Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 720731

www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

Potential of emerging glazing technologies for highly glazed

buildings in hot arid climates
AbuBakr S. Bahaj, Patrick A.B. James *, Mark F. Jentsch
Sustainable Energy Research Group, School of Civil Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton,
Highfield, Southampton SO19 1BJ, UK
Received 22 March 2007; received in revised form 14 May 2007; accepted 14 May 2007

Abstract
In order to improve the sustainability of buildings one of the challenges is to address the role of the building envelope as the key climate
moderator between the internal and external environments. The envelope is exposed to the elements and needs to control air exchange as well as
sunlight and sound passing through to the occupants. Therefore, it has a major impact not only on the energy utilisation within the space it controls
but also on the quality of comfort. However, inside highly glazed modern buildings, achieving good comfort is often at the cost of high-energy
consumption. Therefore, in the light of ever increasing energy costs, improved facade design can contribute to a reduction of operational costs. The
aim of this paper is to explore technical, economic, environmental and indoor comfort implications of emerging glazing technologies for energy
control of highly glazed buildings in arid Middle Eastern climates, which is one of the harshest climates for this building type. The work includes
predictions through thermal simulation of the impact of electrochromic glazing, holographic optical elements (HOE), aerogel glazing and thin film
photovoltaics on two example buildings. Potential reductions in cooling demand are assessed.
# 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: High rise buildings; Glazing; Facade; Air conditioning; Thermal simulation; Arid climate; BiPV

1. Background
1.1. Daylight architecture and sunlight architecture
The primary function of a building is to provide a secure
shelter from the elements, regardless of the climatic zone within
which it is located [1,2]. In this respect, the facade, which acts
as the primary climate moderator, is a key component in
ensuring comfortable indoor conditions [3]. Over centuries the
facade, in vernacular architecture, has been optimised towards
specific regions and climates [4]. The temperature level and the
availability of sunlight play key roles in determining the
architectural appearance of traditional building forms. It is
possible to distinguish between daylight architecture as it is
found in central Europe (Fig. 1) and the sunlight architecture of
hot arid climates such as the Arabian Peninsula (Fig. 2).
Daylight architecture is characterised by window openings of a
large height to maximise daylight penetration into the building,

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 2380 593941; fax: +44 2380 677519.
E-mail address: paj1@soton.ac.uk (P.A.B. James).
0378-7788/$ see front matter # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.05.006

whilst sunlight architecture tries to avoid solar gain by using

small windows and appropriate shading devices such as the
traditional Arabic window opening with transmission reducing
ornamental structures (arabesques).
For centuries, window glass was an expensive product and
therefore large glazed areas were seen as a visible indicator of
the wealth of a building owner. For example, in the UK between
1696 and 1851 building taxation was imposed based on the
number of windows above 6 on the main facade. This wealth
indicator tradition continues today with glass still being
considered to be a prestigious material. It is furthermore
associated with positive values of openness, transparency,
insideoutside connection, freshness, modernity and brightness.
During the industrial revolution the availability of glass as a
mass product at a considerably lowered price alongside new
construction possibilities in steel and concrete allowed larger
glazed areas to be realised. However, highly glazed buildings
constructed in Europe and America within the modern
architecture movement at the beginning of the 20th century
soon revealed negative effects in terms of indoor comfort.
Buildings were difficult to heat in winter and tended to overheat

A.B.S. Bahaj et al. / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 720731

Fig. 1. Daylight architectureOld market place in Stralsund, Germany.

in summer. This was compensated by advances in central

heating systems, glazing technology (double glazing) and the
invention of compressor-driven air-conditioning systems in the
beginning of the 20th century [5]. Furthermore, these
technologies enabled the construction of fully glazed skyscrapers, as first conceived by Mies van der Rohe in the 1920s
[6]. However, extensive utilisation of heating and cooling
facilities in order to compensate for the negative effects caused
by large glazed areas implicitly leads to high energy
consumption and, increasingly, high costs. Nevertheless, highly
glazed buildings, which have their roots in daylight architecture, have become a world-wide standard for non-domestic
constructions such as offices and hotels.

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emergence of the Emirates Airline as a major world player,

since its establishment in 1985 [7]. The future market for
glazing technologies in this region is therefore likely to be
dominated by hotels, holiday homes and retail with a smaller
office component. The facade performance requirements of
hotels (room accommodation) and office spaces (computer
terminals) are potentially very different. The majority of office
users work within a specific space for a prolonged period and so
it is, therefore, important that the conditions are appropriate to
their needs. Daylight issues such as glare impact on office users,
but are of far less of a concern to the hotel industry.
A comparison between the modern high-rise glass structures
being constructed in emerging Middle Eastern cities and areas
such as Dubai today and the traditional buildings of countries
such as Yemen (Fig. 2.) reveal stark differences. The latter
represent the vernacular architecture of the region, which is
based on principles of high thermal mass and natural ventilation
with small openings in the facade. This is in complete contrast
to steel framed, curtain walled towers often being constructed
in the region today, which are essentially a development of the
daylight architecture of moderate climates. In the Middle East,
such structures can only function through extensive mechanical
support, essentially in the form of air-conditioning which is in
turn reliant on low cost, fossil fuel derived electricity [5].
1.3. High rise glass buildings

Many regions in the Middle East; most notably Dubai; are

attempting to reinvent themselves as major international
holiday and shopping destinations to reduce their future
dependence on income from oil. This can be seen not only from
the continual and rapid construction in the region but the

All around the world, be it in for example, New York,

London, Frankfurt, Hong Kong or Houston, the skyline is
dominated by glass towers. It is surprising that there is
apparently one building form appropriate for such different
climates and cultures. This inconsistency becomes evident
when comparing the global horizontal irradiance levels and
temperature profiles of for example, Dubai and London (Figs. 3
and 4). Whilst the majority of high-rise tower buildings in
Europe, America and the Far East are constructed as office
buildings in order to give a company statement, in the Middle
East the high rise building market is dominated by hotels and
residential towers. For example, the tallest hotel in the world is

Fig. 2. Sunlight architectureBuraa District, Tahamah Province, Yemen.

