CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 PROJECT OVERVIEW
One of the main form of communication that has been in use since 19 th century is Radio
Wave communication. Radio Waves have found its place in each and every field whether
it be medical, electronics or space. In general it exists in every system in one or the other
form. The use of Radio Waves had made life much simpler and safer. A heart patient can
be monitored by a doctor remotely sitting in his chamber is because of the use of Radio
Waves. Radio Waves have made communication through telephone, internet etc easier
and cheaper. This project demonstrate one such example were Radio Wave is employed in
a way which is helpful to us. This project is designed and developed for helping the
passengers traveling in bus especially during night. The people who are not aware of the
station on which one should get down will find this very helpful. Here the station name is
displayed and announced simultaneously when the station is about to reach which can
assist both literate and illiterate. The RF technology is used in the project to communicate
between the transmitter and receiver. Each transmitter has a unique binary code which is
transmitted continuously to space in a particular range. This signal is captured by the
receiver when it reaches in its range. So in the case of a bus, the transmitter placed in the
station is detected by the receiver in the bus and the binary code is processed to give out
the station name display and audio corresponding to the binary code in the receiver. A
LCD unit is used for displaying the station name and a speaker is used for the
announcement.

1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

This project is designed and developed for helping the passengers traveling in bus
especially during night. The people who are not aware of the station on which one should
get down will find this very helpful. Here the station name is displayed and announced
simultaneously when the station is about to reach which can assist both literate and
illiterate.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

In This Project after being Designed completed. This dedicated that will minimize the
problems too many passengers in case of naming specific stations so that to have the
required name to each position after stopping the bus. In the future by using this project
idea will be very helpful to many people during travelling from one station to another.
1

1.4 PROCEDURES
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Consulting the surprise.

Browsing on internet.
Data collection and analyses.
Reading difference references books.
Designing the circuit for the system.

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF THE PROPOSED SYTEM

1. Helping the passengers traveling in bus especially during night.
2. Helping the people who are not aware of the station on which one should get
down will find this very helpful.

CHAPTER 2
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Automatic Station Name Display with voice alert for Bus intimation is based traditionally
on RF signal. [1]RF signal at the frequency range 434 MHz is employed for
communication between transmitter unit and receiver unit in this project. Each station is
identified by a unique binary code, for example, 0001 for Kibamba, 0010 for Mbezi, 0100
for Kimara and 1000 for ubungo. This binary code is transmitted by transmitter module
continuously at a frequency range of 434 MHz within a distance of 400 foot outdoor and
200 foot indoor. This distance can be enhanced by using additional RF antenna. When the
receiver comes within the range of transmitter, it receives the data from the transmitter in
the form of RF signal which is further decoded to collect the binary code and display the
station name along with the voice alert.

2.2

TRANSMITTER MODULE
Transmitter section is the smallest section having few components which include:
1.
2.
3.
4.

RF transmitter TWS-434 A
Encoded HT-12 E
Voltage Regulator LM7805.
LM7805 assures a constant supply of +5 V for the transmitter module. This
voltage of +5 V is used to drive transmitter and encoder.

2.2.1 Circuit Description

The third pin of TWS-434 A, RF transmitter and 18 th pin of Encoder HT-12 E is
connected to the output pin of Voltage Regulator LM7805 which drive the circuit with a
constant voltage of 5V. The first pin of TWS-434 A and all the address bus are connected
to second pin of LM7805 which represent ground. [2] The first pin of voltage regulator
receives a voltage of 9V from a battery source. The other connection include a connection
between the Dout (7th pin) of HT-12 E and the data pin (2nd pin) of TWS-434 A.

2.2.2

Working Principle
The binary values unique to each station are assigned by the encoder HT-12 E. Each
address/data input can be set to the logic state 0 or 1. Grounding the pin is taken as 0
while 1 can be achieved by giving 5V or leaving the pins open (No connection). So in
order to get a binary value of 0001 only one pin is pulled high i.e. 13 th pin (D11) is pulled
high while pins 10, 11 and 12 are grounded to represent logical zero. On receipt of
transmit enable i.e. TE-active (14th pin) is pulled low. The data which is here is the binary
3

value is fed as input to the transmitter TWS-434 A from Dout (17th pin) along with
header bits. Received data from HT-12 E encoder is amplitude modulated and transmitted
at a frequency range of 433.92 MHz.

Fig. 2.2 Transmitter Module

2.3 RECEIVER MODULE

Receiver is the output section of the project. Receiver module includes the following
components:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

RF Receiver RWS-434 A
Microcontroller 89C51 which is regarded as the brain of the circuit.
LCD module for display the station name
Audio playback IC APR 9600
Power supply section which contains transformer, rectifier, filter, regulator which
ensures a constant +5V.

Main function of the receiver unit is to detect the RF signal transmitted by the TWS-434A
and give the response according to the received data from the receiver. [3]Varies
components of the receiver unit has its own function.RWS-434 receives the RF signal, AT
89C51 processes the input data and produces a corresponding response, LCD module
considered as the output unit displays the processed data from the microprocessor, APR
9600 gives the output in the form of audio playback which is stored in the internal
4

memory of the IC.

Fig. 2.3 Receiver module

2.3.1

Circuit Description
A constant voltage of +5V is applied to the 4th and 5th pin of the receiver, 2nd pin of the
LCD module, 40th pin of Microcontroller 89C51, 18th pin of the decoded IC HT-12D and
various pins of APR 9600 as shown in figure below through voltage regulator LM7805. It
derives its input voltage from bridge rectifier. The 8 bit data pins D0 - D7 are used to send
information from port 2 of the microcontroller to the LCD. RS (register select) is one of
the important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for their selection as follows.
If RS=0, the instruction code register is selected, allowing the user to send a command
such as clear display, cursor at home, etc. if RS=1 the data register is selected, allowing
the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.R/W input pin of LCD allows the user to
write information to the LCD or read information from it. R/W=1 when reading; R/W=0
when writing. E (enable) the enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented
on its data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must be applied to
this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the data pins. These 3 pins
(RS, RW, and E) of LCD are connected to the 89C51 through port 0. The communication
between AT 89C51 and audio IC APR 9600 is through address/data bus of port 0 of
89C51 and pin 1 and pin 2 namely M1 and M2 of APR 9600. Microcontroller receives
5

data from decoder HT-12 D through port 1 which is an 8 bit bidirectional I/O port from
the output data pins D8-D11 of HT-12 D. The receiver RWS-434 is connected to decoder
such that the received RF signal is fed as input to the data input pin Din (pin 14) of the
decoder from 2nd pin of the receiver.

