Note Values

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Contents
Articles
Note value

Maxima (music)

Longa (music)

Double whole note

Whole note

Half note

Quarter note

11

Eighth note

13

Sixteenth note

15

Thirty-second note

16

Sixty-fourth note

18

Hundred twenty-eighth note

19

Two hundred fifty-sixth note

20

Tuplet

22

Time signature

28

Key signature

42

Metric modulation

49

Cross-beat

53

References
Article Sources and Contributors

67

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

69

Article Licenses
License

73

Note value

Note value
In music notation, a note value indicates the relative duration of a note, using
the color or shape of the note head, the presence or absence of a stem, and the
presence or absence of flags/beams/hooks/tails.
A rest indicates a silence of an equivalent duration.

Parts of a note

Note

Rest

American name

octuple whole note

or

British name

maxima

Value With Dotted

value

With Double
Dotted Value

With Triple Dotted

Value

8+4

8+4+2

8+4+2+1

quadruple whole note longa

4+2

4+2+1

4 + 2 + 1 + 1/2

double whole note

breve

2+1

2 + 1 + 1/2

2 + 1 + 1/2 + 1/4

whole note

semibreve

1 + 1/2

1 + 1/2 + 1/4

1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8

half note

minim

1/2

1/2 + 1/4

1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8

1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 +

1/16

quarter note

crotchet

1/4

1/4 + 1/8

1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16

1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 +

1/32

eighth note

quaver

1/8

1/8 + 1/16

1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32

1/8 + 1/16 + 1/32 +

1/64

sixteenth note

semiquaver

1/16

1/16 + 1/32

1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/64 +

1/128

thirty-second note

demisemiquaver

1/32

1/32 + 1/64

1/32 + 1/64 +
1/128

1/32 + 1/64 + 1/128

+ 1/256

sixty-fourth note

hemidemisemiquaver

1/64

1/64 + 1/128

1/64 + 1/128 +
1/256

1/64 + 1/128 + 1/256

+ 1/512

Note value

2
hundred
twenty-eighth note

quasihemidemisemiquaver
semihemidemisemiquaver

1/128 1/128 +
1/256

1/128 + 1/256 +
1/512

1/128 + 1/256 +
1/512 + 1/1024

two hundred
fifty-sixth note

demisemihemidemisemiquaver 1/256 1/256 +

1/512

1/256 + 1/512 +
1/1024

1/256 + 1/512 +
1/1024 + 1/2048

Variations
The breve appears in several different versions, as shown at right.
Sometimes the longa is used to indicate a very long note of indefinite
duration, as at the end of a piece.
When a stem is present, it can go either up (from the right side of the
note head) or down (from the left side, except in the case of the longa).
In most cases, the stem goes down if the notehead is on the center line
or above, and up otherwise. Any flags always go to the right of the stem.

Variants of the breve

Modifiers
A note value may be augmented by adding a dot after it. This dot adds
the next lower note value, making it one and a half times its original
duration. A number of dots (n) lengthen the note value by
its
value, so two dots add two lower note values, making a total of one
and three quarters times its original duration. The rare three dots make
it one and seven eighths the duration, and so on.

Beamed notes

The double dot was first used in 1752 by J.J. Quantz;[1] in music of the 18th century and earlier the amount by which
the dot augmented the note varied: it could be more or less than the modern interpretation, to fit into the context.
To divide a note value to three equal parts, or some other value than two, tuplets may be used. However, see swung
note and notes ingales.

History
Gregorian chant
Although note heads of various shapes, and notes with and without stems appear in early Gregorian chant
manuscripts, many scholars agree that these symbols do not indicate different durations, although the dot is used for
augmentation. See neume.
In the 13th century, chant was sometimes performed according to rhythmic modes, roughly equivalent to meters;
however, the note shapes still did not indicate duration in the same way as modern note values.

Note value

Mensural notation
Around 1250, Franco of Cologne invented different symbols for different durations, although the relation between
different note values could vary; three was the most common ratio. Philippe de Vitry's treatise Ars nova (1320)
described a system in which the ratios of different note values could be 2:1 or 3:1, with a system of mensural time
signatures to distinguish between them.
This black mensural notation gave way to white mensural notation around 1450, in which all note values were
written with white (outline) noteheads. In white notation the use of triplets was indicated by coloration, i.e. filling in
the noteheads to make them black (or sometimes red). Both black and white notation periodically made use of
ligatures, a holdover from the clivis and porrectus neumes used in chant.
Around 1600 the modern notational system was generally adopted, along with barlines and the practice of writing
multipart music in scores rather than only individual parts. In the 17th century, however, old usages came up
occasionally.

Origins of the names

The British names go back at least to English renaissance music, and the terms of Latin origin had international
currency at that time. Obviously, longa means 'long', and the rest rarely indicate relative shortness. Breve is from
Latin brevis, 'short', minim is from minimus, 'very small', and quaver refers to the quavering effect of very fast notes.
The elements semi-, demi- and hemi- mean 'half' in Latin, French and Greek respectively, while quasi- means
'almost'. The chain semantic shift whereby notes which were originally perceived as short came progressively to be
long notes is interesting both linguistically and musically. However, the crotchet is named after the shape of the note,
from the Old French for a 'little hook', and it is possible to argue that the same is true of the minim, since the word is
also used in palaeography to mean a vertical stroke in mediaeval handwriting.

References
[1] Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed., "Dotted notes", p. 242

External links
Wikisource has the text of a 1905 New International Encyclopedia article about Note value.

On-line activity that counts musical notes (http://www.philtulga.com/counter.html)

Maxima (music)

Maxima (music)
A maxima or duplex longa (in British usage: large) was a musical
note used commonly in thirteenth and fourteenth century music and
occasionally until the end of the sixteenth century. It was usually twice
or, rarely, three times (Stoessel 2009, 181) as long as a longa, four or
six or nine times as long as a breve, and 8, 12, 18, or 27 times as long
as a semibreve (whole note). Like the stem of the longa, the stem of the
maxima generally pointed downwards except occasionally when it
appeared on the bottom line or space. Before around 1430, the maxima
was written with a solid, black body. Over the course of the fifteenth
century, like most other note values, the head of the maxima became
void (Apel 1961, 87).

A white-mensural maxima with stem

facing down.

In most early sources the duplex longa has twice the body of a longa,
but before 1250 there is often no clear difference of shape and the
presence of the duplex longa is instead merely suggested by a greater
distance between the notes in the tenor (in score notation), caused by
the greater number of notes in the upper parts (Apel 1961, 224, 245).
See Mensural notation for examples.
Notation for a rest of the value of a maxima, i.e.,
two adjacent longa rests.

References
Apel, Willi. 1961. The Notation of Polyphonic Music 9001600, fifth edition, revised and with commentary. The
Medieval Academy of America Publication no. 38. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Medieval Academy of
America.
Morehen, John, and Richard Rastall. 2001. "Note Values". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Stoessel, Jason. 2009. "The Interpretation of Unusual Mensuration Signs in the Notation of the Ars subtilior". In A
late Medieval Songbook and its Context: New Perspectives on the Chantilly Codex (Bibliothque du Chteau de
Chantilly, Ms. 564), edited by Yolanda Plumley and Anne Stone, 179202. Turnhout: Brepols.

