Precipitation and Its Estimation: Dr. Mohsin Siddique Assistant Professor Dept. of Civil & Env. Engg

Precipitation and its estimation
Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil & Env. Engg
1
Outcome of Lecture
After completing this lecture
The students should be able to:

Understand types of precipitation and its measurement in field

Understand the concept of temporal and spatial averaging of
precipitation
Apply several methods to spatially average precipitation
Understand data preparation for any water resource projects
Apply appropriate corrections to data in case of missing
records, errors or inconsistency is present
Precipitation
When the water/moisture in the clouds/atmosphere gets too heavy, the

water/moisture falls back to the earth. This is called precipitation.
Types of Precipitation:
Drizzle
Rain
Freezing rain
Sleet
Snow
Hail

Rainfall being the predominant form of precipitation causing

stream flow, especially the flood flow in majority of rivers.Thus, in
this context, rainfall is used synonymously with precipitation.
3
Precipitation: Rainfall
Rain: It is precipitation in the form of water drops of size between 0.5

mm to 7mm

The rainfall is classified into

Light rain if intensity is trace to 2.5 mm/h
Moderate rain if intensity is 2.5 mm/hr to 7.5 mm/hr
Heavy rain above 7.5 mm/hr
Measurement Units:
Amount of precipitation/rain (mm or inch)
It is measure as total depth of rainfall over an area in one day.
Intensity of precipitation/rain (mm/hr or inch/hr)
It is the amount of precipitation at a place per unit time (rain rate). It
is expressed as mm/hr or inch/hr
4
Measurement of Precipitation
Why do we need to measure rainfall?
Agriculture what to plant in certain areas, where and when to plant,

when to harvest
Horticulture/viticulture - how and when to irrigate
Engineers - to design structures for runoff control i.e. storm-water

drains, bridges etc.
Scientists - hydrological modelling of catchments
Method of measuring rainfall:
Instruments for measuring precipitation include rain gauges and

snow gauges, and various types are manufactured according to the
purpose at hand.
Rain gauges are classified into

Non-recording (Manual) and
recording types (Automatic)
Instrument used to collect and measure the precipitation is called rain gauge and the location
at which raingage is located is called gauging station.
6
Non-recording (Manual) types:
Often have a funnel opening into a

cylinder gauge.
Come in a variety of shapes and sizes
Calculate the rainfall (in mm) by

dividing the volume of water collected
by the area of the opening of the cup.
(The gauge marking often accounts for
this).
Non-recording (Manual) types:
Recording (Automatic) types:
Tipping bucket gauges

Weighing type gauges
Float recording gauges
Tipping bucket rain gauge -The bucket tips when precipitation of 0.2 mm,
0.5 mm, 1.0 mm has been collected. Each tip is recorded by a data logger.
Weather Station - Records rainfall, but also evaporation, air

pressure, air temperature, wind speed and wind direction (so can be
used to estimate evapo-transpiration)
Radar - Ground-based radar equipment can be used to determine

how much rain is falling and where it is the heaviest.
10
Weather Station -
11
Radar -
12
Raingauge Network
Since the catching area of the raingauge is very small as compared to

the areal extent of the storm, to get representative picture of a
storm over a catchment the number of raingauges should be as
large as possible, i.e. the catchment area per gauge should be small.
There are several factors to be considered to restrict the number of

gauges:
Like economic considerations to a large extent
Topographic & accessibility to some extent.
13
Catchment area: An extent of land where water from precipitation drains into a
body of water
Raingauge Network
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommendation:

In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones

Ideal 1 station for 600 900 km2
Acceptable 1 station for 900 3000 km2
In mountainous regions of temperate , Mediterranean and tropical zones
Ideal 1 station for 100 250 km2
Acceptable 1 station for 250 1000 km2
In arid and polar zone
1 station for 1500 10,000 km2
10 % of the raingauges should be self recording to know the intensity of

the rainfall !!
14
Raingauge Network

Placement of rainguages
Gauges are affected by wind pattern, eddies, trees and the
gauge itself, therefore it is important to have the gauge located
and positioned properly.
Raingauges should be
1m above ground level is standard All gauges in a catchment should be the same height
2 to 4 times the distance away from an isolated object (such as a
tree or building) or in a forest a clearing with the radius at least the
tree height or place the gauge at canopy level
shielded to protect gauge in windy sites or if obstructions are
numerous they will reduce the wind-speed, turbulence and eddies.
15
Raingauge Network
Rainguage with wind shield