2.3.2

Working Principle
When the receiver unit comes in the range of transmitter unit which continuously transmit
RF signal, the whole receiver unit gets activated. The receiver unit receives the RF signal
at a frequency range of 434 MHz which actually is a digital data which includes the
binary code assigned to the particular transmitter which denotes a station and a carrier
signal. Digital output is taken from pin 2 of RWS-434 and received by decoder HT-12 D
through data input pin (18th pin). The received serial input data are compared three times
continuously with the local address. If no error or unmatched codes are found, the input
codes are decoded and then transferred to the output pins. The VT (Valid Transmission)
pin (12th pin) gives high to indicate a valid transmission.
The decoded signal is given as data input to AT 89C51 at port 1. On receipt of the binary
code microcontroller which act as a database of station name, compares the received
binary code with its stored binary code, on no error or unmatched code the station name
corresponding to the binary code is displayed on the LCD screen along with a voice alert
from APR 9600.
The whole cycle will be repeated when the receiver receives a new set of binary code
transmitted by some other transmitter denoting a different station. The display will be
active only for pre defined duration, after which the LCD return to its ideal state. The data
to be displayed on the LCD screen is available at port 2 and control of the register of the
LCD is through port 3.

CHAPTER 3
6

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
3.1 RF TRANSMITTER
The function of a radio frequency (RF) transmitter is to modulate, up convert, and
amplify signals for transmission into free space. [4]An RF transmitter generally includes
a modulator that modulates an input signal and a radio frequency power amplifier that is
coupled to the modulator to amplify the modulated input signal. The radio frequency
power amplifier is coupled to an antenna that transmits the amplified modulated input
signal. The RF transmitter used in our project is TWS-434A. This RF transmitter
transmits data in the frequency range of 433.92 MHz with a range of approximately 400
foot (open area) outdoors. Indoors, the range is approximately 200 foot, and will go
through most walls. TWS-434A has features which includes small in size, low power
consumption i.e. 8mW and operate from 1.5 to 12 Volts-DC, excellent for applications
requiring short-range RF signal. Data to be sent is Amplitude modulation with the carrier
RF signal.

Fig. 3.1 RF Transmitter

3.1.1 Pin Description of Transmitter

PIN1:ATAD

NPUT

PIN

FOR

DATA

FROM

ENCODER
PIN2: VCC SUPPLY (+5V)
PIN3: GND GROUND (-5V)
PIN 4: ANT PIN FOR EXTERNAL RF ANTENNA

3.2 RF RECEIVER
7

The RF receiver receives an RF signal, converts the RF signal to an IF signal,

and then converts the IF signal to a base band signal, which it then provides to
the base band processor. As is also known, RF transceivers typically include
sensitive components susceptible to noise and interference with one another and
with external sources. [5]The RF receiver is coupled to the antenna and
includes a low noise amplifier, one or more intermediate frequency stages, a
filtering stage, and a data recovery stage. The low noise amplifier receives an
inbound RF signal via the antenna and amplifies it. The RF receiver used is
RWS-434. This RF receiver receives RF signal which is in the frequency of
434.92 MHz and has a sensitivity of 3uV. The RWS-434 receiver operates from
4.5 to 5.5 volts-DC, and has both linear and digital outputs and its tunable to
match the frequency of the transmitter unit.

Fig. 3.2 RF Receiver

3.2.1 Pin Description of Receiver

PIN1: GROUND (-5V)
PIN2: OUTPUT PIN FOR DIGITAL DATA RECIEVED
PIN3: SUPPLY (+5V)
PIN4: PIN FOR EXTERNAL RF ANTENNA

3.3 ENCODER
An encoder can be a device used to change a signal (such as a bit stream) or data into
8

a code. The code serves any of a number of purposes such as compressing information
for transmission or storage, encrypting or adding redundancies to the input code, or
translating from one code to another. This is usually done by means of a programmed
algorithm, especially if any part is digital, while most analog encoding is done with
analog circuitry. [6]Encoder used here is HT 12E. The HT12E encoder is a CMOS IC
It is capable of encoding 8 bits of address (A0-A7) and 4-bits of data (AD8-AD11)
information. Each address/data input can be set to one of the two logic states, 0 or 1.
Grounding the pins is taken as a 0 while a high can be given by giving +5V or leaving
the pins open (no connection). Upon reception of transmit enable (TE-active low), the
programmed address/data are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF
medium.

Fig. 3.3 Encoder

3.3.1 Pin Description of Encoder

9

Pin

I/O

Internal connection

Description

A0-

CMOS IN Pull-high

Input pins for address A0-A7 setting These

A7

pins can be externally set to VSS or left

open

NMO S TRANSMISSION
GATE PROTECTION
DIODE(HT12E)
Input pins for address/data AD8-AD11
setting

These pins can be externally set to VSS or

AD8NMO S TRANSMISSION

AD1

left open

GATE PROTECTION

DIODE (HT12E)

Inputs pins for data D8-D11 setting and

D8-

transmission enable, active low

D11

These pins should be externally set to VSS

or left open

CMOS IN
Pull-High
DOU

Encoder data serial transmission output

CMOS OUT
Latch/Momentary transmission format

L/MB

I
I

TE

CMOS IN

selection pin: Latch: Floating or VDD

Pull-high

Momentary: VSS
Transmission enable, active low (see note)