Fig. 3. Monthly horizontal irradiance distribution (kWh/m2 month) of Dubai

(top) and London (bottom) (data source Meteonorm weather database [8]).

1.2. Contemporary architecture in the Middle East

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create a major potential market for emerging glazing

technologies.
A radical change of built form in the near future appears
unrealistic even though it is perhaps desirable from a
sustainability perspective. Therefore, advanced glazing and
solar control technologies are key to improving current
performance levels and represent a first step towards higher
sustainability of highly glazed tower buildings if these continue
to be constructed. Section 2 gives an overview of the
development in glazing related facade technologies in terms
of solar control, daylighting and power generation (photovoltaics) and their potential benefit to the Middle Eastern market.
Emerging technologies are compared with solar control, low-e
glazing which is the current industry standard in this market.
Fig. 4. Annual temperature profiles of Dubai (top) and London (bottom) (data
source Meteonorm weather database [8]).

currently the Burj-al-Arab in Dubai at 321 m (see Fig. 9

schematic), which will be surpassed by the Rose Rotana Suites,
also in Dubai, which are currently under construction and will
be 333 m high.
Whilst there are advantages to high-rise glass towers such as
small land take and constructability (reduced risk) their
adoption in certain climates appears at best inappropriate
and at worst cavalier in attitude. In essence, tower blocks can be
considered to be the most vulnerable building type to climate
variations and in particular solar impact (Fig. 5), since they
have large surfaces exposed to the elements and often an
unfavourable volume to surface ratio [2]. Studies in Germany of
highly glazed buildings show that glass towers in particular
consume large amounts of energy and/or are at risk of having an
uncomfortable room climate if no full mechanical cooling
system is provided [9].
It is perhaps the case, that in areas such as Dubai building
form is often driven by status and prestige rather than more
fundamental environmental control, which vernacular architecture was forced to address as its focus. Whilst this can be
seen as a failing predominantly driven by peoples
expectations that building form should be the same regardless
of climate, with glass the building material of choice it does

Fig. 5. Schematic representation of a tower block and a low rise building with
identical volume showing why tower blocks are considered to be the most
vulnerable building type to extreme climate conditions.

1.4. Comfortable indoor environment

Assessment of comfort requirements for hotels and
residential buildings is potentially more difficult than for
offices as user perception may vary more significantly
depending on circumstances, experience, cultural and intellectual background. However, basic needs for a well-received
interior space can be derived from studies on office
environments. Extensive UK office post occupancy evaluation
(POE) studies have identified key parameters, which are crucial
in determining how successful a workspace is in realising the
target of happy and productive office users. Studies by
Leaman and Bordass [10,11] concluded that an ideal UK office
space should be naturally ventilated and shallow plan with
manual components for the users to operate (windows, heating,
ventilation ducts, etc.). This helps to provide good comfort,
which appears to be closely related to ability for personal
control. Users need to be able to easily comprehend these
component functions (window openings, lighting scheme, etc.)
in order to prevent failure in performance and to achieve high
satisfaction levels inside the building. Furthermore, it is
important that the design intent of a building is understood by
the facility manager and the users. In the event of building
related problems being noted by users, a quick reaction by the
facility management is vital to prevent dissatisfaction. Studies
at the University of Southampton [12,13] have shown that a
failure to respond quickly to users needs can result in a
reinforcement of negative perceptions over time even if
performance improvements in the environmental room conditions are ultimately achieved.
Furthermore, Leaman and Bordass [11] have identified
ventilation type as one of the key components related to
productivity and comfort. In particular, inside air-conditioned
spaces, office users can experience health problems, the so
called sick building syndrome or building related ill-health.
Generally it can be stated that a controlled environment such as
in an air-conditioned space requires higher levels of facilities
management and committed staff to compensate for the lack of
personal control. In conclusion, the Leaman and Bordass work
[10,11] suggests that air conditioned spaces are less likely to be
favoured by office users if a naturally ventilated/mixed mode
operation of a building is possible.

A.B.S. Bahaj et al. / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 720731

