sentences do not contain any subordinate clauses,
either.
· Complex—Although complex sentences contain one independent clause, they also
contain one or more dependent clauses. For example: "Since I worked late last night
[dependent clause], I came in late this morning [independent clause]."
· Compound/complex—Even though they need good punctuation, compound/complex
sentences are easy to understand, and they communicate ideas well—although you
need to know that they contain two independent clauses and they have one (or more)
dependent clauses.
The most effective sentences are concise. They use as few words as possible to express an
idea. The most effective sentences also include the primary idea of the sentence in the
independent or main clause because it's easier to see.
The types of sentences you use depend on who your readers are and your purpose. The types
of sentences you use create rhythm and pacing. Use all of them to create consistency or to
provide variety.
By applying the above techniques, you can make your writing more appealing and memorable
by adding consistency and variety.
This topic will answer two important questions for business writers:
Before you can understand subject-verb agreement, you have to understand what the basic
grammatical terms subject and verb mean.
Definition of Subject
The subject of a sentence is a word or group of words that names the actor in the sentence. To
identify the subject, ask "Who?" or "What?" By reading the following, you can see how
asking these questions will help you to identify the subject:
· My computer is broken.
Definition of Verb
The verb shows the action of a sentence (I dropped my computer) or state of being (My
computer is broken).
Verbs can show actions or states that happened in the past, are happening now, or may happen
in the future.
To find an action verb, ask "What is the subject doing?" or "What was the subject doing?" or
"What will the subject be doing?" If there is no action verb, look for a word that shows a state
of being (forms of the verb to be, such as am, are, is, was, and were).
RULE 1
Use singular verbs with singular subjects and plural verbs with plural subjects. Below are
some examples that illustrate subject-verb agreement in number, for example:
RULE 2
Two singular subjects connected by and take a plural verb. They are called a compound
subject. The following sentence provides an example of this:
In this example, "Lily and Terri" are two singular subjects connected by and. They take the
plural verb "are receiving."
RULE 3
Two singular subjects connected by or or nor take a singular verb. This is demonstrated in the
following example:
In this example, "Lily and Terri" are two singular subjects connected by nor. They take the
singular verb "knows."
RULE 4
If a singular subject is connected to a plural subject by or or nor, put the plural subject last and
use a plural verb. The following sentence gives an example of this:
· Either Terri or two other employees are moving into the corner office.
In this example, the singular subject "Terri" is connected to the plural subject "two other
employees" by or. The plural verb is "are moving."
Intervening Phrases
Frequently, the subject and verb are separated by intervening phrase or groups of words. Do
not be confused—these do not change the above rules. This is demonstrated in the following
example:
In this example, the subject is "workers," not division. Since workers is plural, the verb must
be plural ("agree"). The intervening phrase is "in each division."
Intervening phrases often begin with prepositions, which are function words, such as at, by,
for, in, under, and with. You must ignore prepositional and other intervening phrases when
deciding which verb form to use.
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns have singular form but refer to a group of individuals. Examples include
board, committee, group, staff, and team.
In American English, collective nouns are usually treated as singular, to emphasize the unit,
rather than the individual members. But they may be treated as plural if the meaning is clearly
plural. Below are two examples that illustrate this:
In this sentence, "staff" is clearly understood as a single entity, so the singular verb "is" can be
used.
In the above sentence, it is important to stress that "the group" consists of different
individuals, so the verb is plural. Alternatively, you could write:
· The group members disagree about whether to expand into China or Japan.
Consistency
Once you start using a collective noun as a singular form, you must continue to do so. If you
replace that noun with a pronoun, it must be a singular pronoun. Similarly, if you use a
collective noun as a plural form, you must be consistent.
Other words that are usually treated as singular when they refer to a field of study and as
plural in other uses include acoustics, economics, ethics, mathematics, and physics.
Awareness
Be alert. When you encounter a complex sentence, take it apart slowly and determine which
rules apply. Try to simplify the sentence in order to make your decision easier.
By applying all of the grammar rules regarding intervening phrases, collective nouns, and
compound subjects, you will make your writing smooth, and prove your competence and
professionalism.
Sentence fragments are common in speech, but are unacceptable in business writing. The
following example contains a sentence fragment.
· "Our new client sells frozen foods. Such as pies and fish fillets."