CMOS IN
Pull-high

Oscillator input pin

OSC

1
OSC

OSCILLATOR1

Oscillator output pin

OSCILLATOR2

Tab. 3.3.1 Pin Description of Encoder

3.4 DECODER
A decoder is a device which does the reverse of an encoder, undoing the encoding so that
10

the original information can be retrieved. [7] The same method used to encode is usually
just reversed in order to decode. In digital electronics this would mean that a decoder is a
multiple-input, multiple-output logic circuit that converts coded inputs into coded outputs.
Enable inputs must be on for the decoder to function, otherwise its outputs assume a
single "disabled" output code word. Decoding is necessary in applications such as

data multiplexing, 7 segment display and memory address decoding. The decoder
used here is HT 12D. The HT12D is a decoder IC made especially to pair with the HT
12E encoder. It is a CMOS IC. The decoder is capable of decoding 8 bits of address (A0 A7) and 4 bits of data (AD8 - AD11) information. For proper operation, a pair of
encoder/decoder with the same number of addresses and data format should be chosen.
The decoders receive serial addresses and data from programmed encoders that are
transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission medium. They compare the
serial input data three times continuously with their local addresses. If no error or
unmatched codes are found, the input data codes are decoded and then transferred to the
output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission. The decoders are
capable of decoding information that consists of N bits of address and 12_N bits of data.
Of this series, the HT 12D is arranged to provide 8 address bits and 4 data bits.

Fig. 3.4 Decoder

3.4.1 Pin Description of Decoder

11

Pin Name

I/O

Internal

Description

A0-A7

Connection
NMOS

Input pins for address

(HT12D)

Transmission Gate

A0-A7 setting These

pins can be externally
set to VSS or left

D8-D11

CMOS OUT

(HT12D)

open.
Output data pins,
power on state is low

DIN

CMOS IN

Serial data input pin

VT

CMOS OUT

Valid transmission,

OSC1

Oscillator

active high
Oscillator input pin

OSC2

Oscillator

Oscillator output pin

VSS

Negative power

VDD

supply
Positive power
supply
Tab. 3.4.1 Pin description of decoder

3.5 LCD MODULE

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is an electronically-modulated optical device shaped into a
thin, flat panel made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels filled with liquid
crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector. It is often utilized in
battery-powered electronic devices because it uses very small amounts of electric power.
LCD has material which combines the properties of both liquids and crystals. Rather than
having a melting point, they have a temperature range within which the molecules are
almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form
similar to a crystal.[8] LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal materials
sandwiched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates is coated with
transparent electrodes which define in between the electrodes and the crystal, which
makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined orientation angle. When a
potential is applied across the cell, charge carriers flowing through the liquid will disrupt
the molecular alignment and produce turbulence. When the liquid is not activated, it is
transparent. When the liquid is activated the molecular turbulence causes light to be
scattered in all directions and the cell appears to be bright. Thus the required message is
12

displayed. [9]When the LCD is in the off state, the two polarizers and the liquid crystal
rotate the light rays, such that they come out of the LCD without any orientation, and
hence the LCD appears transparent. When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes
the liquid crystal molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays
passing through the LCD would be rotated by the polarizer, which would result in
activating/highlighting the desired characters. The power supply should be of +5v, with
maximum allowable transients of 10mv. To achieve a better/suitable contrast for the
display the voltage (VL) at pin 3 should be adjusted properly. A module should not be
removed from a live circuit. The ground terminal of the power supply must be isolated
properly so that voltage is induced in it. The module should be isolated properly so that
stray voltages are not induced, which could cause a flicking display. LCD is lightweight
with only a few, millimeters thickness since the LCD consumes less power, they are
compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long durations.
LCD does not generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By using
backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. LCDs have long life and a wide operating
temperature range. Before LCD is used for displaying proper initialization should be
done. LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and
pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An external
dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display
structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements. Small monochrome displays
such as those found in personal organizers, or older laptop screens have a passive-matrix
structure employing super-twisted nematic (STN) or double-layer STN (DSTN)
technologythe latter of which addresses a color-shifting problem with the formerand
color-STN (CSTN)wherein color is added by using an internal filter. Each row or
column of the display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time
by row and column addresses. This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed
because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady
electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and correspondingly, columns and rows)
increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Very slow response times and poor
contrast are typical of passive matrix addressed LCDs. High-resolution color displays
such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions use an active matrix structure. A
matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the polarizing and color filters. Each
pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel.
When a row line is activated, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and
13

the correct voltage is driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated
and the next row line is activated. All of the row lines are activated in sequence during a
refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look "brighter" and "sharper" than
passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response
times, producing much better images. A general purpose alphanumeric LCD, with two
lines of 16 characters. So the type of LCD used in this project is16 characters * 2 lines
with 5*7 dots with cursor, built in controller, +5v power supply, 1/16 duty cycle.

3.5.1 LCD Module

Fig. 3.5 LCD Module

14

3.5.1.1 Pin Description of LCD Module

Pin No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Name
I/O
Description
Vss
Power
GND
Vdd
Power
+5v
Vo
Analog
Contrast Control
RS
Input
Register Select
R/W
Input
Read/write
E
Input
Enable (strobe)
D0
I/O
Data LSB
D1
I/O
Data
D2
I/O
Data
D3
I/O
Data
D4
I/O
Data
D5
I/O
Data
D6
I/O
Data
D7
I/O
Data MSB
Tab. 3.5.1.1 Pin Description of LCD Module

3.6 VOICE MODULE

APR9600 device to reproduce voice signals in their natural form. It eliminates the need for
encoding and compression, which often introduce distortion. The APR9600 device offers true
single-chip voice recording, non-volatile storage, and playback capability for 40 to 60
seconds. The device supports both random and sequential access of multiple messages.
Sample rates are user-selectable, allowing designers to customize their design for unique
quality and storage time needs. Integrated output amplifier, microphone amplifier, and AGC
circuits greatly simplify system design. The device is ideal for use in portable voice
recorders, toys, and many other consumer and industrial applications. APLUS integrated
achieves these high levels of storage capability by using its proprietary analog/multilevel
storage technology implemented in an advanced Flash non-volatile memory process, where
each memory cell can store 256 voltage levels. This technology enables the APR9600 device
to reproduce voice signals in their natural form. It eliminates the need for encoding and
compression, which often introduce distortion.