Longa (music)

Longa (music)
A longa (pl. longe or longae) or long (Am.: quadruple note) is a musical
note that could be either twice or three times as long as a breve (Am.: double
whole note), four or six times as long as a semibreve (Am.: whole note), that
appears in early music. The number of breves in a long was determined by the
"modus" or "mode" of a passage. Sections in perfect mode used three breves
to the long while sections in imperfect mode used two breves to the long.
Imperfect longs, worth two breves, existed in perfect mode from the earliest
sources (late 12th century), while the fourteenth century saw the introduction
of perfect longs, worth three breves, in imperfect mode through the use of
dots of addition (puncti additiones).Wikipedia:Citation needed

A longa in white-mensural notation.

Prior to the innovations of Franco of Cologne in the mid-thirteenth century,

the value of the longa was in common usage in both theoretical and practical
sources but appeared primarily in ligatures, or two or more notes joined
together. A ligature that began with a longa was said to lack "propriety",
while ligatures ending with a longa possessed "perfection", since in the view
of that era a "proper and perfect" rhyhmic sequence was the succession of a
brevis followed by a longa, justified by the fact that the ligature representing
this rhythm is written the same way as a plainchant ligature (a different usage
of the term from above). As a result, there were four possible ligature types:
those beginning with a brevis and ending with a longa, which had both
propriety and perfection, the reverse, which had neither, those both beginning
and ending with a longa, which lacked propriety but had perfection, and those
A longa rest (modern form) worth two
breves
beginning and ending with a brevis, which were proper but not perfect (Apel
1961, 8889, 26162, 31214; Reckow 1967, 4. Two longae, rarely three,
had the combined value of a maxima. The theoretical value of a maximodus perfectus could only be written with
three longae or a maxima plus a longa (Apel 1961, 124, 328, 440).
Prior to 1450, the longa was typically written with a filled notehead with void and red noteheads used only to
indicate an imperfect longa where perfect longae would otherwise be expected. Over the course of the fifteenth
century, the void notehead (shown in the image above) became the norm (Apel 1961, xxii, 126). Unlike other rests
used in mensural notation which, like the notes, took the same form whether perfect or imperfect, longa rests often
had different forms when the rest was imperfectfilling two spacesor perfectfilling three spaces (Apel 1961,
347). Although it is described as late as 1667, by this date the note symbol was of purely theoretical interest, since
changes in notational practice had rendered it too extended a value for practical use (Morehen and Rastall 2001).
While the longa note has not been used for more than three centuries, the longa rest still appears as a way of writing
rests that last exactly four measures (Gehrkens 1914, 14).
See Mensural notation for examples.

Longa (music)

References
Apel, Willi. 1961. The Notation of Polyphonic Music 9001600, fifth edition, revised and with commentary. The
Medieval Academy of America Publication no. 38. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Medieval Academy of
America.
Gehrkens, Karl Wilson. 1914. Music Notation and Terminology [1]. New York: A. S. Barnes Company.
Morehen, John, and Richard Rastall. 2001. "Long". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second
edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Reckow, Fritz. 1967. "Proprietas and perfectio [2]", translated by Rob C. Wegman. Adademia website (accessed
19 July 2014).

References
[1] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1GUAAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA14& lpg=PA14& dq=Gehrkens+ Karl+ Wilson+ Notation+ %22Four+
measures+ thus%22& source=bl& ots=UB-fzq7aPi& sig=vj47De7ZAzersObkOnqsKIxozgM& hl=en& sa=X&
ei=0vHKU_2ZBZORyATZ2YDYAw& ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=Gehrkens%20Karl%20Wilson%20Notation%20%22Four%20measures%20thus%22& f=false
[2] https:/ / www. academia. edu/ 2080486/ Reckow_Fritz_Proprietas_and_Perfectio

Double whole note

In music, a double whole note (American), breve (international), or
double note is a note lasting two times as long as a whole note (or
semibreve). In medieval mensural notation, the brevis (ancestor of the
modern breve) was one of the shortest note lengthshence its name,
which is the Latin etymon of "brief" (Read 1969, 14). In "perfect"
Left: breve in modern notation. Centre: breve in
rhythmic mode, the brevis was a third of a longa, or in "imperfect"
mensural notation. Right: unison of two whole
notes
mode half a longa (for full details of the complications here, see for
example Hoppin 1978).Wikipedia:Vagueness However, in modern
music notation it is the longest note value still in common use (Gehrkens 1914, 106).
In modern notation, a breve is represented in two ways: by a hollow oval note head, like a whole note, with one or
two vertical lines on either side, as on the left of the image, and as the rectangular shape also found in older notation,
shown in the middle of the image (Jacob 1960, 21; Read 1969, 459; Gerou and Lusk 1996, 210).
Because it lasts longer than a bar in most modern time signatures, the breve is now rarely encountered except in
English music, where the half-note is often used as the beat unit (Gherkens 1914, 11). However, in time signatures
where the top number is exactly twice that of the bottom, such as 4/2 or 8/4, it lasts a whole bar and so may still be
found.

Breve rest
A related symbol is the double whole rest (or breve rest), which usually denotes a silence for
the same duration (Read 1969, 93). Double whole rests are drawn as filled-in rectangles
occupying the whole vertical space between the second and third lines from the top of the
musical staff. They are often used in long silent passages which are not divided into separate
bars to indicate a rest of two bars (Read 1969, 101). This and longer rests are collectively
known as multiple rests (Read 1969, 99).
The names of this note and rest in different languages vary greatly:

Breve rest

Double whole note

Language

note name

rest name

Basque

karratu / laburra

Catalan

quadrada / breu

silenci de quadrada / silenci de breu

Dutch

brevis

brevis rust

French

carre

bton de pause

Galician

cadrada / breve

silencio de cadrada / silencio de breve

/
pausa de cadrada / pausa de breve

German

Doppelganze / Doppelganzenote / Brevis doppelganze Pause

Italian

breve

pausa di breve

Portuguese breve

pausa de breve

Spanish

cuadrada / doble redonda

silencio de cuadrada / silencio de breve

Swedish

brevisnot

brevispaus

The Basque karratu, Catalan quadrada, Galician cadrada, French carre, and Spanish cuadrada (all meaning
"square") derive from the fact that the brevis was distinguished by its square stemless shape, which is true as well of
one of the two modern forms (in contrast to the whole note or longer and shorter values with stems). The Basque
laburra (meaning "short" or "brief") is a translation of the Latin brevis.

Alla breve
Main article: Alla breve
Alla breve, the time signature 2/2, takes its name from the note value breve. In the mensural notation of the Middle
Ages and Renaissance, it was an alternative term for proportio dupla, which meant that the brevis was to be
considered the unit of time (tactus), instead of the usual semibrevis. The old symbol , used as an alternative to the
numerical proportion 2:1 in mensural notation, is carried over into modern notational practice to indicate a smaller
relative value per note shape. It is normally used for music in a relatively quick tempo, where it indicates two minim
(half note) beats in a bar of four crotchets, while

is the equivalent of 4/4, with four crotchet beats (Wright 2001).

References
Baker, Theodore. 1895. Note, A Dictionary of Musical Terms: Containing Upwards of 9,000 English, French,
German, Italian, Latin, and Greek Words and Phrases, third edition, revised and enlarged. New York: G.
Schirmer.
Gehrkens, Karl Wilson. 1914. Music Notation and Terminology. New York: The A.S. Barnes Co.; Chicago:
Laidlaw Brothers.
Gerou, Tom, and Linda Lusk. 1996. Essential Dictionary of Music Notation. Essential Dictionary Series. Los
Angeles: Alfred Music Publishing. ISBN 0-88284-730-9.
Hoppin, Richard H. 1978. Medieval Music. W W Norton & Company ISBN 0-393-09090-6.
Jacob, Archibald. 1960. Musical Handwriting: Or, How to Put Music on Paper, A Handbook for All Musicians,
Professional and Amateur, second edition, revised. London: Oxford University Press.
Read, Gardner. 1969. Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice, second edition. Boston: Alleyn and Bacon,
Inc.
Wright, Peter. 2001. "Alla breve". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by
Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.