16
Raingauge Network
17
For sloping ground the gauge should be placed with the opening
parallel to the ground
The rainfall catch volume (mm3) is then divided by the opening area
that the rain can enter
Sources of Errors

Instrument error
Observer error
Errors due to different observation times
Error due to occult precipitation
Errors due to low-intensity rains
Any-other ?
_________________________________
Occult precipitation: Precipitation arriving at a location by processes that would

normally go unrecorded by a standard rain gauge, e.g. the condensation of mist and
fog on foliage.
18
Preparation of Data
Before using rainfall data for any analysis, it is necessary to check the
record for
Missing data and/or
Consistency of data
19
Inconsistency in rainfall data my root from

Change of gauge location
Change of gauge type
Change of gauge environment
Change of gauge observer
Change of gauge climate
Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Methods
The following methods can be used to estimate the

missing precipitation data

20
Station-average method
Normal-ratio method
Inverse-distance weighting
Regression

Station Average Method
1 n
PX = Pi
n i=1
PX is the missing precipitation value for station X
P1, P2, , Pn are precipitation values at the adjacent
stations for the same period
n is the number of nearby stations
This method is used when 10% variation in annual precipitation at

station X lies within annual precipitation of surrounding/adjacent
stations.
21

Example
Find out the missing storm precipitation data of station X given in following
table using station averaging method
Station
Storm Precipitation (inches)
3.8
3.25
4.6
3.15
Annual Precipitation (inches)
39.50
43.1
36.8
49.5
46.20
1 n
1
PX = Pi = (3.8 + 3.25 + 4.6 + 3.15) = 3.7in
n i =1
4
What about 10% variation check from annual precipitation ??
22

Normal Ratio Method
PX
1 P1 P2
Pn
1 n Pi
=
+
+ ..... +
or PX = N X
N X n N1 N 2
Nn
n i=1 Ni

PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for a certain time period
P1, P2, , Pn are precipitation values at adjacent stations for the same period
NX is the long-term, annual average precipitation at station X
N1, N2, , Nn is the long-term precipitation for neighboring stations
n is the number of adjacent stations
23

Example
table
Station
3.8
3.25
4.6
3.15
39.50
43.1
36.8
49.5
46.20
Test the normal annual precipitation at station X
10% of 36.8 = 3.68in

3.68 + 36.8 = 40.48in and 33.12in
Since annual precipitation of adjacent station does not lie with 10% so station
averaging method cannot be used and instead normal ratio method will be used for
better accuracy
24

Example
table
Station
3.8
3.25
4.6
3.15
39.50
43.1
36.8
49.5
46.20
P1 = 3.8" , P2 = 3.25" , P3 = 4.6" , P4 = 3.15"

N1 = 39.5" , N 2 = 43.1" , N 3 = 49.5" , N 4 = 46.2"
Px = ?, N x = 36.8"
PX
1 P
P
P
= 1 + 2 + ..... + n =
N X n N1 N 2
Nn
PX
1 3.8 3.25 4.6 3.15
=
+
+
+
36.8 4 39.5 43.1 49.5 46.2

25
PX = 3.06"

Station Average Method
Example
26

Inverse Distance Weighing
1. di = (xi2 + yi2)0.5
Distance from gage with missing data to

the neighboring gages
2.
W=
b
di
i=1
Weight of distances where b is a

proportionality factor (b = 1, 2 )
n
1
b
3. P =
di Pi
X
W i= 1

27
PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for a certain time

period
Pi are precipitation values at adjacent stations for the same period
n is the number of neighboring stations