15

Fig. 3.6 Voice Module

3.7 MICROCONTROLLER
A Micro controller consists of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory (RAM, ROM or
EPROM), various I / O features such as Serial ports, Parallel Ports, Timer/Counters, Interrupt
Controller, Data Acquisition interfaces-Analog to Digital Converter (ADC), Digital to Analog
Converter (ADC), [10]everything integrated onto a single Silicon Chip. It does not mean that
any micro controller should have all the above said features on chip, Depending on the need
and area of application for which it is designed, The ON-CHIP features present in it may or
may not include all the individual section said above.

3.7.1 INTRODUCTION TO 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

In 1981,Intel corporation introduced an 8 bit microcontroller called the 8051.This
microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM,4K bytes of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port
and 4 ports(each 8-bits wide)all on single chip. [11]At that time it was also referred to as a
system on a chip. The 8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8bits of data at a time. Data larger than 8-bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be processed
by the CPU. The 8051 can have a maximum of 64K bytes of ROM; many manufacturers have
put only 4Kbytes on chip.

3.7.1.1

The major Features of 8-bit Micro controller ATMEL 89C51

8 Bit CPU optimized for control applications

Extensive Boolean processing (Single - bit Logic) Capabilities.

On - Chip Flash Program Memory

16

On - Chip Data RAM

Bi-directional and Individually Addressable I/O Lines

Multiple 16-Bit Timer/Counters

Full Duplex UART

Multiple Source / Vector / Priority Interrupt Structure

On - Chip Oscillator and Clock circuitry.

On - Chip EEPROM

One Serial communication port

3.7.2 Block Diagram of micro controller

Fig. 3.7.2 Block diagram of microcontroller

17

3.7.3 Oscillator Connection

Fig. 3.7.3 oscillator connection

The P89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM,
32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, five vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full
duplex serial port, and on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the P89C51 is
designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software
selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down
Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until
the next hardware reset.

3.7.4 Memory Organization

3.7.4.1 Program Memory
Figure 4 shows a map of the lower part of the program memory. After reset, the CPU begins
execution from location 0000H. As shown in fig.4, each interrupt is assigned a fixed location
in program memory. The interrupt causes the CPU to jump to that location, where it executes
the service routine. External Interrupt 0, for example, is assigned to location 0003H. If
External Interrupt 0 is used, its service routine must begin at location 0003H. If the interrupt is
not used, its service location is available as general purpose.

18

3.7.4.1.1 Program Memory

(0033)H
002BH
0023H
INTERRUPT LOCATIONS
001BH

8 bytes

0013H
000BH

RESET

0003H
0000H

Fig. 3.7.4.1.1 Program memory

3.7.4.2 Data Memory

The right half of Figure 3 shows the internal and external data memory spaces available on
Philips Flash microcontrollers. Fig.6 shows a hardware configuration for accessing up to 2K
bytes of external RAM. In this case, [12]the CPU executes from internal flash. Port0 serves as
a multiplexed address/data bus to the RAM, and 3 lines of Port 2 are used to page the RAM.
The CPU generates RD and WR signals as needed during external RAM accesses. You can
assign up to 64K bytes of external data memory. External data memory addresses can be either
1 or 2bytes wide. One-byte addresses are often used in conjunction with one or more other I/O
lines to page the RAM, as shown in Fig.6. Two-byte addresses can also be used, in which case
the high address byte is emitted at Port2.

19

3.7.4.3 The lower 128 bytes of internal ram

Fig. 3.7.4.3 The lower 128 bytes of internal ram

3.7.5 REGISTERS
In the CPU, registers are used to store information temporarily. That information could be a
byte of data to be processed, or an address pointing to the data to be fetched. The vast
majority of 8051 registers are 8bit registers. In the 8051 there is only one data type: 8bits.
The 8bits of a register are should in the diagram from the MSB (most significant bit) D7 to the
LSB (least significant bit) D0. With an 8-bit data type, any data larger than 8bits must be
broken into 8-bit chunks before it is processed. Since there are a large number of registers in
the 8051, we will concentrate on some of the widely used general-purpose registers and cover
special registers in future chapters.
D7

3.7.5.1

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

SFRs(SpecialFunctionRegisters):

Among the registers R0-R7 are parts of the 128 bytes of RAM memory. what about registers
A,B, PSW, and DPTR? Do they also have addresses? The answer is yes. In the 8051, registers
20

A, B, PSW and DPTR are part of the group of registers commonly referred to as SFR (special
function registers).

3.7.5.1.1Special function Register

Symbol
ACC
B
PSW
SP
DPTR
DPL
DPH
P0
P1
P2
P3
IP
IE
T MOD
TCON
T2CON
T2MOD
TH0
TL0
TH1
TL1
TH2
TL2
RCAP2H
RCAP2L
SCON
SBUF

Name
Accumulator
B register
Program status word
Stack pointer
Data pointer 2 bytes
Low byte
High byte
Port0
Port1
Port2
Port3
Interrupt priority control
Interrupt enable control
Timer/counter mode control
Timer/counter control
Timer/counter 2 control
Timer/counter mode2 control
Timer/counter 0high byte
Timer/counter 0 low byte
Timer/counter 1 high byte
Timer/counter 1 low byte
Timer/counter 2 high byte
Timer/counter 2 low byte
T/C 2 capture register high byte
T/C 2 capture register low byte
Serial control
Serial data buffer

Address
0E0H
0F0H
0D0H
81H
82H
83H
80H
90H
0A0H
0B0H
0B8H
0A8H
89H
88H
0C8H
0C9H
8CH
8AH
8DH
8BH
0CDH
0CCH
0CBH
0CAH
98H
99H

Tab.3.7.5.1.1 special function register

3.7.6 Pin Diagram of AT89C51

21

Fig. 3.7.6 Pin diagram of AT89C51

3.7.6.1 PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC
Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is +5v.
GND
Pin 20 is the ground.
Port 0
Port 0 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 32-33). It can be used for input or
output. Port0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both
address and data. When connecting an 8051/31 to an external memory,
port 0 provides both address and data.