Whole note

Whole note
In music, a whole note (American) or semibreve
(British) is a note represented by a hollow oval note
head, like a half note (or minim), and no note stem (see
Figure 1). Its length is equal to four beats in 4/4 time.
Most other notes are fractions of the whole note; half
notes are played for one half the duration of the whole
note, quarter notes (or crotchets) are each played for
one quarter the duration, etc.

Figure 1. A whole note and a whole rest.

A whole note lasts half as long as a double whole note

(or brevehence the British name, semibreve), and
twice as long as a half note, or minim. The symbol is
first found in music notation from the late thirteenth
century (Morehen and Rastall 2001).
A related symbol is the whole rest (or semibreve rest),
which usually denotes a silence for the same duration.
Whole rests are drawn as filled-in rectangles hanging
under the second line from the top of a musical staff.

halfnote}}, etc.).

Other lengths
The whole note and whole rest may also be used in music of free rhythm, such as Anglican chant, to denote a whole
measure, irrespective of the time of that measure. The whole rest can be used this way in almost all or all forms of
music.

Etymology
The whole note derives from the semibrevis of mensural notation, and this is the origin of the British name. The
American name is a calque of the German ganze Note.
The names of this note (and rest) in different languages vary greatly:
Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

rodona

silenci de rodona

Estonian

tisnoot

tispaus

Chinese ( )

Danish

helnode

helnodepause

Dutch

hele noot

hele rust

French

ronde

pause

German

ganze Note

ganze Pause

Greek

Olokliro () Pafsi oloklirou ( )

Italian

semibreve

pausa di semibreve

Japanese

(zen onpu)

(zen kyfu)

Whole note

9
Korean

Lithuanian

pilnoji nata

pilnoji pauz

Portuguese

semibreve

pausa de semibreve

Polish

caa nuta

pauza caonutowa

Romanian

not ntreag

pauz de nota intreaga

Russian

Serbian

cela nota / cela pauza /

Spanish

redonda

silencio de redonda

Swedish

helnot

helpaus

Thai

The Catalan, French and Spanish names for the note (meaning "round") derive from the fact that the semibrevis was
distinguished by its round stemless shape, which is true as well of the modern form (in contrast to the double whole
note or shorter values with stems). The Greek name means "whole". Chinese, Japanese and Korean names mean
"whole note".

References
Morehen, John, and Richard Rastall. 2001. "Semibreve". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.

Half note
This article is about the musical note. For the jazz club, see Half Note Club.
In music, a half note (American) or minim (British) is a note played
for half the duration of a whole note (or semibreve) and twice the
duration of a quarter note (or crotchet). In time signatures with a bar
length of 4 beats, such as 4/4 or 3/4 time, the half note is two beats
long.
Half notes are notated with a hollow oval note head (like a whole note)
and a straight note stem with no flags (like a quarter note; see Figure
1). The half rest (or minim rest) denotes a silence for the same
duration. Half rests are drawn as filled-in rectangles sitting on top of
the middle line of the musical staff. As with all notes with stems, half
notes are drawn with stems to the right of the note head, facing up,
when they are below the middle line of the staff. When they are on or
above the middle line, they are drawn with stems on the left of the note
head, facing down. Its rhythm syllables are ta-ah. The note derives
from the minima in mensural notation, which is Latin for 'least or
smallest,' because at one stage it was the shortest of all note values
used. The word minim comes from this name. The American term half
note is a 19th-century loan translation of German halbe Note.
The names of this note (and rest) in other languages vary greatly:

Figure 1. A half note with stem facing up, a half

note with stem facing down, and a half rest.

halfnote}}, etc.).

Half note

10

Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

blanca

silenci de blanca

Chinese

Dutch

halve noot

halve rust

French

blanche

demi-pause

German

halbe Note

halbe Pause

Greek

Imisi/miso (/)

Pafsi imiseos/pafsi misou ( / )

Italian

minima

pausa di minima

Japanese

Korean

Polish

pnuta

pauza pnutowa

Portuguese mnima

pausa de mnima

Russian

Serbian

polovin(k)a / () polovinska pauza /

Spanish

blanca

silencio de blanca

Thai

The Catalan, French and Spanish names for the note (all meaning "white") derive from the fact that the minima was
the shortest unfilled note in mensural white notation, which is true as well of the modern form. The form in the
earlier black notation resembles the modern quarter note (crotchet). The Greek, Chinese, Japanese and Korean names
mean "half" and in Greek, both the modern word (miso - ) and the older (imisi - ) are used. For the rest, the
word "pafsi" () is used; this means "pause".

References

Quarter note

11

Quarter note
"Crotchet" redirects here. For the needlework technique, see Crochet.
"Negra" redirects here. For other uses, see La Negra and Negro.
Look up quarter note in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

A quarter note (American) or crotchet (British, from the sense 'hook') is a note played for one quarter of the
duration of a whole note (or semibreve). Often, musicians will say that a crotchet is one beat, however, this is not
always correct, as the beat is indicated by the time signature of the music; a quarter note may or may not be the beat.
Quarter notes are notated with a filled-in oval note head and a straight, flagless stem. The stem usually points
upwards if it is below the middle line of the stave or downwards if it is on or above the middle line. However, the
stem direction may differentiate more than one part. The head of the note also reverses its orientation in relation to
the stem. (See image.)

Overview
In Unicode, the symbol is U+2669 ().
A related value is the quarter rest (or
crotchet rest). It denotes a silence of the
same duration as a quarter note. It typically
appears as the symbol and occasionally as
the older symbol .[1]
The note derives from the semiminima of
mensural notation. The word crotchet comes
from Old French crochet, meaning 'little
hook', diminutive of croc, 'hook', because of
the hook used on the note in black notation.
However, because the hook appeared on the
eighth note (or quaver) in the later white
notation, the modern French term croche
refers to an eighth note. Wikipedia:Citation
needed
It is played for half the length of a minim (or
"half note") and twice that of a quaver (an
"eighth note"). It is one beat in a bar of 4/4.
The term quarter note is a calque (loan
translation) of the German term Viertelnote.
The names of this note (and rest) in most
languages are calqued from the same source:

A quarter note/crotchet with stem pointing up, a quarter note with stem pointing
down, and a quarter rest

Four quarter notes. Quarter notes are the smallest note value not beamed together.

Quarter note

12

halfnote}}, etc.).