Highly glazed tall buildings in the Middle East, have little

choice but to commit themselves to a fully mechanically
controlled ventilation and cooling strategy. Buildings often
become fully automated spaces controlled by complex building
management systems (BMS). The potential for personalisation
of space through manual intervention and in particular user
interaction with the facade is therefore at best reduced if not
impossible. However, the majority of these Middle Eastern
buildings can be considered as thoroughly managed, high-end
constructions with a fast responding facility management
regime which means that building related ill-health is less likely
to happen. However, this strategy implies a cost premium in
operation as well as a potentially high energy consumption to
satisfy user needs. Such a high level of automation in many
aspects enhances the potential of certain emerging glazing
technologies, in particular, those which enable the regulation of
daylight and solar gain, such as switchable electrochromic
glazing (see Section 2.1). This may help to save both costs and
energy.
2. Overview of emerging glazing technologies
The facade of a building should address thermal, acoustic
and visual comfort [14,15]. The glazing in particular needs to
contribute to providing appropriate thermal and visual comfort.
In terms of energy performance, avoiding solar gain whilst
providing the required level of air exchange, are the key
parameters for an air-conditioned space in Middle Eastern
locations such as Dubai. Consequently, emerging glazing
technologies with potential to enhance energy performance of
highly glazed buildings have been reviewed across the areas of
(Section 2.1) high performance insulation (HPI), solar control
(SC) and daylighting (DL). In addition, the potential of (Section
2.2) photovoltaic facades (PV) has been assessed. Certain
technologies such as aerogel glazing (see Section 2.1) can be
viewed as potentially providing performance benefits across
more than one area.
In general, solar control is achieved using two or more
facade components such as an openable window in conjunction
with an internal blind. A simple smart facade progression
would be, for example, the interpane blind where the blind
elements are incorporated within a double glazed unit. In this
case, combining the two technologies has clear advantages
producing an aesthetically pleasing solution, with low
maintenance cost (no dust cleaning issues for the blind
lamellae) and reduced solar heat gain to an office space.
However, the integration does create problems of high window
pane temperature resulting in the potential for radiant
discomfort for office users close to the facade. At present,
for many of the smart glazing technologies which are
discussed, there appear to be these incidental problems which
can serve to reduce their true market potential.
Seven technologies have been assessed across a range of
criteria essentially addressing performance (user comfort
and impact on building carbon footprint), operation and
maintenance (O&M), availability, lifetime and risk. The
desire is for new glazing and facade technologies to

723

create energy efficient spaces in which people wish to live

and work. If they cannot deliver this, these technologies will
have failed.
A simple overview of the seven investigated glazing
technologies in terms of performance and risk criteria is
shown in Fig. 6 comparing them to state of the art low-e glazing
and tinted glass. No one glazing technology can be viewed as a
magic bullet which can be considered to tick all the right
boxes. Indeed high performance, low-e glazing with an
appropriate shading solution to reduce solar gain can still in
many respects be viewed as superior.
2.1. High performance insulation, solar control and
daylighting solutions
2.1.1. Aerogel glazing (HPI and DL)
Aerogels are a class of open celled mesoporous solids with a
minimum porosity of 50% by volume. They have a density
ranging from 1 to 150 kg/m3 and are typically 9099.8% air.
Aerogels can be formed from a variety of materials including
silica, alumina, transition and lanthanide metal oxides, metal
chalcogenides, organic and inorganic polymers and carbon.
Aerogel, as an insulation material was originally developed by
NASA [16,17] and is the lowest density solid knownoften
termed solid air.
Significant capacity of translucent curtain walling using
aerogel started to appear on the market in 2006 [18].
Polycarbonate construction panels which enclose the granular
aerogel weigh less than 20% of the equivalent glass unit and
have 200 times the impact strength. Light transmission and Uvalue of aerogel panels are a function of panel thickness. For
example, a 25 mm thick panel (equivalent to a standard 6/12/
6 mm double glazed unit, typical U-value 1.4 W/m2 K) would
have a U-value of 0.57 W/m2 K, a light transmission of
45% and a g-value 0.43 (solar heat gain coefficient of 43%)
[19]. Such high performance, coupled with low density and
excellent light diffusing properties make them particularly

Fig. 6. Simple evaluation of glazing technologies in terms of performance and

risk criteria. For example, electrochromic glazing has good solar control
performance (+), but has an unproven lifetime ( ).

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appropriate for rooflight applications (e.g. shopping malls and

swimming pools).
Clear aerogel glazing offers the promise of exceptionally
low U-value windows (0.1 W/m2 K), better insulating than a
modern wall construction. However, at present this technology
is far from market and remains stubbornly at the R&D phase.
Originally developed by NASA [18], aerogel glazing is often
portrayed as the holy grail of future glazing. However, the
largest aerogel windows produced to date are approximately
1 m2 in size [20]. In general, they have poor optical clarity and
are brittle. Despite these problems, the long-term potential of
the technology is very high.
2.1.2. Vacuum glazing (HPI and DL)
At present high performance, low-e double glazing can
produce U-values of the order of 1.0 W/m2 K. Vacuum glazing
available today offers a step change reduction down to 0.2 W/
m2 K [21]. There are however, vacuum lifetime issues with the
technology at present, primarily as a result of market caution
associated with the limited number of long-term case study
examples. The technology is effectively competing with
aerogel to produce mass market super-insulation as it can
also be used to produce high performance vacuum insulation
panels (VIP).
2.1.3. Switchable reflective glazing (SC and DL)
Active thin films on glazing have long been seen as a very
attractive approach to solar control and daylight regulation in
highly glazed buildings. Whilst external shading devices are
almost always the best approach to solar control there are
many reasons why their application is considered undesirable
such as capital cost, aesthetics, maintenance, structural
restrictions and wind loading, especially on high rise
buildings. Reflection of solar gain from a facade would be
the best alternative but this can create glare issues for the
exterior surrounding which is critical for architectural
applications, in particular for high-rise buildings. Therefore,
a possible application may be light guiding elements such as
switchable reflective light shelves [22]. At present, switchable
reflective glazing is at the early stage of laboratory
development [23,24].
2.1.4. Electrochromic glazing (SC and DL)
Electrochromic glazing and associated technologies such as
user controllable photochromic [25] and gasochromic [24]
windows are essentially variable tint glazing. The active layer is
a film which either requires a low dc voltage (electrochromics,
user controllable photochromics) or hydrogen (gasochromic) to
change from a bleached to a coloured state. The most advanced
of these technologies are electrochromic devices which are
commercially available at small scale. To reduce the solar gain
a dc voltage is applied to the glass and the tint of the glazing
becomes progressively darker. However, as the glass becomes
darker, the radiant temperature of the window pane will rise due
to the greater absorption of light. Nevertheless, such a
technology has strong potential for air-conditioned buildings
in particular where the problems associated with the high