Port 1
Port 1 occupies a total of 8-pins (pins1-8). It can be used as input or output. In
contrast to port 0, this port does not need any pull-up resistors since it already has pullup resistors internally. Upon reset, port1 is configured as an input port.
Port 2
Port 2 occupies a total 8 pins (pins 21-28). It can be used as input or output. However,
in 8031-based systems, port2 is also designated as A8-A15, indicating its dual function.
22

Since an 8051/31 is capable of accessing 64K bytes of external memory, it needs a path
for the 16 bits of the address.
Port 3
Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 10-17). It can be used as input or output. P3
does not need any pull-up resistors, just as P1 and P2 did not. Although Port 3 is
configured as an input port upon reset, this is not the way it is most commonly used.
Port 3 has the additional function of providing some extremely important signals such
as interrupts. The below table provides these alternate functions of P3.

This is

information applies to both 8051 and 8031 chips.

3.7.6.1.1 Port 3 pin connection

Tab. 3.7.6.1.1 Port 3 pin connection

RST
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device.
ALE/PROG
Prior to each reading from external memory, the microcontroller will set the lower
address byte (A0-A7) on P0 and immediately after that activates the output ALE. Upon
receiving signal from the ALE pin, the external register (74HCT373 or 74HCT375
circuit is usually embedded) memorizes the state of P0 and uses it as an address for
memory chip. In the second part of the microcontrollers machine cycle, a signal on
this pin stops being emitted and P0 is used now for data transmission (Data Bus). In
this way, by means of only one additional (and cheap) integrated circuit, data
23

multiplexing from the port is performed. This port at the same time used for data and
address transmission.
PSEN
Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice
each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access
to external data memory.
EA/VPP
External Access Enable (EA) must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.
EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives
the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts
that require 12-volt VPP.
XTAL1 and XTAL2
The 8051 has an on-chip oscillator but requires an external clock to run it. Most often
a quartz crystal oscillator is connected to inputs XTAL1(pin19) and XTAL2(pin18).
The quartz crystal oscillator connected to XTAL1 and XTAL2 also needs two
capacitors of 30pf value. One side of each capacitor is connected to the ground as
shown in fig1.
TIMERS
On-chip timing/counting facility has proved the capabilities of the microcontroller for
implementing the real time application. These includes pulse counting, frequency
measurement, pulse width measurement, baud rate generation, etc,. Having sufficient
number of timer/counters may be a need in a certain design application. The 8051 has
two timers/counters. They can be used either as timers to generate a time delay or as
counters to count events happening outside the microcontroller. Let discuss how these
timers are used to generate time delays and we will also discuss how they are been used
as event counters.

3.7.6.2 BASIC REGISTERS OF THE TIMER

Both Timer 0 and Timer 1 are 16 bits wide. Since the 8051 has an 8-bit architecture, each 16bit timer is accessed as two separate registers of low byte and high byte.

3.7.6.2.1 TIMER 0 REGISTERS

24

The 16-bit register of Timer 0 is accessed as low byte and high byte. the low byte register is
called TL0(Timer 0 low byte)and the high byte register is referred to as TH0(Timer 0 high
byte).These register can be accessed like any other register, such as A,B,R0,R1,R2,etc.for
example, the instruction MOV TL0, #4Fmoves the value 4FH into TL0,the low byte of
Timer 0.These registers can also be read like any other register.
D15 D14 D13 D12

D11 D10

D9

D8

D7

D6

D5

D4

D3

D2

D1

3.7.6.2.2 TIMER 1 REGISTERS

Timer 1 is also 16-bit register is split into two bytes, referred to as TL1 (Timer 1 low byte) and
TH1 (Timer 1 high byte).these registers are accessible n the same way as the register of Timer
0.

3.7.6.3

TMOD (timer mode) REGISTER

Both timers 0 and 1 use the same register, called TMOD, to set the various timer operation
modes. TMOD is an 8-bit register in which the lower 4 bits are set aside for Timer 0 and the
upper 4 bits for Timer 1.in each case; the lower 2 bits are used to set the timer mode and the
upper 2 bits to specify the operation.

3.7.6.4

TCON REGISTER

TCON controls the timer/counter operations. The lower four bits of TCON cater to interrupt
functions, but the upper four bits are for timer operations. The details of the TCON register are
shown below.

MSB
TF1

LSB
TR1

TF0

TR0

IE1

3.7.6.5 Serial Communication

25

IT1

IE0

IT0

Computers can transfer data in two ways: parallel and serial. In parallel data transfers, often 8
or more lines (wire conductors) are used to transfer data to a device that is only a few feet
away. Examples of parallel transfers are printers and hard disks; each uses cables with many
wire strips. Although in such cases a lot of data can be transferred in a short amount of time
by using many wires in parallel, the distance cannot be great. To transfer to a device located
many meters away, the serial method is used. In serial communication, the data is sent one bit
at a time, in contrast to parallel communication, in which the data is sent a byte or more at a
time. Serial communication of the 8051 is the topic of this chapter. The 8051 has serial
communication capability built into it, there by making possible fast data transfer using only a
few wires.

3.7.6.6 SBUF REGISTER

SBUF is an 8-bit register used solely for serial communication in the 8051. For a byte of data
to be transferred via the TXD line, it must be placed in the SBUF register. Similarly, SBUF
holds the byte of data when it is received by the 8051s RXD line. SBUF can be accessed like
any other register in the 8051.

3.7.6.7 SCON (serial control) register

The SCON register is an 8-bit register used to program the start bit, stop bit, and data bits of
data framing, among other things.
The following describes various bits of the SCON register
SM0

SM1

SM2

REN

TB8

RB8

TI

RI

3.7.6.8 INTERRUPTS
A single microcontroller can serve several devices. There are two ways to do that:
INTERRUPTS or POLLING.

3.7.6.8.1 POLLING
In polling the microcontroller continuously monitors the status of a given device; when the
status condition is met, it performs the service .After that, it moves on to monitor the next
device until each one is serviced. Although polling can monitor the status of several devices
and serve each of them as certain condition are met.

3.7.6.8.2 INTERRUPTS
26

In the interrupts method, whenever any device needs its service, the device notifies the
microcontroller by sending it an interrupts signal. Upon receiving an interrupt signal, the
microcontroller interrupts whatever it is doing and serves the device. The program associated
with the interrupts is called the interrupt service routine (ISR).or interrupt handler.