Language

note name

rest name

Bulgarian

Catalan

negra

silenci de negra

Chinese

Croatian

etvrtinka

etvrtinska pauza

Czech

tvrov nota

tvrov pauza

Danish

fjerdedelsnode

fjerdedelspause

Dutch

kwartnoot

kwartrust

Finnish

Neljsosanuotti

Neljsosatauko

French

noire

soupir

Japanese

Korean

Galego

negra

silencio de negra

German

Viertelnote

Viertelpause

Greek

Tetarto ()

Pausi tetartou ( )

Italian

semiminima

pausa di semiminima

Norwegian fjerdedelsnote

fjerdedelspause

Polish

pauza wiernutowa

wiernuta

Portuguese semnima

pausa de semnima

Russian

Serbian

etvrtin(k)a / () etvrtinska pauza/

Slovak

tvrov nota

tvrov pomlka

Spanish

negra

silencio de negra

Swedish

fjrdedelsnot

fjrdedelspaus

Turkish

drtlk nota

drtlk es

Thai

The Galician, Catalan, French and Spanish names for the note (all of them meaning "black") derive from the fact that
the semiminima was the longest note to be colored in mensural white notation, which is true as well of the modern
form.
The Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Russian, Serbian and Slovak names mean
"quarter" (for the note) and "quarter's pause" (for the rest).

Quarter note

13

Notes
[1] Examples of the older symbol are found in English music up to the early 20th century, e.g. W. A. Mozart Requiem Mass, vocal score ed. W.
T. Best, pub. London: Novello & Co. Ltd. 1879

Eighth note
"Quaver" redirects here. For the cheese-flavored snack food, see Quavers.
An eighth note (in the US and Canada) or a quaver (other
English-speaking countries) is a musical note played for one eighth the
duration of whole note (US and Canada. Semibreve, or half a breve,
other English-speaking countries), hence the name.
Eighth notes are notated with an oval, filled-in note head and a straight
note stem with one flag note flag (see Figure 1). A related symbol is
the eighth rest (or quaver rest), which denotes a silence for the same
duration.
In unicode, the symbols U+266A () and U+266B () are an eighth
note and beamed pair of eighth notes respectively. The former is
inherited from the early 1980s code page 437, where it has code 13.
As with all notes with stems, the general rule is that eighth notes are
drawn with stems to the right of the notehead, facing up, when they are
below the middle line of the musical staff. When they are on or above
the middle line, they are drawn with stems on the left of the note head,
facing down. Alternatively, stems are used to indicate voicing or parts;
all stems for the upper voice's notes (or "parts") are drawn facing up,
regardless of their position on the staff. Similarly, stems for the next
lower part's notes are down facing down. This makes the voices/parts
clear to the player and singer.

Figure 1. An eighth note with stem facing up, an

eighth note with stem facing down, and an eighth
rest.

Figure 2. Four eighth notes beamed together.

Flags are always on the right side of the stem, and curve to the right.
On stems facing up, the flag starts at the top and curves down; for
downward facing stems, the flags start at the bottom of the stem and
curve up. When multiple eighth notes or 16th notes (or 32nd notes,
etc.) are next to each other, the stems may be connected with a beam
rather than a flag, as shown in Figure 2. Its rhythm syllable is 'ti'.'
halfnote}}, etc.).

Eighth notes in 3/8, 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8 are beamed 3 eighth notes at a
time.

Eighth note

14

Etymology
The word 'quaver' comes from the now archaic use of the verb to quaver meaning to sing in trills.
The note derives from the fusa of mensural notation; however, fusa is the modern Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese
name for the 32nd note.
The names of this note (and rest) in many languages vary greatly:
Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

corxera

silenci de corxera

Chinese

Czech

osminka

osminov pomlka

Dutch

achtste noot

achtste rust

Finnish

Kahdeksasosanuotti

Kahdeksasosatauko

French

croche

demi-soupir

German

Achtelnote

Achtelpause

Greek

Italian

croma

pausa di croma

Japanese

Korean

Polish

semka

pauza semkowa

Portuguese colcheia

pausa de colcheia

Russian

Serbian

()/osmin(k)a /osminska pauza

Spanish

corchea

silencio de corchea

Swedish

ttondelsnot

ttondelspaus

Thai

Turkish

sekizlik nota

sekizlik es

The French name, croche is from the same source as crotchet, the British name for the quarter note. The name
derives from crochata ("hooked"), to apply to the flags of the semiminima (in white notation) and fusa (in black
notation) in mensural notation; thus the name came to be used for different notes.

Sixteenth note

15

Sixteenth note
In music, a 16th note (American) or semiquaver (British) is a note
played for 1/16th the duration of a whole note, hence the name. The
semiquaver is half of a quaver which is an eighth note.
Sixteenth notes are notated with an oval, filled-in note head and a
straight note stem with two flags. (see Figure 1). A similar symbol is
the 16th rest (or semiquaver rest), which denotes a silence for the
same duration. As with all notes with stems, 16th notes are drawn with
stems to the right of the notehead, facing up, when they are below the
middle line of the musical staff. When they are on or above the middle
line, they are drawn with stems on the left of the note head, facing
down. Flags are always on the right side of the stem, and curve to the
right. On stems facing up, the flags start at the top and curve down; for
downward facing stems, the flags start at the bottom of the stem and
curve up. When multiple 16th notes or eighth notes (or 32nd notes,
etc.) are next to each other, the flags may be connected with a beam,
like the notes in Figure 2. Note the similarities in notating 16th notes
and eighth notes. Similar rules apply to smaller divisions such as 32nd
notes (demisemiquavers) and 64th notes (hemidemisemiquavers).

Figure 1. A 16th note with stem facing up, a 16th

note with stem facing down, and a 16th rest.

In Unicode, U+266C () is a pair of beamed semiquavers.

The note derives from the semifusa in mensural notation. However,
semifusa also designates the modern 64th note in Spanish, Catalan and
Portuguese.

Figure 2. Four 16th notes beamed together.

The name of this note (and rest) in European languages varies greatly:

halfnote}}, etc.).

Sixteenth note

16

Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

semicorxera

silenci de semicorxera

Chinese

Danish

sekstenedelsnode

sekstenedelspause

Dutch

zestiende noot

zestiende rust

German

Sechzehntelnote

Sechzehntelpause

Greek

Italian

semicroma

pausa di semicroma

Japanese

16

16

Korean

16

16

French

double-croche

quart de soupir

Portuguese semicolcheia

pausa de semicolcheia

Romanian

aisprezecime

pauz de aisprezecime

Russian

Serbian

esnaestin(k)a / () esnaestinska pauza /

Spanish

semicorchea

silencio de semicorchea

Swedish

sextondelsnot

sextondelspausa

Thai

Thirty-second note
In music, a 32nd note (American) or demisemiquaver (British) is a
note played for 1/32 of the duration of a whole note (or semibreve). It
lasts half as long as a 16th note (or semiquaver) and twice as long as a
64th (or hemidemisemiquaver).
32nd notes are notated with an oval, filled-in note head and a straight
note stem with three flags or beams.[1] As with all notes with stems,
32nd notes are drawn with stems to the right of the notehead, facing
up, when they are below the middle line of the musical staff. When
they are on or above the middle line, they are drawn with stems on the
left of the note head, facing down. Flags are always on the right side of
the stem, and curve to the right. On stems facing up, the flags start at
the top and curve down; for downward facing stems, the flags start at
the bottom of the stem and curve up. When multiple 32nd notes or
eighth notes (or 16ths, etc.) are next to each other, the flags may be
connected with a beam. Similar rules apply to smaller divisions such as
64th notes.

Four thirty-second notes beamed together.

A related symbol is the 32nd rest or demisemiquaver rest (shown to the right), which denotes a silence for the
same duration.
The names of this note (and rest) in European and non-European languages vary greatly:

Thirty-second note

17

halfnote}}, etc.).

Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

fusa

silenci de fusa

Chinese

Dutch

tweendertigste noot

tweendertigste rust

French

triple-croche

huitime de soupir

German

Zweiunddreiigstelnote

Zweiunddreiigstelpause

Italian

biscroma

pausa di biscroma

Korean

32

32

Norwegian trettitodelsnote

trettitodelspause

Polish

pauza trzydziestodwjkowa

trzydziestodwjka

Portuguese fusa

pausa de fusa

Russian

Serbian

tridesetdvojin(k)a / () tridesetdvojinska pauza /

Spanish

fusa

silencio de fusa

"Fusa" derives from the mensural notation corresponding to the modern eighth note.

References
[1] http:/ / www. music. vt. edu/ musicdictionary/ textt/ Thirty-secondnote. html

Sixty-fourth note

18

Sixty-fourth note
In music notation, a 64th note (American) or hemidemisemiquaver (British) is a note played for 1/64 of the
duration of a whole note (or semibreve). It lasts half as long as a 32nd note (or demisemiquaver).
64th notes are notated with a filled in oval note head and a straight note stem with four
flags. The stem is drawn to the left of the note head going downward when the note is
above or on the middle line of the staff. When the note head is below the middle line the
stem is drawn to the right of the note head going upward. Multiple adjacent 64th notes may
have the flags connected with a beam.

Numerous sixty-fourth notes beamed together

A similar, but rarely encountered symbol is the 64th rest (or hemidemisemiquaver rest, shown on the right of the
image) which denotes silence for the same duration as a 64th note.
Notes shorter than a 64th note are very rarely used, though the 128th note (otherwise known as the
semihemidemisemiquaver or quasihemidemisemiquaver), and even shorter notes, are occasionally found.
The names of this note (and rest) vary greatly in European languages:
Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

semifusa

silenci de semifusa

Dutch

vierenzestigste noot

vierenzestigste rust

German

Vierundsechzigstelnote

Vierundsechzigstelpause

French

quadruple-croche

seizime de soupir

Italian

semibiscroma

pausa di semibiscroma

Spanish

semifusa

silencio de semifusa

Polish

szedziesicioczwrka

pauza szedziesicioczwrkowa

Portuguese semifusa

pausa de semifusa

Russian

Serbian

ezdesetetvrtin(k)a / () ezdesetetvrtinska pauza /

"Semifusa" derives from the mensural notation corresponding to the modern sixteenth note.

Reference and Further Reading

Taylor, Eric. The Associated Board Guide to Music Theory (Part 1) (England: The Associated Board of the Royal
Schools of Music (Publishing) Ltd, 1989) Chapter 3 (Continuing with Rhythm), p.15-20.

Hundred twenty-eighth note

19

Hundred twenty-eighth note

In music, a hundred twenty-eighth
note is a note played for 1/128 of the
duration of a whole note. It lasts half as
long as a sixty-fourth note. It has a
total of five flags or beams.
Notes this short are very rare in printed
music, but not unknown. They are
principally used for brief, rapid
sections in slow movements. For
example, they occur in the first
movement of Beethoven's Pathtique
Piano Sonata (Op. 13), to notate rapid
scales. Another example is in Mozart's
Variations on Je suis lindor, where
many of them are used in the slow
twelfth variation.[1][2]

Beethoven used hundred twenty-eighth notes in the first movement of his Pathtique
Sonata (Op. 13)

A hundred twenty-eighth note with stem facing

up, a hundred twenty-eighth note with stem
facing down, and a hundred twenty-eighth rest.

These five-beamed notes also appear

occasionally where a passage is to be
performed rapidly, but where the
actual tempo is at the discretion of the
performer rather than being a strict
division of the beat. In such cases, the
aggregate time of the notes may not
add up exactly to a full measure, and
the phrase may be marked with an odd
time division to indicate this.
Hundred twenty-eighth notes beamed together.
Sometimes such notation is made using
smaller notes, sized like grace notes.
One rare instance where such five-beamed notes occur as acciacaturas occurs in the final measures of No. 2 of
Charles-Valentin Alkan's Trois grandes tudes, Op. 76.
Hundred twenty-eighth rests are also rare, but again not unknown. They are most commonly used as replacements
for breath marks. One is used in Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 13 "Quasi una fantasia".
The names of this note (and rest) vary greatly in European languages:

Hundred twenty-eighth note

20

Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

garrapatea

silenci de garrapatea

Dutch

Honderdachtentwintigste noot

Honderdachtentwintigste rust

German

Hundertundachtundzwanzigstelnote Hundertundachtundzwanzigstelpause

French

quintuple-croche

trente-deuxime de soupir

Italian

centoventottavo

pausa di centoventottavo

Polish

stodwudziestosemka

pauza stodwudziestosemka

Portuguese quartifusa / tremifusa

pausa de quartifusa / pausa de tremifusa

Spanish

silencio de garrapatea / silencio de cuartifusa

garrapatea / cuartifusa

References
[1] Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. 12 Variations on 'Je suis lindor UNIQ-nowiki-0-41693e6d73d47969-QINU , K.354. p. 10, fourth system, last
bar. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozarts Werke, Serie 21. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hrtel, 1877-1910. Plate W.A.M. 354. (http:/ / imslp. org/ wiki/
12_Variations_on_'Je_suis_Lindor',_K. 354_(Mozart,_Wolfgang_Amadeus))
[2] http:/ / www. mail-archive. com/ lilypond-devel@gnu. org/ msg14425. html

Two hundred fifty-sixth note

In music, a two hundred fifty-sixth
note is a note played for 1/256 of the
duration of a whole note (hence the
name). It lasts half as long as a
hundred twenty-eighth note and takes
up one quarter of the length of a
sixty-fourth note. It has a total of six
flags or beams.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart used 128th and 256th notes in his Variations on Je suis
Lindor, K. 354.

Notes this short are very rare in printed

music, but not unknown. They are
principally used for brief, rapid
sections in slow movements. For
example, they occur in some editions
of the second movement of
Beethoven's third piano concerto (Op.
256th note
37), to notate rapid scales.[1] Another
example is in Mozart's Variations on
Je suis Lindor, where four of them are used in the slow twelfth variation.[2][3] A further example occurs in Jan
Ladislav Dussek's fifth piano sonata, Op. 10 No. 2.[4] They also occur in Vivaldi's concerto, RV 444.
The names of this note (and rest) vary greatly in European languages:

Two hundred fifty-sixth note

21

256th rest

Language

note name

rest name

Catalan

semigarrapatea

silenci de semigarrapatea

German

Zweihundertsechsundfnfzigstelnote Zweihundertsechsundfnfzigstelpause

French

sextuple-croche

soixante-quatrime de soupir

Italian

duecentocinquantasesto

pausa di duecentocinquantasesto

Spanish

semigarrapatea

silencio de semigarrapatea

Polish

dwieciepidziesitkaszstka

pauza dwieciepidziesicioszstkowa

Even shorter notes

1024th notes in Heinrich's Toccata Grande Cromatica

The next note value shorter than the 256th note would be the 512th note, half as long as the 256th note, with seven
flags or beams; after this would come the 1024th note (eight flags or beams), 2048th note (nine flags or beams),

Two hundred fifty-sixth note

4096th note (ten flags or beams), and so on indefinitely, with each note half the length of its predecessor. The
shortest note value to have ever been used in a published work is the 1024th note (notated incorrectly as a 2048th
note) in Anthony Philip Heinrich's Toccata Grande Cromatica from The Sylviad, Set 2, written around 1825; 256th
and 512th notes also occur frequently in this piece. For comparison, the shortest notated duration supported by any
scorewriter program is the 4096th note.[5]