Regression
PX = bo + b1P1 + b2P2 + . + bnPn

28
PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for certain time

period
P1, P2, , Pn are precipitation values at the neighboring stations for the
same period
b0, , bn are coefficients calculated by least-squares methods
n is the number of nearby gages
This method is suitable when there is a large number of days when
observations are available for all gages
Preparation of Data: Consistency of Data

Double Mass Curve Technique
Lets take a group of 5 to 10 base stations in the neighbourhood of the
problem station X is selected
Arrange the data of stn X rainfall and the average of the neighbouring
stations in reverse chronological order (from recent to old record)
Accumulate the precipitation of station X ( Px ) and the average values of
the group base stations ( Pavg ) starting from the latest record.
Plot the ( Px ) against ( Pavg ) as shown on the next figure
A decided break in the slope of the resulting plot is observed that
indicates a change in precipitation regime of station X, i.e., inconsistency.
Therefore, data at stn X should be corrected/adjusted as
Pcx=(Mc/Ma)*Px
Mc is slope of data before breakpoint
Ma is slope of line after breakpoint
Pcx is corrected precipitation at StationX
Px is original precipitation at StationX
29
Double Mass Curve Analysis
accumulated annual rainfall of X stn in 10^3 cm
5
4.5
4
Ma
3.5
Break Point
Mc c
=
Ma a
2.5
2
1.5
1
Mc
0.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm
M
Pcx = Px
M
30
Pcx corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at stationX

c P Original recorded precp. at time period t at station X
x
1
Mc corrected slope of the double mass curve
a
Ma original slope of the mass curve after break

(i). Check whether the data of

station X is consistent
(ii). In which year change
indicated?
(iii). Compute the mean
annual rainfall for station X at
its present site for the given
36 year period first without
adjustment and secondly with
the data adjusted for the
change in regime.
(iv). Compute the adjusted
annual rainfall at station X for
the affected period.
31

32

33

34
Part II
35
Temporal and Spatial Variation of Rainfall

Rainfall varies greatly both in time and space

With respect to time Temporal variation
With space Spatial variation
The temporal variation may be defined as hourly, daily, monthly, seasonal
variations and annual variation (long-term variation of precipitation)
Temporal Variation of rainfall at a particular site
Rainfall Intensity, cm/hr
Total Rainfall amount = 6.17 cm

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
20
40
60
80
Time, min
36
100
120
140
Long term Precipitation variation at Arba Minch

45
A n n u a l ra i n f a l l , m m
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
Years
37
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
Annual Precipitation
average precipitation
Source: Gary R Fuelner, Rainfall and climate records from Sharjah Airport: Historical data for
38 the study of recent climatic periodicity in the U.A.E.
Temporal Averaging of Precipitation

Storm rainfall/precipitation: It is the precipitation of a particular

storm/rainfall event.
Daily Rainfall: The amount of rainfall accumulated in one day at a place,

24
Mathematically;
Pday = Pi
i =1
Where Pday is daily rainfall and Pi is hourly storm rainfall during a given
day.
Monthly Rainfall: The amount of rainfall accumulated in one month at a

place, Mathematically;
30
Pmonth =
day
i = day

39
Where Pmonth is monthly rainfall and Pday is daily precipitation during a

given month.

Annual Rainfall: The amount of rainfall accumulated in one year at a place,

Mathematically;
365
Pann =
day
i = day
Where Pann is annual rainfall and Pday is daily rainfall
Average rainfall for N years: It is the arithmetic average of annual

precipitation for N years over a rain gauging station. Mathematically;
N
Pavg =
40
i =1
Where Pavg is average rainfall for N years and Pi is annual rainfall for ith
year

Estimate average monthly and annual precipitation from given data
Average Monthly Precipitation ?