window pane temperature can, to a certain extent, be

moderated. The visual light transmittance of electrochromic
glazing is typically between about 50 and 60% in the bleached
and 5 and 15% in the coloured states respectively [26,27]. The
g-value is typically around 0.5 for the bleached state and 0.1 for
the coloured state [27]. A commercial assessment of
electrochromic glazing by Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory suggests that for air-conditioned offices, reductions in
cooling loads of 1926% would be expected [28]. However, at
present there are a range of both technical and non-technical
issues that need to be addressed to enable significant market
penetration.
Technical issues include:
(i) Switching time: 510 min from fully coloured to bleached
states.
(ii) Glare: many switchable glazings require secondary glare
protection, in particular for office use.
(iii) Colour rendering: the luminous colour provided is very
different to the normal spectrum and so could be
considered to be inappropriate for many building applications.
Non-technical issues include:
(i) Cost: premium over low-e double glazing is too high at
present.
(ii) Lifetime: early adopter risk is high with typical warranties
of only five years being offered at present on the switching
performance of the glazing. This is very short compared
with the 30 years lifetime of a more traditional facade
technology.
Research is also in progress to address some of the hot pane
drawbacks of electrochromics by combining them with for
example vacuum panel glazing [29]. Furthermore, user
acceptance of electrochromic windows is also being investigated [26].
2.1.5. Suspended particle devices (SC and DL)
Suspended particle devices (SPD) essentially perform the
same function as electrochromics. An SPD film is laminated
between two panes of glass in which light absorbing molecules
are randomly orientated in their normal (unenergised) state,
creating a light absorbing film. If a current is applied, the
molecules align perpendicular to the plane of the glazing,
creating a transparent glass [22,30]. Unlike electrochromics,
the switching time is very fast (1 s) but the issues of radiant
temperature, glare, colour rendering, clearness and lifetime are
still potential problems.
2.1.6. Holographic optical elements (DL or SC)
Holographic optical elements (HOE) are light guiding
elements consisting of a holographic film laminated between
two sheets of glass. Direct sunlight incident on a facade is
redirected at a predefined angle through diffraction at the
holographic interlayer (Fig. 7). The primary application is seen

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725

Fig. 7. Function of a holographic optical element (HOE) for redirecting

incident direct sunlight.

as enhanced daylighting where natural light can be redirected

onto the ceiling of an internal space. This natural light should
enhance comfort for users and reduce artificial lighting
requirements. This in turn reduces the air-conditioning loads
associated with the heat gains that artificial lighting produces.
However, the diffraction efficiency of the transmitted visible
light is only in the range of 2555% which means that glare
effects cannot be prevented [31]. Further potential problems
include edge effects with light dispersion into rainbow colours
and the transparency of the holographic film which appears
slightly milky.
Reflection holograms, which reflect incident solar radiation
whilst transmitting diffuse daylight, can in principle be used to
reduce the solar gain of a facade whilst still allowing users a
view to the exterior. Their operation is restricted by the
hologram exposure to certain solar azimuth and zenith angles
and so a fixed solution may be used only for peak clipping of
solar gain [32,33]. To ensure high reflection or light guiding
efficiency for a prolonged period of the day, light guiding
holograms must be applied as external, tracked systems
[31,32]. The high maintenance burden associated with tracked
systems makes their use unattractive and it is difficult to see
how this technology will progress beyond building demonstration unless this can be overcome. At present reflection
holograms for building integration are not yet available as a
commercial product.

Fig. 8. Facade with building integrated photovoltaics (BiPV) at the Umwelt

Campus Birkenfeld, Germany using thin film solar cells. The thin film material
has been etched following deposition to increase visual and light transmission.

3. Case studyJumeriah beach complex, Dubai

Of the technologies introduced in Section 2, the potential of
electrochromic glazing, aerogel glazing, holographic optical
elements (reflection holograms) and thin film photovoltaics
(present and future technologies) has been analysed and
compared to low-e glazing when applied to a hotel development
in Dubai.
The Jumeirah beach complex comprising the Burj-al-Arab
Tower (Fig. 9) and the Jumeirah beach hotel (Fig. 10) is a
prestigious development utilising the latest building management systems (BMS) to control temperature, lighting and
humidity. The set point conditions of the rooms of both hotels

2.2. Photovoltaic facades (PV)

At present, the majority of building integrated photovoltaics
(BiPV) consists of mono-crystalline (MC) silicon wafer solar
cells connected in series to produce glass panels (modules) of
the appropriate power rating. In the future it is hoped that thin
film (TF) solar cells (a series of active layers deposited onto
glass or other appropriate substrates) will become a common
facade element (Fig. 8). At present, cost, lifetime (especially
for thin film solar cells) and cell efficiency (conversion of
sunlight into electricity 10% for TF, 18% for MC) are all
drawbacks [34]. Theoretically, third generation thin films with
efficiencies of 60% or greater are possible [35]. This offers
excellent potential for BiPV facades in regions such as the
Middle East which are solar resource rich and air-conditioning
hungry.

Fig. 9. Schematic of the Burj-al-Arab Tower, Dubai. Glazed areas on the East
(A), South (B and C) and West (D) elevations are highlighted. The variation in
slope of the glazing in area C is shown as dotted lines on the West elevation at
45, 60 and 908.