References
[1] Byrd, Donald (ongoing). " Extremes of Conventional Music Notation (http:/ / www. informatics. indiana. edu/ donbyrd/ CMNExtremes.
htm)", Informatics.Indiana.edu.
[2] Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus. Zwlf Variationen in Es ber die Romanze "Je suis Lindor" UNIQ-nowiki-0-41693e6d73d47969-QINU , K.354.
p. 46, fifth system, first bar. Neue Mozart-Ausgabe. (http:/ / imslp. org/ wiki/ 12_Variations_on_'Je_suis_Lindor',_K.
354_(Mozart,_Wolfgang_Amadeus))
[3] http:/ / www. mail-archive. com/ lilypond-devel@gnu. org/ msg14425. html
[4] (http:/ / www. google. com/ books?id=5IIqQGxFOYkC& pg=PA90& lpg=PA90& dq=256th+ rests& source=bl& ots=1DdOzqShsb&
sig=rhVrikYfATc8ycvzPfdr_F4xeXc& hl=en& sa=X& ei=YHytUc_OM4O3rAfK6oCoBw& ved=0CEkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=256th
rests& f=false); first bar of p.14 of the Breitkopf & Hrtel edition (http:/ / imslp. org/ wiki/ Piano_Sonata_No. 5,_Op. 10_No.
2_(Dussek,_Jan_Ladislav))
[5] Finale User Manual: Secondary Beam Break Selection dialog box (http:/ / www. finalemusic. com/ usermanuals/ finale2012win/ content/
finale/ STSBBDLG. htm)

Tuplet
This article is about the note groupings. For mathematical grouping, see tuple.
In music a tuplet (also irrational
rhythm or groupings, artificial
division or groupings, abnormal
divisions,
irregular
rhythm,
gruppetto, extra-metric groupings,
or, rarely, contrametric rhythm) is
"any rhythm that involves dividing the
beat into a different number of equal
Irrational rhythm ( PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Irrational rhythm.mid): triplet
subdivisions from that usually
above second beat features three rather than the usual two equal divisions of the beat,
permitted by the time-signature (e.g.,
while the four sixteenth notes (semiquavers) above the third beat are rational, four being a
multiple of two
triplets, duplets, etc.)" (Humphries
2002, 266). This is indicated by a
number (or sometimes two), indicating the fraction involved. The notes involved are also often grouped with a
bracket or (in older notation) a slur. The most common type is the "triplet".

22

Tuplet

23

Terminology

Sextuplet ( PlayWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Sextuplet rhythm.mid), or six notes. As
the extra brackets show: six notes in the time of
four = three notes in the time of two X 2

The modern term 'tuplet' comes from a mistaken splitting of the

suffixes of words like quintu(s)-(u)plet and sextu(s)-(u)plet, and from
related mathematical terms such as "tuple", "-uplet" and "-plet", which
are used to form terms denoting multiplets (Oxford English Dictionary,
entries "multiplet", "-plet, comb. form", "-let, suffix", and "et, suffix1").
An alternative modern term, "irrational rhythm", was originally
borrowed from Greek prosody where it referred to "a syllable having a
metrical value not corresponding to its actual time-value, or ... a
metrical foot containing such a syllable" (Oxford English Dictionary,
entry "irrational"). The term would be incorrect if used in the
mathematical sense (because the note-values are rational fractions) or
in the more general sense of "unreasonable, utterly illogical, absurd".

Alternative terms found occasionally are "artificial division" (Jones

1974, 19), "abnormal divisions" (Donato 1963, 34), "irregular rhythm"
(Read 1964, 181), and "irregular rhythmic groupings" (Kennedy 1994).
The term "polyrhythm" (or "polymeter"), sometimes incorrectly used
of "tuplets", actually refers to the simultaneous use of opposing time
signatures. (Read 1964, 167)

"True sextuplet": in order to contrast with the

above "false sextuplet", the 1st, 3rd, and 5th notes
of a sextuplet must be stressed rather than the 1st
and 4th (Baker, Slonimsky, and Kuhn 1995, 208).

Besides "triplet", the terms "duplet", "quadruplet", "quintuplet",

"sextuplet", "septuplet", and "octuplet" are used frequently. The terms
"nonuplet", "decuplet", "undecuplet", "dodecuplet", and "tredecuplet"
had been suggested but up until 1925 had not caught on (Dunstan 1925,Wikipedia:Citing sources). By 1964 the
terms "nonuplet" and "decuplet" were usual, while subdivisions by greater numbers were more commonly described
as "group of eleven notes", "group of twelve notes", and so on (Read 1964, 189).

Triplets
The most common tuplet (Schonbrun 2007, 8) is the triplet (Ger. Triole, Fr. triolet, It. terzina or tripletta, Sp.
tresillo), shown at right.
Whereas normally two quarter notes (crotchets) are the same duration
as a half note (minim), three triplet quarter notes total that same
duration, so the duration of a triplet quarter note is 2/3 the duration of a
Tuplet: a standard triplet; a triplet denoted
standard quarter note. Similarly, three triplet eighth notes (quavers) are
without a bracket; a tuplet denoted as a ratio
equal in duration to one quarter note. If several note values appear
under the triplet bracket, they are all affected the same way, reduced to
2/3 their original duration. The triplet indication may also apply to notes of different values, for example a quarter
note followed by one eighth note, in which case the quarter note may be regarded as two triplet eighths tied together
(Gherkens 1921, 19).

Tuplet

Tuplet notation
If the notes of the tuplet are beamed together, the bracket (or slur) may be omitted and the number written next to the
beam, as shown in the second illustration.
For other tuplets, the number indicates
a ratio to the next lower normal value
in the prevailing meter. So a
quintuplet (quintolet or pentuplet
(Cunningham 2007, 111)) indicated
Septuplet rhythm: seven against four (more frequent) and seven against eight (sometimes
with the numeral 5 means that five of
found) ( PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Septuplet rhythm.mid).
the indicated note value total the
duration normally occupied by four (or, as a division of a dotted note in compound time, three), equivalent to the
second higher note value; for example, five quintuplet eighth notes total the same duration as a half note (or, in 3/8
or compound meters such as 6/8, 9/8, etc. time, a dotted quarter note). Some numbers are used inconsistently: for
example septuplets (septolets or septimoles) usually indicate 7 notes in the duration of 4or in compound meter 7
for 6but may sometimes be used to mean 7 notes in the duration of 8 (Read 1964, 18384). Thus, a septuplet
lasting a whole note can be written with either quarter notes (7:4) or eighth notes (7:8). To avoid ambiguity,
composers sometimes write the ratio explicitly instead of just a single number, as shown in the third illustration; this
is also done for cases like 7:11, where the validity of this practice is established by the complexity of the figure. A
French alternative is to write pour ("for") or de ("of") in place of the colon, or above the bracketed "irregular"
number (Read 1964, 21921). This reflects the French usage of, for example, "six-pour-quatre" as an alternative
name for the sextolet (Damour, Burnett, and Elwart 1838, 79; Hubbard 1924, 480).
There are disagreements about the sextuplet (pronounced with stress on the first syllable, according to Baker 1895,
177)which is also called sestole, sestolet, sextole, or sextolet (Baker 1895, 177; Cooper 1973, 32; Latham 2002;
Shedlock 1876, 62, 68, 87, 93; Stainer and Barrett 1876, 395; Taylor 187989; Taylor 2001). This six-part division
may be regarded either as a triplet with each note divided in half (2 + 2 + 2)therefore with an accent on the first,
third, and fifth notesor else as an ordinary duple pattern with each note subdivided into triplets (3 + 3) and
accented on both the first and fourth notes. Some authorities treat both groupings as equally valid forms (Damour,
Burnett, and Elwart 1838, 80; Khler 1858, 2:5253; Latham 2002; Marx 1853, 114; Read 1964, 215), while others
dispute this, holding the first type to be the "true" (or "real") sextuplet, and the second type to be properly a "double
triplet", which should always be written and named as such (Kastner 1838, 94; Riemann 1884, 13435; Taylor
187989, 3:478). Some go so far as to call the latter, when written with a numeral 6, a "false" sextuplet (Baker 1895,
177; Lobe 1881, 36; Shedlock 1876, 62). Still others, on the contrary, define the sextuplet precisely and solely as the
double triplet (Stainer and Barrett 1876, 395; Sembos 2006, 86), and a few more, while accepting the distinction,
contend that the true sextuplet has no internal subdivisionsonly the first note of the group should be accented
(Riemann 1884, 134; Taylor 187989, 3:478; Taylor 2001).
In compound meter, even-numbered
tuplets can indicate that a note value is
changed in relation to the dotted
version of the next higher note value.
Duplet and quadruplet notated in 6/8 PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Duplet and
Thus, two duplet eighth notes (most
quadruplet.mid. Two duplets or four quadruplets equal three regular eighth notes or a
dotted quarter note.
often used in 6/8 meter) take the time
normally totaled by three eighth notes,
equal to a dotted quarter note. Four quadruplet (or quartole) eighth notes would also equal a dotted quarter note.
The duplet eighth note is thus exactly the same duration as a dotted eighth note, but the duplet notation is far more