N
Pi
Pavg =
i =1
= (18.8 + 25 + 22.1 + 7.2 + 0.4 + 0 + 0.8 + 0 + 0 + 1.1 + 2.7 + 16.2 ) / 12 = 7.86mm
Annual Precipitation ?
365
Pann = Pi
i =1
12
Pann = Pi
i =1
Pann = (18.8 + 25 + 22.1 + 7.2 + 0.4 + 0 + 0.8 + 0 + 0 + 1.1 + 2.7 + 16.2 ) = 94.3
41
Climate data for Dubai

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high 31.6

C (F)
(88.9)
37.5
(99.5)
41.3
(106.3)
43.5
(110.3)
47.0
(116.6)
46.7
(116.1)
49.0
(120.2)
48.7
(119.7)
45.1
(113.2)
42.0
(107.6)
41.0
(105.8)
35.5
(95.9)
49
(120.2)
Average
high C (F)
24.0
(75.2)
25.4
(77.7)
28.2
(82.8)
32.9
(91.2)
37.6
(99.7)
39.5
(103.1)
40.8
(105.4)
41.3
(106.3)
38.9
(102)
35.4
(95.7)
30.5
(86.9)
26.2
(79.2)
33.4
(92.1)
Daily mean
C (F)
19
(66)
20
(68)
22.5
(72.5)
26
(79)
30.5
(86.9)
33
(91)
34.5
(94.1)
35.5
(95.9)
32.5
(90.5)
29
(84)
24.5
(76.1)
21
(70)
27.5
(81.5)
Average
low C (F)
14.3
(57.7)
15.4
(59.7)
17.6
(63.7)
20.8
(69.4)
24.6
(76.3)
27.2
(81)
29.9
(85.8)
30.2
(86.4)
27.5
(81.5)
23.9
(75)
19.9
(67.8)
16.3
(61.3)
22.3
(72.1)
Record low
C (F)
6.1
(43)
6.9
(44.4)
9.0
(48.2)
13.4
(56.1)
15.1
(59.2)
18.2
(64.8)
20.4
(68.7)
23.1
(73.6)
16.5
(61.7)
15.0
(59)
11.8
(53.2)
8.2
(46.8)
6.1
(43)
Precipitatio
n mm
(inches)
18.8
(0.74)
25.0
(0.984)
22.1
(0.87)
7.2
(0.283)
0.4
(0.016)
0.0
(0)
0.8
(0.031)
0.0
(0)
0.0
(0)
1.1
(0.043)
2.7
(0.106)
16.2
(0.638)
94.3
(3.711)
Avg. precipit
ation days
5.4
4.7
5.8
2.6
0.3
0.0
0.5
0.5
0.1
0.2
1.3
3.8
25.2
% humidity
65
65
63
55
53
58
56
57
60
60
61
64
59.8
Mean
monthly sun
shine hours
254.2
229.6
254.5
294.0
344.1
342.0
322.4
316.2
309.0
303.8
285.0
256.6
3,511.4
42
42
Source #1: Dubai Meteorological Office[4]

Source #2: climatebase.ru (extremes, sun),[5], NOAA (humidity, 1974-1991)[6]
Spatial Averaging of Precipitation

Average rainfall over an area: It is the amount of precipitation which

can be assumed as uniform over the given area.
It is estimated by using several approaches given below;

Arithmetic method
Theissen polygon method
Isohyetal method
According to arithmetic method, arithmetic mean precipitation

over an area can be defined by
N
Pi
Pavg =
43
i =1
Where, Pavg is the average precipitation, N is the total number of stations and
Pi is the average annual precipitation for ith station.
Methods of Spatial Averaging Rainfall Data

Raingauges rainfall represent only point sampling of the areal

distribution of a storm
The important rainfall for hydrological analysis is a rainfall over

an area, such as over the catchment
To convert the point rainfall values at various stations in to

average value over a catchment, the following methods are
used:
(i). arithmetic mean method
(ii). the method of the Thiessen polygons
(iii). the isohyetal method
44

Arithmetic Mean Method
When the area is physically and climatically
homogenous and the required accuracy is small,
the average rainfall ( P ) for a basin can be
obtained as the arithmetic mean of the Pi values
recorded at various stations.
Applicable rarely for practical purpose
P1 + P2 + ..... + Pi + .....Pn
P =
=
N
45
1
N
i =1

Thiessen Polygon Method
The method of Thiessen polygons consists of attributing to
each station an influence zone in which it is considered that
the rainfall is equivalent to that of the station.
The influence zones are represented by convex polygons.
These polygons are obtained using the mediators of the
segments which link each station to the closest
neighbouring stations
46