3.7.6.8.2.1

SIX INTERRUPTS IN THE 8051

In reality, only five interrupts are available to the user in the 8051, but many manufacturers
data sheets state that there are six interrupts since they include reset .the six interrupts in the
8051 are allocated as above.
1. Reset. When the reset pin is activated, the 8051 jumps to address location 0000.this is the
power-up reset.
2. Two interrupts are set aside for the timers: one for Timer 0 and one for Timer
1.Memory location 000BH and 001BH in the interrupt vector table belong to Timer 0 and
Timer 1, respectively.
3. Two interrupts are set aside for hardware external harder interrupts. Pin number 12(P3.2)
and 13(P3.3) in port 3 are for the external hardware interrupts INT0 and
INT1,respectively.These external interrupts are also referred to as EX1 and EX2.Memory
location 0003H and 0013H in the interrupt vector table are assigned to INT0 and INT1,
respectively.
4. Serial communication has a single interrupt that belongs to both receive and transmit. The
interrupt vector table location 0023H belongs to this interrupt.

3.7.6.8.3 Registers
Interrupt Enable Register
D7

D6

D5

D4

EA
ET0

--

ET2
EX0

D3

D2
ES

D1
ET1

D0
EX1

3.7.6.8.4 Interrupt priority upon rest

When the 8051 is powered up, the priorities are assigned according to the below table. in the
below table we see, for example, that if external hardware interrupts 0 and 1 are activated at
the same time, external interrupt 0 (INT0) is responded to first. Only after INT0 has been
serviced is INT1 serviced, since INT1 has the lower priority. In reality, the priority scheme in

27

the table is nothing but an internal polling sequence in which the 8051 polls the interrupts in
the sequence listed in the below table and responds accordingly.

8051/52 Interrupt Priority upon Reset

Highest to Lowest Priority
External Interrupt 0 (INT0)
Timer Interrupt 0 (TF0)
External Interrupt 1 (INT1)
Timer Interrupt 1 (TF1)
Serial Communication (RI+TI)
Timer 2(8052 only) TF2
Setting interrupts priority with the IP register

3.8 RESISTOR
Resistors are the most common passive electronic component (one that does not require
power to operate). [13] They are used to control voltages and currents. The Electronic color
code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, very commonly for
resistors. Resistor values are always coded in ohms, capacitors in Pico farads (pF), inductors
in micro Henry (H), and transformers in volts. Resistor values are normally shown using
colored bands. Each color represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have four bands:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.
The third band indicates the number of zeros.
The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may be
ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.

For example: Resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000k = 270 k On circuit diagrams usually omitted and the value is written
270kFor example, a resistor with bands of yellow, violet, red, and gold will have first digit 4
(yellow in the table below), second digit 7 (violet), followed by 2 (red) zeros: 4,700 ohms.
Gold signifies that the tolerance is 5%, so the real resistance could lie anywhere between
4,465 and 4,935 ohms. Example: - From top to bottom:
Green-Blue-Brown-Black-Brown
561 1%
Red-Red-Orange-Gold
22,000 5%
Yellow-Violet-Brown-Gold
28

470 5%68 10% (this wide of a tolerance is now seldom seen)

Fig. 3.8 resistors

Resistors are the most common passive electronic component (one that does not require
power to operate). They are used to control voltages and currents. While a resistor is a-very
basic component, there are many ways to manufacture them. Each style has its own
characteristics that make it desirable in certain types of applications. Choosing the right type
of resistor is important to making high performance or precision circuits work well. This
bonus chapter over the resistor types and helps with picking the right one for your project.
All resistors are basically just a piece of conducting material with a specific value of
resistance. For that piece of conducting material to be made into a practical resistor, a pair of
electrodes and leads is attached so current can flow. The resistor is then coated with an
insulating material to protect the conducting material from the surrounding environment and
vice versa. [14] There are several different resistor construction methods and body styles (or
packages) that are designed for a certain range of applied voltage, power dissipation, or other
considerations. The construction of the resistor can affect its performance at high frequencies
where it may act like a small inductor or capacitor has been added, called parasitic
inductance or capacitance.
3.9 CAPACITOR
For all practical purposes, consider only the parallel-plate capacitor two conductors or
electrodes separated by a dielectric material of uniform thickness. The conductors can be any
29

material which will conduct electricity easily. The dielectric material must be a poor
conductor an insulator. The symbol for a capacitor used in schematic diagrams of electronic
circuits looks very much like a parallel-plate model. Here is a sample circuit which contains
all the components normally called passive, plus a battery. [15] The battery is an active
component because it can add energy to the circuit. Passive components may store energy
momentarily, but cannot add energy on a continuous basis. The three main passive devices
are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. A favorite analogy compares the flow of electric
current with the flow of water out of a tank. A capacitor stores energy when it is charged.

Fig. 3.9 capacitors

Capacitor has ability to store charge and release them at a later time. Capacitance is the
measure of the amount of charge that a capacitor can store for a given applied voltage. The
unit of capacitance is the farad (F) or microfarad. The capacitors used in the circuit are
electrolytic-capacitor. [16] In the circuit the electrolytic capacitor is used as a bypass
capacitor. Any noise variation in the circuit is removed by the capacitor. Ceramic capacitor
can be used anywhere a capacitor having very low internal parasitic inductance is required
most commonly they are used as power supply bypass capacitors. They are also sometimes
used for coupling capacitors for HF signal amplifiers. The capacitors used in the circuit are
electrolytic-capacitor. In the circuit the electrolytic capacitor is used as a bypass capacitor.
Any noise variation in the circuit is removed by the capacitor. Ceramic capacitor can be used
anywhere a capacitor having very low internal parasitic inductance is required most
commonly they are used as power supply bypass capacitors. Also in this there is, Passive
components may store energy momentarily, but cannot add energy on a continuous basis. The
three main passive devices are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. A favorite analogy
compares the flow of electric current with the flow of water out of a tank. A capacitor stores
energy when it is charged.
30

CHAPTER 4
DESIGN AND SIMULATION
4.1

BLOCK DIAGRAM
The block diagram consists of the transmitter and receiver section. They can be represented
as the following block diagrams.