24

Tuplet

25

common in compound meters (Jones 1974, 20). A duplet in compound time is more often written as 2:3 (a dotted
quarter note split into two duplet eighth notes) than 2:1.5 (a dotted quarter note split into two duplet quarter notes),
even though the former is inconsistent with a quadruplet also being written as 4:3 (a dotted quarter note split into two
quadruplet eighth notes) (Anon. 19972000).
In drumming, "quadruplet" refers to
one group of three sixteenth-note
triplets "with an extra [non-tuplet
eighth] note added on to the end", thus
filling one beat in 4/4 time (Peckman
2007, 12728), with four notes of
unequal value.

Usage and purpose

"Quadruplet" with each note on a different drum in a kit used as a fill (Peckman 2007,
129). playWikipedia:Media helpFile:Quadruplet.mid

Tuplets can produce rhythms such as

the hemiola, or may be used as polyrhythms when played against the regular duration. They are extrametric rhythmic
units.
Traditional music notation favors
duple divisions of a steady beat or time
unit. A whole note (semibreve) divides
into two half notes, a half note into two
quarters, etc. and other notes are made
by tying these together.
An irrational rhythm (by definition) is
one that uses exact time points or
durations that lie outside the scope of
the duple system.

Sextuplet in quintuple time: six against five ( PlayWikipedia:Media

helpFile:Sextuplet against five rhythm.mid).

The n-tuplet notation shows the proportional increase or decrease of tempo needed for the bracketed notes, relative
to the prevailing tempo. For example, a bracket labeled "5:4" (read five in the space of four) could group together
durations (notes or rests) with a total of five sixteenth notes. A tempo 5/4 faster than usual then compresses these
events into the space of four sixteenth notes.
The actual duration can be found by dividing the notated duration by the indicated tempo increase ((5/16)/(5/4) =
1/4, in this example).
Normally, the total duration of the bracketed notes is chosen to be exactly equal to the duration of one of the duple
divisions. For the example of a 5:4 bracket, this is possible if the total bracketed duration has a 5 in its numerator,
5/16 in the example.
Sometimes though that requirement is dropped to create total durations not exactly expressible in the duple system.
For example, one might have only three of the usual five sixteenth notes grouped by a bracket marked "3 of 5:4".

Tuplet

26

Counting
Tuplets may be counted, most often at extremely slow tempos, using the lowest common multiple (LCM) between
the original and tuplet divisions. For example, with a 3-against-2 tuplet (triplets) the LCM is 6. Since 6/2= 3 and
6/3= 2 the quarter notes fall every three counts (overlined) and the triplets every two (underlined):
1

This is fairly easily brought up to tempo, and depending on the music may be counted in tempo, while 7-against-4,
having an LCM of 28, may be counted at extremely slow tempos but must be played intuitively ("felt out") at tempo:
1

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

To play a half-note (minim) triplet accurately in a bar of 4/4, count

eighth-note triplets and tie them together in groups of four. With a
stress on each target note, one would count:
1-2-3 / 1-2-3 / 1-2-3 / 1-2-3
The same principle can be applied to quintuplets, septuplets, and so on.
Four eighth-note triplets = one half-note triplet.

References
Anon. 19972000. "Music Notation Questions Answered [1]". Graphire Corporation, Graphire.com (Accessed 10
May 2013).
Baker, Theodore (ed.). 1895. A Dictionary of Musical Terms. New York: G. Schirmer.
Baker, Theodore, Nicolas Slonimsky, and Laura Dine Kuhn. 1995. Schirmer Pronouncing Pocket Manual of
Musical Terms. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-8256-7223-6.
Cooper, Paul. 1973. Perspectives in Music Theory: An Historical-Analytical Approach.. New York: Dodd, Mead.
ISBN 0-396-06752-2.
Cunningham, Michael G. 2007. Technique for Composers. Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse. ISBN
1-4259-9618-3
Damour, Antoine, Aimable Burnett, and lie Elwart. 1838. tudes lmentaires de la musique: depuis ses
premires notions jusqu' celles de la composition: divises en trois parties: Connaissances prliminaires.
Mthode de chant. Mthode dharmonie [2]. Paris: Bureau des tudes lmentaires de la musique.
Donato, Anthony. 1963. Preparing Music Manuscript. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Unaltered
reprint, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977 ISBN 0-8371-9587-X.
Dunstan, Ralph. 1925. A Cyclopdic Dictionary of Music. 4th ed. London: J. Curwen & Sons, 1925. Reprint.
New York: DaCapo Press, 1973.
Gehrkens, Karl W. 1921. Music Notation and Terminology. New York and Chicago: The A. S. Barnes Company.
Hubbard, William Lines. 1924. Musical Dictionary, revised and enlarged edition. Toledo: Squire Cooley Co.
Reprinted as The American History and Encyclopedia of Music. Whitefish, Montana: Kessinger Publishing, 2005.
ISBN 1-4179-0200-0.
Humphries, Carl. 2002. The Piano Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Backbeat Books; London: Hi Marketing. ISBN
0-87930-727-7.
Jones, George Thaddeus. 1974. Music Theory: The Fundamental Concepts of Tonal Music Including Notation,
Terminology, and Harmony. New York, Hagerstown, San Francisco, London: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN
0-06-460137-4.