47

P7
P6
A7
A6
P2
A2
A1
A8
P1
P8
P5
A3
A4
P3
P4
48
A5

P1 A1 + P2 A2 + ..... + Pm Am
P =
( A1 + A2 + ..... + Am )
Generally for M station
M
PA
i
P
Ai
The ratio
A
49
i =1
Atotal
i =1
Ai
Pi
A
is called the weightage factor of station i

50

Ai
A
= Pi
Pi
51
Mean precipitation =
i =1
Pi
Ai
A =121.84
Ai
A

Isohyetal Method
An isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude.
10.0
8
6
D
A5
12
C
9.2
12
A4
A3
7.0
B
7.2
A
A2
4.0
F
E
9.1
A1
8
52
10.0

Isohyetal Method
P1, P2, P3, . , Pn the values of the isohytes
A1, A2, A3, ., A4 are the inter isohytes area respectively
Atotal the total catchment area
P - the mean precipitation over the catchment
Pn1 + Pn
P1 + P2 P2 + P3
A1
+...+ An1
+ A2
2 2
2
P=
Atotal
NOTE
53
The isohyet method is superior to the other two methods

especially when the stations are large in number.

Isohyetal Method
54
Pavg =
55
Pi + Pi+1
2
Ai
Ai
Atotal
Pavg
Ai
Atotal

Isohyetal Method
Other mapping programs such as SURFER or GIS

program ARCVIEW can be used to map rainfall at
the different measurement locations.
56
Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Relationship

Hyetograph
- is a plot of the precipitation against time
Hyetograph of a storm
Total depth = 10.6 cm
Intensity, cm /hr
0.5
Duration = 48 hr
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
08
8 16
16 24
24 32
Time, hours
57
32 40
40 48

Mass Curve of Rainfall
- is a plot of the accumulated precipitation against time
accumulated precipitation, mm
Mass curve of rainfall

60
50
40
30
20
1st storm,
16 mm
2nd storm,
34 mm
10
0
0
20
40
60
Time, hour
58
80
100
120
Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF)

Relationship
Example: The mass curve of rainfall in a storm of total duration 270

minutes is given below. Draw the hyetograph of the storm at 30 minute
time step.
Time since start (min)
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Cumulative Rainfall (mm)

Incremental depth in
interval of 30 min (mm)
18 21
36
43
49
52
53
54
12
15
12 24
30
14
12
Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
Hyetograph
Rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
59
30
60
90
120
150
180
Time (min)
210
240
270

Relationship

Return Period (T) - The average length of time in years for an event (e.g.
flood or rainfall) of given magnitude to be equalled or exceeded.
For example, if the rainfall with a 50 year return period at a given location
is 200mm, this is just another way of saying that a rainfall 200mm, or
greater, should occur at that location on the average only once every 50
years.
Probability of Occurrence (p) (of an event of specified magnitude) The probability that an event of the specified magnitude will be equalled or
exceeded during a one year period.
Basic Relationships
T=1/P or P=1/T
60

Relationship

Probability analysis may be made either by empirical or by analytical

methods.
A simple empirical technique is to arrange the given annual extreme series
in descending order of magnitude and to assign an order number, m. Thus
for the first entry m=1 and for the second entry m=2 and so on, till the last
event for which m=N=number of years of record. The probablity, P, of an
event equalled to or exceeded is given by the Weibul formula.
M
N +1
1 N +1
T= =
P m
P=
Above equation is empirical and there are several other empirical