4.1.1 Transmitter

31

Fig. 4.1.1 Block diagram of Transmitter Module

4.1.1.1 The main parts in the transmitter are:

Power Supply
The power supply section is the section which provide +5V for the transmitter section
to work. IC LM7805 is used for providing a constant power of +5V.
Encoder
This section contains the identity of the transmitter. [6] An encoder can be a device
used to change a signal (such as a bit stream) or data into a code. The code serves any
of a number of purposes such as compressing information for transmission or storage,
encrypting or adding redundancies to the input code etc.
RF Transmitter
This section transmits the binary data to space in a particular range based on the
antenna used. [5] This signal is received by the receiver and it compares the binary
code to find the corresponding station name from the database.

4.1.2

Receiver

Fig. 4.1.2 Block diagram of Receiver

Power Supply
32

The power supply section is the section which provide +5V for the transmitter section
to work. IC LM7805 is used for providing a constant power of +5V.
Decoder
A decoder is a device which does the reverse of the encoder, undoing the encoding so
that the original information can be retrieved.
Microcontroller
Unlike microprocessors, microcontrollers are generally optimized for specific
applications. As a result the peripherals can be simplified and reduced which cuts
down the production cost.
RF Receiver
The RF signal transmitted by the transmitter is detected and received by this section
of the receiver. This binary encoder data is sent to the decoder for decoding the
original data.
LCD
This is the output unit in the receiver section. [5] The station name is displayed on
this display unit when the receiver comes in the range of the transmitter.
Voice Alert
This is another output unit in the receiver. This gives the voice alert of the station
reached based on the RF transmitter signal received.
4.2 SIMULATION CIRCUIT OF TRANSMITTER

33

Fig. 4.2 Simulation circuit of transmitter

4.3 SIMULATION CIRCUIT OF RECEIVER

34

Fig. 4.3 simulation circuit of receiver

35

4.4 SIMULATION CIRCUIT OF FULL PROJECT

Fig. 4.4 Simulation circuit of full project

CHAPTER 5
IMPLEMENTATION
5.1 TESTING
36

Testing is one of the important stages in the development of any new product or repair of
existing ones. Because it is very difficult to trace a fault in a finished work, especially
when the work to be tested is too complex. For the purpose of this project, two stages of
testing are involved
i.
ii.

Pre-implementation testing
Post-implementation testing.

5.1.1 PRE-IMPLEMENTATION TESTING

It is carried out on the components before they are soldered to the vero-board. This is to
ensure that each component is in good working condition before they are finally soldered
to the board. The components used in this design are grouped into two.
Discrete components e.g. resistors, capacitors, transistors. Etc.
Integrated circuit components. The discrete components are tested with a millimeter by
switching the meter to the required value and range corresponding to each discrete
component to check for continuity.

5.1.2 POST-IMPLEMENTATION TESTING

After implementing the circuit on a project board, the different sections of the complete
system were tested to ensure that they were in good operating condition. The continuity
test carried out is to ensure that the circuit or components are properly linked together. This
test was carried out before power was supplied to the circuit. Finally, after troubleshooting
has been done on the whole circuit, power was supplied to the circuit. Visual
troubleshooting was also carried out at this stage to ensure that the components do not burn
out. Different load was added or connected to the power outlet ranging from 25 watts to
200 watts of [17] power to check if the circuit can carry it without any effect to the circuit.
After all the test and observations as explained above, the project was now certified ready
for packaging.

5.2 Result
The results obtained during the construction states after necessary troubleshooting were
satisfactory. The system was able to respond to its operation on the following electrical and
electronic system such as in industries and in domestic purpose. Also, the microcontroller
functions according to the program used for the software design implementation. It is
37

worth mentioning how fascinating it is to see a designed project working satisfactorily.

CHAPTER 6
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
6.1 EMBEDDED LANGUAGE
Embedded software is in almost every electronic device designed today. There is software
38

hidden away inside our watches, microwave, Music system, cellular phones etc .military uses
embedded software to guide smart missiles and detect enemy aircraft; communication
satellites, space probes and modern medicine could be nearly impossible without it.
Embedded softwares are developed using a different version of c called embedded c which is
a different version of c to suit the programming of microcontroller.

6.2 INTRODUCTION TO KEIL COMPILER

When the Keil Vision is used, the project development cycle is roughly the same as it is for
any other software development project.
Create source file in C or assembly
Build application with the project manager Correct errors in
source file
Test the linked application

6.3 VISION IDE

The vision IDE combines project managements, a rich featured editor with interactive error
correction, option setup make facility, and online help. Use vision to create source files and
organize them into a project that defines your target application. vision automatically
compiles, assembles and links your embedded application and provides a single focal point
for your development efforts.

6.4 C51 COMPILER AND A51 MACRO ASSEMBLER

Source file created by vision IDE and passed to the C51 compiler macro assembler. The
compiler and assembler process source files and create relocatable object files. The keil C51
compiler is a full ANSI implementation of the C programming language that supports all
standard features of the C language.

6.5 LIB51 LIBRARY MANAGER

The LIB 51 lib manager allows you to create object library from the object file created by the
compiler and assembler. Libraries are specially, ordered collection of object modules that
may be used by the linker at a later time. When the linker processes a library, only those
object modules in the library that are necessary to create the program are used.

6.6 BL51 LINKER/LOCATOR

The BL 51 linker/locator creates an absolute ELF/DWARF files using the object module
extracted from libraries and those created by the compilers and assembler. An absolute object
39

file or module contains no relocatable code and data reside at a fixed memory location. The
absolute ELF/DWARF file used: To program ad flash ROM or other memory devices with
Vision debugger for simulation and target debugging.

6.7 VISION DEBUGGER

Vision symbolic source level debugger is ideally suited for fast, reliable program
debugging. The debugger includes a high-speed simulator that can simulate an entire 8051
system including on-chip peripherals and external hardwares. The attributes of the chip used
are automatically configured when device is selected from device database.
The Vision debugger provides several ways for testing programs on real target hardware.
Install the Mon51 target monitor on the target system and download the program using the
Monitor51 interface built into the Vision Debugger.
Use the advanced GDI interface to attach, use the Vision Debugger front end with the target
system.