The sentence fragment looks unprofessional. "Such as" is one example of a word that, if it
appears at the beginning of a group of words, suggests an incomplete sentence is about to
follow. These are called subordinating words, and other examples include:
· also
· and
· but
· especially
· for example
· mainly
To avoid sentence fragments starting with subordinating words, you can simply join them to
the previous sentence with a comma, dash, or parentheses as in the three examples below:
1. Comma —"Our new client sells frozen foods, such as pies and fish fillets."
2. Dash—"Our new client sells frozen foods—such as pies and fish fillets."
3. Parentheses—"Our new client sells frozen foods (such as pies and fish fillets).
Identifying Fragments
To determine whether a sentence is complete, ask yourself the following questions:
· Does it contain a verb? A verb is a word that expresses an action or a state of being.
· Does it contain a subject? A subject is a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun that denotes
the doer of the action or the person or thing that is described in the sentence.
· Is it a subordinate clause? Like a sentence, a subordinate clause has a subject and
verb, but unlike a sentence, a subordinate clause cannot stand alone. Subordinate
clauses often begin with subordinating words.
Repair Strategies
Once you identify a sentence fragment in your text, you can use one of the following three
strategies to repair it.
For example, the following sentence is correct —it does not need to be changed.
· The photos are nearly complete, although the boardroom shots didn't come out well.
It would be wrong to change this by eliminating "although." This would create the following
run-on sentence:
· The photos are nearly complete, the boardroom shots didn't come out well.
Clear writing is essential in business. You can check that you have not inserted any sentence
fragments into your document by ensuring all sentences contain a subject and verb and that no
sentence consists solely of a subordinating clause.
Once you have identified a fragment, you have several repair options:
Sentence fragments detract from a strong document. Identifying and repairing them can help
to create clearer, more professional writing.
· Comma—to join independent clauses with a comma, you also need to add a
coordinating conjunction: and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.
Be sure that the comma comes before, not after, the coordinating conjunction.
Fused Sentences—these occur when two independent clauses are joined with no connecting
punctuation and with no coordinating conjunction (connecting word). The following is an
example:
"Lily has been given a promotion Phil has been given a new computer."
In this case, a period could be used to split the two independent clauses into two separate
sentences, thereby making the meaning much clearer. The passage should read:
"Lily has been given a promotion. Phil has been given a new computer."
Comma Splices—another common type of run-on sentence involves comma splices. A
comma splice can take three forms. These are described in the following examples:
The problem with this sentence is that two independent clauses ("Lily works in sales
and Phil is in accounts") are joined with a comma but no coordinating conjunction.
The sentence should read as follows:
Writers often generate run-on sentences when the second sentence begins with a
pronoun referring to the subject of the first sentence. In the above case, the pronoun,
"it," refers to the previous noun, "computer." The sentence should read as follows:
3. "The computer has a lot of memory, however, it has crashed each time Phil has
tried to use his new software."
Writers often create run-on sentences when the second clause begins with however
and other transitional words. In this case, the second clause should be preceded by a
semicolon. The sentence should read as follows:
"The computer has a lot of memory; however, it has crashed each time Phil has tried
to use his new software."
By asking and answering the following questions, you will establish whether your sentence is
a run-on and needs to be corrected.
Repairing Run-ons
Once you have identified a run-on sentence, you will need to repair it as in the above
examples. The four strategies for doing this are:
Since run-on sentences lack these characteristics, learning to recognize and repair run-ons will
strengthen your writing.
Definition of Adjective
Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns. They often answer these questions: "Which one?"
"What kind of?" "How many?"
Definition of Adverb
Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They often answer these questions:
"When?" "Where?" "How?" "Why?" "To what extent?"
Misplacing Modifiers
A modifier is misplaced when it appears to apply to the wrong part of a sentence or when the
reader cannot tell which part of the sentence the modifier applies to. Misplaced modifiers may
be unclear or unintentionally humorous. To recognize misplaced modifiers, look for modifiers
that are far from the words they describe.
Tip— Adjectives usually come before their nouns. The adjective "small" here refers to
"group," not "managers."
Tip—Adverbs like occasionally may either precede or follow the verbs they modify.
Keeping the adverb as close as possible to the verb usually prevents confusion.
Tip— Subordinate clauses should come next to the word or words to which they refer.
Tip—Modifying phrases should come next to the word or words to which they refer.
Tip—Limiting modifiers such as almost, even, and only should come immediately
before the word or words they modify.
In general, placing adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, and other limiting words as close as
possible to the items they describe avoids confusion.
Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a word or (more often) a phrase that is intended to be a modifier but
fails, because the word or words it is supposed to modify are missing or misplaced in the
sentence.