equations available to calculate P.
61

Relationship

The record of annual rainfall at station A covering a period of 22 years is

given below.
(a). Estimate the annual rainfall with return periods of 10 years and 23 years
(b). What would be the probability of an annual rainfall of magnitude equal
to or exceeding 100cm.
62
Year
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
Annual Rainfall
(cm)
130
84
76
89
112
96
80
125
143
89
78
Year
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
Annual Rainfall
(cm)
90
102
108
60
75
120
160
85
106
83
95
m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22(=N)
Annual
Rainfall (cm)
160
140
130
125
120
112
108
106
102
96
95
90
89
89
85
84
83
80
78
76
75
60
Probability
P=m/(N+1)
0.043
0.087
0.130
0.174
0.217
0.261
0.304
0.348
0.391
0.435
0.478
0.522
0.565
0.609
0.652
0.696
0.739
0.783
0.826
0.870
0.913
0.957
Return
Period
T (years)
23.00
11.50
7.67
5.75
4.60
3.83
3.29
2.88
2.56
2.30
2.09
1.92
1.77
1.64
1.53
1.44
1.35
1.28
1.21
1.15
1.10
1.05
(a).
Annual rainfall for 10 years
return period.
By interpolation, P=137.5cm
return period.
P=160cm
return period.
By extrapolation, P= ??cm
(b). Return period of P=100cm

is 2.4 (by interpolation between
102 and 96)

IDF Curve

In many design problems related to watershed such as runoff

disposal, erosion control, highway construction, culvert design, it
is necessary to know the rainfall intensities of different durations
and different return periods.
The curve that shows the inter-dependency between i (cm/hr), D
(hour) and T (year) is called IDF curve.
The relation can be expressed in general form as:
i =
64
kT
i Intensity (cm/hr)
(D + a )
D Duration (hours)
K, x, a, n are constant for a given
catchment
Typical IDF Curve
In tesity, cm /h r
14
T = 25 years
12
T = 50 years
10
T = 100 years
8
6
k = 6.93
x = 0.189
a = 0.5
n = 0.878
4
2
0
0
3
Duration, hr
65
Thank you
Questions.
66

Precipitation and Its Estimation: Dr. Mohsin Siddique Assistant Professor Dept. of Civil & Env. Engg

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Precipitation and Its Estimation: Dr. Mohsin Siddique Assistant Professor Dept. of Civil & Env. Engg

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Precipitation and its estimation

Dr. Mohsin Siddique

Understand types of precipitation and its measurement in field

When the water/moisture in the clouds/atmosphere gets too heavy, the

Rainfall being the predominant form of precipitation causing

Rain: It is precipitation in the form of water drops of size between 0.5

The rainfall is classified into

Why do we need to measure rainfall?

Agriculture what to plant in certain areas, where and when to plant,

Horticulture/viticulture - how and when to irrigate

Engineers - to design structures for runoff control i.e. storm-water

Scientists - hydrological modelling of catchments

Method of measuring rainfall:

Instruments for measuring precipitation include rain gauges and

Rain gauges are classified into

Non-recording (Manual) types:

Often have a funnel opening into a

Come in a variety of shapes and sizes

Calculate the rainfall (in mm) by

Tipping bucket gauges

Recording (Automatic) types:

Weather Station - Records rainfall, but also evaporation, air

Radar - Ground-based radar equipment can be used to determine

Recording (Automatic) types:

Recording (Automatic) types:

Since the catching area of the raingauge is very small as compared to

There are several factors to be considered to restrict the number of

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) recommendation:

In flat regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones

10 % of the raingauges should be self recording to know the intensity of

Rainguage with wind shield

Occult precipitation: Precipitation arriving at a location by processes that would

Inconsistency in rainfall data my root from

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

The following methods can be used to estimate the

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

This method is used when 10% variation in annual precipitation at

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Storm Precipitation (inches)

Annual Precipitation (inches)

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Storm Precipitation (inches)

Annual Precipitation (inches)

Test the normal annual precipitation at station X

10% of 36.8 = 3.68in

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Storm Precipitation (inches)

Annual Precipitation (inches)

P1 = 3.8" , P2 = 3.25" , P3 = 4.6" , P4 = 3.15"

36.8 4 39.5 43.1 49.5 46.2

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

Distance from gage with missing data to

Weight of distances where b is a

PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for a certain time

Preparation of Data: Missing Data

PX = bo + b1P1 + b2P2 + . + bnPn

PX is the missing precipitation value for station X for certain time

Preparation of Data: Consistency of Data

Double Mass Curve Analysis

accumulated annual rainfall of X stn in 10^3 cm

Accumulated annual rainfall of neigbouring stns in 10^3 cm