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
7.1 CONCLUSION
The design and development of Automatic station name display with voice alert for bus
intimation inside bus compartment have been successfully designed, fabricated and tested.
40

With the implementation of low cost and flexibility in design, this kit can reduce our tension
in journey to unknown place. This project demonstrates how RF signal along with embedded
system can make our life simpler without causing any ill effect or affecting other devices.
There are plenty of such examples showing how embedded system makes our life simpler
and tension free. This project has plenty of rooms for expansion like the use of GPS system
instead of RF signal, interfacing with pc for different forms of output, harness of solar energy
as the unit consumes very low power etc. Its use is not limited to bus stand or railway station,
with suitable modification the system can be used to serve other purposes like providing
assistance to blind in their homes, providing security for valuable items etc.

41

7.2 FUTURE WORK

This project after being designed completed. This dedicated that will minimize the problems
to many passengers in case of naming specific stations so that to have the required name to
each position after stopping the bus. In the future by using this project idea will be very
helpful to many people during travelling from one station to another.

42

PROGRAM
Main Coding
#include<reg51.h>
sbit rs=P3^5;
sbit rw=P3^6;
sbit e=P3^7;
sbit kibamba=P1^0; // kibamba station
sbit mbezi=P1^1; // mbezi sation
sbit kimara=P1^2; //kimara station
sbit ubungo=P1^3; //ubungo station
sbit voice1=P3^0; //
sbit voice2=P3^1;
sbit voice3=P3^2;
sbit voice4=P3^3;
void delay(int k) //delay function
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<k;i++)
for(j=0;j<1275;j++);
}
void write(int j)
{
rs=1; //selecting rs pin to data mode
rw=0; //selecting rw pin to write mode
P2=j; //putting value on the pins
e=1; //high pulse
delay(1);
e=0; // low pulse
return;
}

43

void cmd(int j) //command function

{
P2=j; //put the data on pins
rs=0; //selecting rw pin to command mode
rw=0; //selecting to write
e=1;
delay(1);
e=0;
return;
}
void puts(char *a) // function to display string on LCD'
{
unsigned int p=0;
for(;a[p]!=0;p++)
write(a[p]);
}
void lcd_init(void) // function to initialise the LCD
{
cmd(0x38);
delay(1);
cmd(0x0c); //LCD turning on cmd
delay(1);
cmd(0x01); //clear lcd cmd
cmd(0x80); // starting point of LCD
}
void main()
{
lcd_init(); //LCD intialization
kibamba=mbezi=kimara=ubungo=0; //configuring as input pins
kibamba=mbezi=kimara=ubungo=1; //lowering input pins
voice1 = 0;
44

while(1)
{
if(kibamba==0&&mbezi==0&&kimara==0&&ubungo==0) //WHEN NO ANY STATION
DETECTED
{
cmd(0x80);

// to move the cursor to starting point of LCD

puts("AUTOMATIC STATIO ");

// displays name of project on lcd

cmd(0xC0);// command to go second line

puts("N NAME DISPLAY>>");
voice1=0;
voice2=0;
voice3=0;
voice4=0;
}
else if(kibamba==1&&mbezi==0&&kimara==0&&ubungo==0) // when kibamba signal is
detected
voice1=1
{
cmd(0x80);
puts(" KIBAMBA STATION ");

// displays kibamba station on lcd

cmd(0xC0);// command to go second line

puts(" 'WELCOME' ");
}
else if(kibamba==0&&mbezi==1&&kimara==0&&ubungo==0) // when mbezi signal is
detected
voice2=1;
{
cmd(0x80);
puts(" MBEZI STATION

");

// displays mbezi on lcd

cmd(0xC0); //command to go second line

puts(" 'WELCOME' ");
45

}
else if(kibamba==0&&mbezi==0&&kimara==1&&ubungo==0) // when kimara signal is
detected
voice3=1;
{
cmd(0x80);
puts(" KIMARA STATION ");

// displays kimara station on lcd

cmd(0xC0); //command to go second line

puts(" 'WELCOME' ");
}
else if(kibamba==0&&mbezi==0&&kimara==0&&ubungo==1) // when ubungo signal is
detected
voice4=1;
{
cmd(0x80);
puts(" UBUNGO STATION

"); // displays ubungo station on lcd

cmd(0xC0); // command to go second line

puts(" 'WELCOME' ");
}
}
}

46

APPENDIX
RF

Radio Frequency

GPS

Global Position System

LCD

Liquid Crystal Display

Mhz

Mega Hertz

GND

Ground

R/W

Read and Write

AD

Address Data

VT

Valid Transmission

IC

Integrated Circuit

RS

Register Select

DC

Direct Current

CMOS

Complementary metaloxidesemiconductor

NMO S

N-Channel MOSFET

AD

Address Data

IR

Infrared

VT

Valid Transmission

VDD

Positive Supply Voltage

VCC

Positive Supply Voltage

STN

Super Twisted Nematic

DSTN

Double Layer Super Twisted Nematic

TFTS

Thin Film Transistors

ADC

Analog To Digital Converter

CPU

Central Processing Unit

RAM

Random Access Memory

ROM

Read Only Memory

EPROM

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

EEPROM

Electric Erasable Memory

DAC

Digital To Analog Converter

I/O

Input and Output

UART

Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter

47

RD

Read Data

WR

Write State

LSB

Least Significant Bit

MSB

Most Significant Bit

SFRS

Special Function Registers

RXD

Receiver

TXD

Transmitter

INT

Interrupt

48

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[2]

T. K. Nguyen, V. Krizhanovskii, J. Lee, S. K. Han, S. G. Lee, N. S. Kim, and C. S. Pyo,

A low-power RF direct-conversion receiver/transmitter for 2.4-GHz-band IEEE 802.15.4
standard in 0.18-??m CMOS technology, IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech., vol. 54, no.
12, pp. 40624071, 2006.

[3]

W. Namgoong and T. H. Meng, Direct-conversion RF receiver design, IEEE Trans.

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[4]

A. Bellaouar, RF transmitter architectures for integrated wireless transceivers, in

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J. Duperre, G. Burgett, R. Garg, and S. P. Khatri, RF receiver and transmitter for insect
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