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A.B.S. Bahaj et al. / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 720731

Fig. 10. Schematic of the North elevation of the Jumeirah Beach Hotel, Dubai.
Glazed areas are highlighted. Facade E curves convexly towards the West, F
curves concavely towards the East.

are the same at 23  1 8C and 55% RH. The building designers,

WS Atkins, estimated that the thermal heat gains of the central
atrium of the Burj-al-Arab tower were of the order of 650 kW
[36].
3.1. General modelling approach
3.1.1. Modelling of the Jumeirah beach hotel
To estimate the air conditioning loads of the Jumeirah beach
hotel a computer model consisting of a 3  3 array of thermally
linked hotel rooms was produced for transient thermal
simulation analysis as shown in Fig. 11. Floor to ceiling
glazing was applied to both the North and South vertical
facades. The same wall construction was applied throughout the
model and there were no doors or walkways defined between
the nine zones. This approach enabled the central room of the
array of nine to be considered as representative of the average
solar gain within the hotel complex. A series of simulations
were undertaken to predict the electrical air conditioning
savings that could be achieved by the application of various
facade technologies.
No occupancy or lighting loads were included in the
simulations. These can be neglected because the ambient
temperature (Fig. 4) almost always exceeds the setpoint cooling
temperature (+23 8C) of the hotel rooms. Therefore, the heating
effect of these loads will simply be an additional air
conditioning load, which will be the same in each simulation.

The baseline reference was taken to be that of a standard low-e

coating, double glazed window construction. The installed
glazing was simulated with a U-value of 1.76 W/m2 K and a
visible light transmittance, VT, of 0.77. The g-value or solar hear
gain coefficient (SHGC) for the window is 0.60. Glazing
calculations were undertaken using Window, a fenestration
package produced by the Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory [37]. A frame with an absorption coefficient of 0.6 and a Uvalue of 1.7 was defined. Table 1 below details the Jumeirah
beach hotel room baseline simulation parameters.
A fraction of the solar gain, which enters a building, will
inevitably exit through the glazing due to reflection and
incomplete absorption by the building interior. The simulation
package (TRNSYS) [38] estimates the percentage of light, which
enters a room and subsequently becomes incident on the inner
pane of a rooms windows by treating all light within the room as
diffuse. The distribution of the diffuse light to the walls, ceilings
and windows is determined by the relative solar absorption
coefficients of the surfaces.
As a second reference, the same South facade with a
thermally isolated external blind was simulated, which allowed
no diffuse or direct solar radiation to reach the facade,
essentially representing a daylight blocker. Therefore, for the
South elevation, wind pressure effects and the temperature
difference between ambient and the hotel room were the only
drivers for the air conditioning load.
3.1.2. Modelling of the Burj-al-Arab Tower
The Burj-al-Arab Tower is a far more complex structure than
the Jumeirah Beach hotel but it is interesting to consider the
glazed areas either side of the semi-transparent sail on the South
elevation of the building. Four different inclinations have been
considered (30, 45, 60 and 908 (vertical)) for the Eastern side of
the South facade (308 east of South, B in Fig. 9). The simulation
within TRNSYS is achieved by taking the hotel model of the
Jumeirah beach hotel and modifying the glazing orientation and
slope of the South facade within the simulation.
3.2. Modelling of emerging glazing technologies
3.2.1. Electrochromic glazing
The benefit of applying electrochromic glazing was
predicted by undertaking TRNSYS simulations with a range
of glazings of the same U-value but different g-values. A
relationship between air-conditioning load and glazing g-value
was determined. This enabled the performance of glazing at
specific g-values representative of electrochromic glazing [27]
Table 1
Simulation parameters for a hotel room at the Jumeirah Beach Hotel, Dubai

Fig. 11. A 3  3 array of thermally linked rooms to simulate the Jumeirah

Beach Hotel, Dubai with North and South glazing. The air-conditioning
requirement of the highlighted central hotel room is used in the analysis.

Room volume
Room surface area
S glazing 6.5 m 2
N glazing 6.5 m 2
Wall and floor construction
Cooling set point temperature
Humidity set point

92.4 m 3
30.8 m 2
U-value 1.76 W/m2/K
U-value 1.76 W/m2/K
U-value 0.36 W/m2/K, solar absorbance 0.1
23 8C
55%

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in both tinted (g = 0.12) and bleached states (g = 0.59) to be

predicted. To model the performance of electrochromic glazing
as it switches between bleached and coloured states a switching
threshold of 200 W/m2 external horizontal irradiance was
assumed.
3.2.2. Holographic optical elements: reflection holograms
HOE were simulated as both fixed glazing and tracked
reflection holograms. As stated previously, HOE have a
performance function which is dependant on the incident
angle of the solar radiation relative to the designed working
angle of the HOE, i.e. the angle of best light redirecting
function relative to the hologram plane (Fig. 7). The
performance function of reflection HOE follows a Gaussian
distribution with a 258 difference between the designed
working angle of the HOE and the solar beam radiation
reducing the HOE performance (ability to redirect direct
radiation) by approximately 50% [31,32]. To estimate the
performance of a fixed glazing HOE, the solar incident angle
difference was calculated every 15 min to produce an hourly
average of HOE function for an entire year. This function was
used to attenuate the level of beam radiation incident on the
simulated elevations glazing.
The selection of the most appropriate hologram, i.e. the
HOE with the most suitable designed working angle, for each
orientation and elevation was determined by predicting hourly
HOE function for a range of solar zenith angles (108 increments
from 08 to 908). Therefore, rather than using the designed
working angle relative to the HOE plane, the working angle
relative to the zenith was chosen as a comparative measure. The
hourly HOE function was then used to scale the value of
incident beam radiation, which was then integrated over an
entire year. Table 2 shows the predicted effect of a range of
zenith working angles on the annual incident beam radiation at
different orientations and elevations for Dubai. In each case, the
working azimuth angle of the reflection hologram will be
normal to the glazing orientation. The optimum zenith angle
HOE for each surface is underlined in Table 2.