Dangling modifiers often appear at the beginning of a sentence, but they may occur at the end
as well. While they may be understandable, these constructions represent careless writing. The
following are two examples of dangling modifiers:
· Incorrect—While running the company, our financial outlook improved under Alex's
leadership.
· Correct—While Alex was running the company, our financial outlook improved.
The original sentence did not tell who was running the company. Adding the subject "Alex"
provides this information.
The original sentence did not say who or what declared bankruptcy. The revised sentence tells
the reader that it was the company.
To avoid dangling modifiers, make sure that if you start a sentence with a phrase describing an
action, you identify the actor immediately after that phrase.
Remember to place modifiers near the words they modify. If you put modifiers in the wrong
place, you can unintentionally create sentences that are confusing or even funny. But since
your goal in business writing is usually to be clear and serious, you should be aware of
misplaced and dangling modifiers.
· "Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.
"— John F. Kennedy
Parallelism can improve the flow of ideas by helping readers to recognize similar content or
similar functions. The use of parallel words, phrases, and clauses can emphasize or reinforce
your points, giving them clarity and effectiveness, as well as a rhythm that makes them
memorable.
· Incorrect— Sarah would bring four qualities to this job: patience, perseverance,
courtesy, and Spanish.
· Correct —Sarah would bring four qualities to this job: patience, perseverance,
courtesy, and sensitivity to Spanish speakers.
In the original list, the items are not parallel ideas because Spanish is a language, not a quality.
Parallelism ensures that parts of sentences that are equal in purpose are also equal in
grammatical structure.
Using parallel structures—words, phrases, or clauses— in your writing can help your readers
to understand your meaning and can emphasize or reinforce your ideas.
Making Pronouns and Antecedents Agree
To communicate clearly and competently, it is essential to make pronouns agree with
antecedents.
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. A noun is a word that represents a person (Sarah),
place (Chicago), thing (computer), or quality (kindness). The noun that is replaced by a
pronoun is called the antecedent.
Reaching Agreement
The antecedent's gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter) and number (singular or plural)
determine the correct form of the pronoun. When a pronoun agrees with its antecedent, that
means:
There are several mistakes that writers can make if they are not careful about agreement
between pronouns and antecedents.
Common Errors
These mistakes generally occur with two categories of antecedent words:
This category also includes terms that represent a generic or typical member of a
group, such as every worker, the employee, and a supervisor.
2. Collective nouns are words that may be followed by either singular or plural
pronouns, depending on the meaning to be conveyed.
Nonspecific Words
In the past, experts advised writers to use his in sentences where the gender of the antecedent
is not specified, such as in the following example:
Now, however, this is often regarded as sexist. Some writing experts recommend the use of
their in these cases, but this is not considered standard English because the plural pronoun
does not match the antecedent number.
The sentence can be repaired by using one of the following three strategies:
1. Change the pronoun to match the noun in number. This would entail using the
singular form of both genders: his or her. The sentence would then look like this:
3. Rewrite the sentence to evade the problem. The following sentence demonstrates
how this could be done:
It is always advisable to maintain agreement in number and to use pronouns that clearly apply
to both men and women.
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns, such as staff, group, firm, and team, are usually treated as singular in order
to emphasize that they represent single units, rather than individual members. But when the
meaning is clearly plural, collective nouns may be treated as plural.
1. The executive board has decided to delay its decision on new record-keeping
software.
In this example, the pronoun its is used, rather than their, because the executive board
is referred to as a single unit with a single view.
2. The staff are completing a survey to register their views. In this example, the plural
pronoun their is used because staff represents members as individuals who hold
individual views.
Before deciding whether to use a singular or plural pronoun to refer to a collective noun, you
must decide whether the collective noun refers to a group as a unit or to the individual
members.
Checking the agreement between a pronoun and its antecedent (especially in the case of
nonspecific, generic, and collective nouns) and repairing errors by changing a few words or by
more substantial rewriting can help to ensure that your readers will understand your message
and appreciate your professionalism.
Identifying Subjects and Objects
Sometimes deciding what pronoun to use can be tricky. A pronoun is a word (such as I, he, or
they) used to replace a noun, and the form it takes depends on its role in the sentence,
specifically on whether it is an object or a subject.
Definition of Subject
The subject of a sentence is the thing, person, place or quality that performs the action or
embodies the condition described by the verb. For example, the subjects in the following
sentence are Jane and Maurice.
The subjective pronoun is used when the pronoun serves as the subject in a sentence, as in the
following example:
Definition of Object
The objective form of a pronoun is used when the pronoun is part of the object of the
sentence, which means that it is acted upon by the verb. It often follows a preposition. A
preposition links the word that follows it (its object) with another part of the sentence.