727

In general, the optimum zenith working angle of an HOE

increases with a rise in the inclination of the glazed elevation.
Fig. 12 highlights this effect, showing the direct radiation
(kWh/m2 annum) transmitted through a fixed reflection
hologram applied at four different inclinations to area B of
the Burj-al-Arab Tower (data in Table 2, locations highlighted
in Fig. 9). For example, at a slope angle of 608 (30E60), the
optimum working zenith angle is shown to be between 30 and
408 (arrow in Fig. 12). In this case the simulated annual direct
radiation reaching the facade would be reduced from 1147 to
707 kWh/m2 annum. For a vertical facade (30E90), the
optimum working zenith angle is shown to be approximately
458. For the shallower sloping glazed areas of the South facade
of the Burj-al-Arab Tower (upper sections of B and C in Fig. 9)
a shallower zenith angle (308, defined as 30E30 in Table 2) is
predicted to be more efficient.
3.2.3. Aerogel glazing
The benefits of applying clear, low U-value aerogel glazing
in future were estimated by undertaking TRNSYS simulations
with a range of glazings with different U-values (range 0.52
1.40 W/m2 K) but with the same g-value (0.59). A good fit
between air-conditioning load and glazing U-value was
determined. This enabled the performance of a glazing at a
specific low U-value (0.2 W/m2 K), which is representative of
potential aerogel glazing, to be predicted.
3.2.4. Thin film photovoltaics (microgeneration facades)
The energy yield from 40% coverage of the South facade
glazing with thin film technology of 10% and 60% efficiency
has been estimated. The g-value of the 60% efficiency thin film
glazing is assumed lower, because the majority of the solar gain
absorbed by the solar cell is converted to electricity rather than
to heat in the case of present day technology. The better cell
efficiency not only reduces the heat gain transmitted to the
building but also lowers the cell working temperature. This is
important because the electrical output of a solar cell drops with
temperature rise. The performance ratio (yield factor which

Table 2
The influence of the designed working angle of the HOE, here represented through the zenith working angle, on the level of direct radiation transmitted through a fixed
reflection hologram at different orientations and elevations for the latitude of Dubai
HOE zenith working
angle (8)

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

Direct solar energy transmitted through a fixed reflection hologram (a range of glazing orientations and inclinations is shown);
(30E30 = HOE 308 offset from South to the East with 308 slope) [direct radiation per annum] (kWh/m2/annum)
S30 [1175]

S45 [1111]

S60 [972]

S90 [531]

30E30 [1147]

30E45 [1077]

30E60 [941]

30E90 [541]

881
800
745
728
758
831
930
1026
1100
1143

849
769
708
681
699
766
861
958
1033
1078

762
687
623
588
595
650
736
827
896
939

459
411
358
313
296
318
369
428
477
507

858
782
729
707
725
782
867
958
1036
1091

822
745
684
651
657
705
785
876
957
1015

738
665
601
559
553
588
659
743
821
878

468
421
367
318
291
295
332
389
445
489

Note: The simulations assume a perfectly recorded HOE (if the angle between the incident beam radiation and the designed working angle of the HOE is zero, all the
direct radiation is reflected). Transmission through the HOE of direct radiation, which is not reflected, is 100% in the above example. A zenith working angle of 08
requires the sun to be directly overhead for the HOE to function perfectly. A zenith working angle of 908 requires the sun to be just rising or setting in the sky.

728

A.B.S. Bahaj et al. / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 720731

Fig. 12. Influence of zenith working angle on the direct radiation (kWh/
m2 annum) transmitted through a fixed reflection hologram applied at four
different inclinations to area B of the Burj-Al-Arab Tower, Dubai. 30E90:
azimuth angle 3308, slope 908 (vertical), 30E30: azimuth angle 3308, slope 308.

accounts for system power losses associated with inverters,

cabling, mismatch and temperature effects) of the PV system
with the 60% efficiency cell is therefore assumed to be better at
0.85, compared with the typical 0.72 assumed for the present
day technology.
3.3. Results and discussion
3.3.1. Jumeirah beach hotel
The predicted air conditioning load in kWh per annum for a
Jumeirah beach hotel room with North and South glazing is

shown in Table 3. As a simulation control, a baseline room has

been defined as having double glazed, low-e windows. This is
an informative guide to quantify potential air conditioning
savings resulting from alternative facade options in relation to
this baseline control facade. The effect of external solar
radiation blocking blinds, fixed and tracked reflection HOEs,
aerogel glazing and its combined use with HOEs as well as
electrochromic glazing is shown. A 408 zenith working angle
HOE was chosen for the fixed HOE glazing simulation
(optimum for S90 as shown in Table 2.). The potential benefit of
thin film PV applied to 40% of the glazed area is estimated from
the combined effects of electricity generation and solar control.
This is shown for present day (2006) and future cell technology
(2020).
The baseline low-e glazed room is predicted to have an air
conditioning load of 4768 kWh per annum (excluding
occupancy and lighting loads). The greatest air-conditioning
load reduction is achieved when external blinds, which block
all incident solar radiation to the South elevation, are applied.
Although such an approach is clearly not realistic, as these
blinds essentially create a closed wall, it does provide an
indication of a target reduction level. It is estimated that
external blinds placed in front of the control glazing would
reduce the air conditioning load of each room of the Jumeirah
beach hotel by 2156 kWh per annum in comparison to the
control room. For the entire 600 rooms of the Jumeirah beach
hotel, the predicted reduction in air conditioning load
achievable with the use of external radiation blocking blinds
is 600  2156 = 1,294,000 kWh per annum. If a well maintained air conditioning system is used, a typical coefficient of

Table 3
The annual air conditioning load of various glazing configurations for the vertical facades of a Jumeirah beach hotel room, Dubai
Glazing system

N + S glazed room

N + S glazed room

6.5 m glazing per elevation, room surface area 30 m .

No shading system applied unless specified

TRNSYS calculation of room air

conditioning load per annum (kWh)

Reduction in cooling demand per

annum compared to control windows
(kWh) [%] reduction compared to control

(a) Control facades

Control low-e glazing
Control 85% transmissiona
External blinds 0% trans.

4768
4411
2612

n/a
357 [7]
2156 [45]

4280
3991
3572
4089
3670
4800
2450
2609
4174 (3303b)

488 [10]
777 [16]
1196 [25]
321 [7]
1098 [26]
32 [ 1]
2318 [49]
2159 [45]
594 [12] (1465 [31]b)

3980 ( 2189c)

788 [17] (Net Generation)

(b) Emerging glazing technologies

Fixed reflection HOE 100% trans. a
Fixed reflection HOE 85% trans.a
Tracked reflection HOE 85% trans.a
Aerogel glazing (U-value, 0.2)
Aerogel + fixed reflection HOE 85% trans. a
Electrochromic glazing bleached mode
Electrochromic glazing tinted mode
Electrochromic glazing switching at 200 W/m2 horizontal irradiance
60% area glazed with control glazing and 40% area glazed with
TF PV 2006 (considering air conditioning load offset by PV
generation of 218 kWhe/annumb)
60% area glazed with control glazing and 40% area glazed with
TF PV 2020 (considering air conditioning load offset by PV
generation of 1542 kWhe/annumc)

A 408 zenith working angle hologram has been used in HOE simulations. Hotel room temperature is maintained at +23 8C.
a
Percent transmission is defined as percentage of light transmission of the standard control low-e glazing
b
Reduction in thermal cooling load = PV generatione  COP of air-conditioning = 218  4 = 871 kWht.
c
Reduction in thermal cooling load = PV generatione  COP of air-conditioning = 1542  4 = 6169 kWht.

A.B.S. Bahaj et al. / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 720731

performance (COP) of 4 would be expected. (The COP is

defined as waste heat rejected/electrical air conditioning load.)
The total reduction in air conditioning load would therefore be
approximately 323,000 kWh per annum. The Dubai electricity
unit price is 0.055 US$/kWh [39], so perfect external radiation
blocking blinds would reduce the air conditioning cost to the
hotel by approximately US$ 18,000 per annum. However, light
blocking external blinds, even if they could be operated by the
user, are clearly not an option for a hotel where unobstructed
views are amongst the key criteria.
For a fixed HOE solution on the South facing vertical facade
of the Jumeirah beach hotel, a 408 zenith angle working
hologram is predicted to provide the best efficiency. In this case
a reflection HOE would reduce the incident beam radiation
from 531 to 296 kWh/m2/annum (column S90 in Table 2). A
fixed HOE glazing solution with a reduced transmission of 85%
compared to the low-e baseline glazing for all diffuse and direct
light not redirected by the HOE function is estimated to reduce
the annual air conditioning load by 777 kWh (16%),
approximately a 1/3rd of that which can theoretically be
achieved with external radiation blocking blinds. However, the
true benefit of the hologram is much lower for this South facing
vertical application. An HOE with 100% light transmission of
the baseline glazing (i.e. the same) would deliver a 10%
reduction compared to the low-e glazing solution. An 85%
transmission, tracked HOE system which continuously follows
the sun and so reflects all incident beam radiation away from the
facade reduces the air conditioning load by 50% more than that
of the non-tracked system (1196 kWh compared to 777 kWh).
Such an incremental benefit would not however, justify the
additional capital and maintenance cost of the tracked solution
even if the building structure could accommodate it.
Aerogel glazing with the same g-value as the control glazing
is predicted to reduce air conditioning demands by approximately 17%. The simulations of advanced glazing solutions
detailed here do not have any internal or external shading
applied. Therefore, in reality the relative contribution that
aerogel would make to air conditioning reductions would be
greater since the importance of the thermal gradient between
ambient and the room space will have been underestimated in
the simulation. An aerogel glazing incorporating a fixed
reflection HOE in the glass laminate is predicted to produce air
conditioning savings of approximately 26%.
When operating continuously in maximum light transmission mode (bleached mode) electrochromic glazing is predicted
to produce an air conditioning load similar, but slightly more
than conventional glazing (1% more). In permanent maximum solar control mode (g value = 0.12) air conditioning load
reductions resulting from the application of electrochromic
glazing (49%) would be double those of tracked HOE glazing
(25%). Solar control mode electrochromic glazing absorbs
the majority of incident solar gain (both diffuse and direct),
whereas a tracked HOE system actively interacts only with the
direct component. However, a permanently tinted electrochromic glazing is not a realistic scenario. In addition,
projected air conditioning/electricity savings are overestimated
as a permanently tinted state will necessitate the use of artificial