Together, the preposition and its object may modify a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, an
adverb, or a verb.
In this example, the pronouns (her and me) are objects of the verb (sent) and the preposition
(to). It would be wrong to write the pronouns in their objective form (The manager sent the
memo to she and I).
Identification Strategies
In longer sentences, it can be difficult to identify the subject or the object. If you are unsure
which is which, use one of the following strategies:
For example, to determine whether me is the correct form in the sentence "Give the
documents to Pauline and me," reverse Pauline and me and see how the sentence
works without it: "Give the documents to me and Pauline." (not I and Pauline).
In the case of you and it, the subjective and objective forms are identical. In all other cases,
you must use different forms of the words for their different functions.
Than and As
Sometimes writers have problems knowing which pronouns to place after the words than and
as. These sentences can actually have different meanings when they are completed by
subjective and objective pronouns. The following examples demonstrate this:
The first example means that the CEO likes Alex better than I do— the word do is omitted but
understood.
The second case means that the CEO likes Alex better than she likes me—she likes is omitted
but understood.
The best way of guaranteeing that you convey the meaning you intend when writing sentences
including as or than is to mentally insert the missing words.
Who or Whom?
The most challenging pronoun for many business writers is the who/whom issue. These
words, which are known as relative pronouns, introduce subordinate clauses (clauses that
cannot stand alone).
Who is the subjective form. Use it as a substitute for I, we, he, she, or they.
Whom is the objective form. Use it as a substitute for me, us, him, her, or them.
The principles that determine the correct form are the same as those for personal pronouns.
Similarly, you can resolve who/whom questions by using the strategies of clarification,
substitution, and replacement.
These strategies of clarification, substitution, and replacement will help make you accurate
decisions about whether to use who or whom. They will also give you more confidence that
his written work will represent a high degree of professionalism.
Using strategies such as simplification, reversal, substitution, and sentence completion can
often help you to know which form to use.
Possessive pronouns, however, do not use apostrophes (his, her, your, etc.). Remembering this
fact will help you overcome one of the most common problems encountered by many writers:
not knowing when to use its and it's.
The correct possessive pronoun for replacing the company's in the example sentence is its, as
shown below:
Its, without an apostrophe, is the pronoun form to use when you mean ownership, origin, or
purpose.
· "I have seen it is new headquarters." This does not make sense, therefore it's is not the
correct form. Use its.
Similarly, it is often possible to replace the questionable word with his— if the sentence
makes sense, then its is the correct form to use. The example again shows how this works:
· "I have seen his new headquarters." This makes sense, meaning its would be correct.
You can use the same strategies for distinguishing between other others words too, such as
your and you're, their and they're, and who's and whose.
Do not forget that possessive pronouns show ownership and do not contain apostrophes.
Remember also the two methods for distinguishing between possessive pronouns and sound-
alike contractions (which do contain apostrophes): substituting the spelled-out contraction for
the questionable word and replacing the questionable word with his.
Using possessives properly will let your readers know who owns what. That's important
information in the business world.
Intensive Pronoun
The following sentences provides an example of how a – self pronoun can be used for
emphasis.
The pronoun himself stresses that it was the CEO who personally awarded the raise. The
pronoun in this case is called an intensive pronoun.
Removing an intensive pronoun from a sentence eliminates the emphasis, but does not change
the essential meaning. "The CEO gave me a raise" still makes sense.
Relfexive Pronoun
The following example demonstrates when to use the pronoun to refer back to the subject.
This example explains that the CEO gave the raise to the CEO. The pronoun himself is
necessary to refer back to the subject, the CEO.
Removing the reflexive pronoun from a sentence would render the sentence meaningless.
"The CEO gave a raise" is not a complete thought.
Nor can a reflexive pronoun be replaced by an alternative pronoun without changing the
meaning of the sentence. For example, "the CEO gave him a raise " is very different from "the
CEO gave himself a raise."
Misuse
You only use – self pronouns when the meaning is intensive or reflexive. Any other use is
wrong. The following example, therefore, is incorrect.
· The CEO and myself negotiated a raise.
Since myself in this example emphasizes nothing and does not refer back to the subject, it
should not be used. The sentence should read:
Excessive use of – self pronouns as intensifiers, even when grammatically correct, can make a
document seem bizarre or silly, as in the following example:
-Self pronouns serve two important functions: they emphasize words and they refer back to
earlier words in their sentences. But they should not be used in place of other personal
pronouns, and they should not be overused as intensifiers.