729

lighting at certain times of the day/year. For a window

switching at 200 W/m2 external horizontal irradiance, a 45%
reduction in the air-conditioning load of the room is predicted.
When in its bleached (high light transmission) state it is
assumed that the internal lighting is not required. This electrical
saving can therefore be offset against the air-conditioning load.
Thin film PV (2006 technology) can provide an annual
electricity generation of 218 kWh per room from the South
facade. If a COP of 4.0 is assumed for the air-conditioning, this
PV generation effectively reduces the room cooling load to
3303 kWh/annum, a reduction of 31%. If third generation thin
film PV can achieve 60% efficiency, this would produce a
facade which can address the externally driven air-conditioning
load in its entirety with a surplus electricity generation of
1542 kWhe/annum. This surplus would provide an additional
thermal cooling capacity per room of 6168 kWht/annum
equivalent to 704 Wt continuous. However, a glazing integrated
PV solution covering 40% of the facade area would always
compromise the vision to the exterior.
3.3.2. Burj-al-Arab Tower
Inside the Burj-al-Arab Tower the air conditioning load
increases as the slope pitch approaches the horizontal, due to
the increased solar gain. At each slope studied a simulation of
external blinds, which do not transmit any solar radiation, is, as
would be expected, predicted to have an identical air
conditioning load. Therefore, the annual air conditioning load
of a room is considered relative to a room with external
radiation blocking blinds, as shown in Fig. 13 for each of the
facade elevations. At this orientation (308E), the annual solar
gain (diffuse and direct) is highest for the shallowest pitch
glazing studied (308 slope surface). This effect is highlighted
by comparing the air conditioning load of the optimum fixed
HOE glazing with that of the reduced light transmission
normal glazing (normal glazing 85% trans.), as shown in
Fig. 13. For example, at 308 slope, the fixed HOE (100% trans.)
has a lower air conditioning load than reduced light
transmission normal glazing (85% trans.). However, the

Fig. 13. Effect of glazing slope on the predicted air conditioning loads (kWh/
annum) for a room in the Burj-al-Arab Tower, Dubai with different facade
options. Glazed areas on the South elevation (azimuth 3308, 308E) have been
studied.

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A.B.S. Bahaj et al. / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 720731

Fig. 14. Effect of slope angle on solar gain and HOE function of a glazed
surface for a low latitude such as Dubai. The schematic shows a South East
facing facade with sunlight meeting the facade at an altitude angle of 608 and an
azimuth angle of 308 East of South (azimuth 3308). For the majority of the day
the projected surface (A) of the slope window is larger than the projected surface
(B) of the vertical window and, therefore the solar gain is higher.

difference in air conditioning load steadily decreases with

glazing slope. This is due to the greater percentage of direct
radiation reaching the 308 slope (55% of 2083 kWh/m2 annum
total irradiance) than the vertical one (44% of 1219 kWh/m2
annum total irradiance) and the interaction of the HOE
function with this incident radiation (Fig. 14). Over the year,
the vertical slope HOE, reflects a higher percentage of the
direct radiation it receives than the 308 slope (46% as opposed
to 38%), but due to the relatively small direct radiation
component at this inclination, the HOE facade is better suited
to the 308 slope. From a solar control perspective, the vertical
elevation would appear to be more suitable for electrochromic
glazing, which regulates both diffuse and direct radiation in
tandem.
4. Conclusions
Fixed glazing, reflection HOE are predicted to reduce the air
conditioning loads of comparable buildings to the Jumeirah
beach hotel by approximately a 1/3rd of the level that can be
achieved using radiation blocking external blinds. This is
accomplished by reflecting the incident beam radiation away
from the window whilst allowing diffuse light to pass through.
The view from the window remains relatively unobstructed and
the HOE glazing can be incorporated into the normal facade
construction. The light transmission of such glazing would be

approximately 85% of the equivalent standard low-e glazing

solution applied. However, the larger part of the air
conditioning energy saving would be attributable to this lower
light transmission. In a fixed vertical application, only a quarter
of the total expected saving would be due to the hologram.
Tracked HOE, which follow the solar zenith angle, can provide
higher levels of solar control (56% of external blinds) but this
can only be achieved using external louvers making this
solution unattractive from a maintenance perspective.
Aerogel glazing, once market ready, promises to deliver
small air conditioning savings (7%) in vertical facade
applications approximately half that of fixed HOE solutions.
However, in many ways aerogel can be considered to be the
more promising technology as HOEs require extensive care in
planning, production and installation in order to obtain the
designed working angles to match the location.
Electrochromic glazing can be continually varied in light
transmission, to as low as 5%, enabling such glass to reduce air
conditioning loads far lower than any of the HOE or aerogel
systems described. However, such glazing has negative impacts
on the luminous colour of the light provided through a window,
since it creates a blue light when in solar control mode. This can
be unattractive to building occupants. The simulations suggest
that, if a balanced mix between tinted and bleached mode is
assumed, air conditioning savings of around 25% appear
realistic. This in broad agreement with data published by the
Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory which suggests airconditioning savings are between 19 and 26% [28].
Glazing integrated thin film PV solutions are potentially the
most promising solution for fully glazed buildings in the
Middle East, especially if the goal of a 60% efficient, third
generation cell can be achieved. The simulations predict that
such a PV solution covering about 40% of the area of a fully
glazed high rise building in the Middle East would yield a net
energy gain over the air conditioning loads. This could help to
create truly sustainable glass buildings in hot, arid climates by
saving fossil fuel for their operation.
Acknowledgements
Aspects of this work were funded by the European
Commission as part of a Framework 5 programme Holographic Optical Elements (HOE) for High Efficiency Illumination, Solar Control and Photovoltaic Power in Buildings
(ENK6-CT-2000-00327) and the UK, Engineering & Physical
Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) under the Sustainable
Urban Environment programme IDCOP: Innovation in the
Design, Construction and Operation of buildings for People.
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