Tuplet
Lobe, Johann Christian. 1881. Catechism of Music, new and improved edition, edited and revised from the 20th
German edition by John Henry Cornell, translated by Fanny Raymond Ritter. New York: G. Schirmer. (First
edition of English translation by Fanny Raymond Ritter. New York: J. Schuberth 1867.)
Kennedy, Michael. 1994. "Irregular Rhythmic Groupings. (Duplets, Triplets, Quadruplets)". Oxford Dictionary of
Music, second edition, associate editor, Joyce Bourne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-869162-9.
Khler, Louis. 1858. Systematische Lehrmethode fr Clavierspiel und Musik: Theoretisch und praktisch, 2 vols..
Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hrtel.
Latham, Alison (ed.). 2002. "Sextuplet [sextolet]". The Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford and New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866212-2.
Marx, Adolf Bernhard. 1853. Universal School of Music, translated from the fifth edition of the original German
by August Heinrich Wehrhan. London.
Peckman, Jon. 2007. Picture Yourself Drumming: Step-by-Step Instruction for Drum Kit Setup, Reading Music,
Learning from the Pros, and More. Boston, MA: Thomson Course Technology. ISBN 1-59863-330-9
Read, Gardner. 1964. Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice. Boston: Alleyn and Bacon, Inc. Second
edition, Boston: Alleyn and Bacon, Inc., 1969., reprinted as A Crescendo Book, New York: Taplinger Pub. Co.,
1979. ISBN 0-8008-5459-4 (cloth), ISBN 0-8008-5453-5 (pbk).
Riemann, Hugo. 1884. Musikalische Dynamik und Agogik: Lehrbuch der musikalischen Phrasirung auf Grund
einer Revision der Lehre von der musikalischen Metrik und Rhythmik. Hamburg: D. Rahter; St. Petersburg: A.
Bttner; Leipzig: Fr. Kistnet.
Schonbrun, Marc. 2007. The Everything Music Theory Book: A Complete Guide to Taking Your Understanding of
Music to the Next Level. The Everything Series. Avon, Mass.: Adams Media. ISBN 1-59337-652-9.
Sembos, Evangelos C. 2006. Principles of Music Theory: A Practical Guide, second edition. Morrisville, NC:
Lulu Press, Inc. ISBN 1-4303-0955-5.
Shedlock, Emma L. 1876. A Trip to Music-Land: An Allegorical and Pictorial Exposition of the Elements of
Music. London, Glasgow, and Edinburgh: Blackie & Son.
Stainer, John, and William Alexander Barrett. 1876. A Dictionary of Musical Terms. London: Novello, Ewer and
Co.
Taylor, Franklin. 187989. "Sextolet". A Dictionary of Music and Musicians (A.D. 14501883) by Eminent
Writers, English and Foreign, 4 vols, edited by Sir George Grove, 3:478. London: Macmillan and Co.
Taylor, Franklin. 2001. "Sextolet, Sextuplet." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition,
edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.

References
[1] http:/ / www. graphire. com/ Pages/ Support/ supportnotefaq. htm
[2] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Fk0QAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=Damour+ Burnett+ %22tudes+ lmentaires+ de+ la+
musique%22& source=bl& ots=674aIBp1EJ& sig=ZG73fcRRCsDnlmbCMMERlcUY2Ns& hl=en& ei=KHWYS5q9JIm8sgO7-LjCAQ&
sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CAkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=& f=false

27

Time signature

28

Time signature
"Common time" redirects here. For the short story, see Common Time.
"4/4" redirects here. For the class of vehicle drivetrains, see Four-wheel drive.
<score> { \key c \major \time 3/4 \relative c { a f c \bar "|" \hideNotes a \unHideNotes \bar "" } } </score>
Simple example of a 3
4 time signature: here there are three (3) quarter-notes (4) per measure.
The time signature (also known as meter signature,[1] metre signature,[2] or measure signature[3]) is a notational
convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats are in each bar and which note value
constitutes one beat. In a musical score, the time signature appears at the beginning of the piece, as a time symbol or
stacked numerals, such as or 3
4 (read common time and three four time, respectively), immediately following the key signature or immediately
following the clef symbol if the key signature is empty. A mid-score time signature, usually immediately following a
barline, indicates a change of meter.
There are various types of time signatures, depending on whether the music follows simple rhythms or involves
unusual shifting tempos, including: simple (such as 3
4 or 4
4), compound (e.g., 9
8 or 12
8), complex (e.g., 5
4 or 7
8), mixed (e.g., 5
8&3
8 or 6
8 or 3
4), additive (e.g., 3+2+3
8), fractional (e.g., 2
4), and irrational meters (e.g., 3
10 or 5
24).

Simple time signatures

Simple time signatures consist of two numerals, one stacked above the
other:
The lower numeral indicates the note value that represents one beat
(the beat unit). Wikipedia:Please clarify
The upper numeral indicates how many such beats there are in a
bar.
For instance, 2
4 means two quarter-note (crotchet) beats per bar3
8 means three eighth-note (quaver) beats per bar.

Basic time signatures: 4

4, also known as common time (

); 2
2, also known as cut time or cut-common time (
); plus 2
4; 3
4; and 6
8

Time signature

29

The most common simple time signatures are 2

4, 3
4, and 4
4.

Notational variations in simple time

A semicircle, or , is sometimes used for 4
4 time, also called common time or imperfect time. The symbol is derived from a broken circle used in music
notation from the 14th through 16th centuries, where a full circle represented what today would be written in 3
2 or 3
4 time, and was called tempus perfectum (perfect time). The symbol
, a semicircle with a vertical line through, is
also a carry-over from the notational practice of late-Medieval and Renaissance music, where it signified tempus
imperfectum diminutum (diminished imperfect time)more precisely, a doubling of the speed, or proportio dupla, in
duple meter.[4] In modern notation, it is used in place of 2
2 and is called alla breve or, colloquially, cut time or cut common time.

Compound time signatures

Main article: Compound meter (music)
In compound meter, subdivisions of the main beat (the upper number) split into three, not two, equal parts, so that a
dotted note (half again longer than a regular note) becomes the beat unit. Compound time signatures are named as if
they were simple time signatures, in which the one-third part of the beat unit is the beat, so the top number is
commonly 6, 9 or 12 (multiples of 3). The lower number is most commonly an 8 (an eighth-note): as in 9
8 or 12
8.

An example
3
4 is a simple signature that represents three quarter notes. It has a basic feel of (Bold denotes a stressed beat):

one two three (as in a waltz)

Each quarter note might comprise two eighth-notes (quavers) giving a total of six such notes, but it still retains
that three-in-a-bar feel:
one and two and three and
6
8: Theoretically, this can be thought of as the same as the six-quaver form of 3
4 above with the only difference being that the eighth note is selected as the one-beat unit. But whereas the six

quavers in 3
4 had been in three groups of two, 6
8 is practically understood to mean that they are in two groups of three, with a two-in-a-bar feel (Bold denotes a
stressed beat):
one and a, two and a
or
one two three, four five six

Time signature

30

Beat and time

Time signatures indicating two beats per bar (whether it is simple or compound) are called duple time; those with
three beats to the bar are triple time. To the ear, a bar may seem like one singular beat. For example, a fast waltz,
notated in 3
4 time, may be described as being one in a bar. Terms such as quadruple (4), quintuple (5), and so on are also
occasionally used.

Actual beat divisions

As mentioned above, though the score indicates a 3
4 time, the actual beat division can be the whole bar, particularly at faster tempos. Correspondingly, at slow tempos
the beat indicated by the time signature could in actual performance be divided into smaller units.

Interchangeability, rewriting meters

On a formal mathematical level the
time signatures of, e.g., 3
4 and 3
8 are interchangeable. In a sense, all
simple triple time signatures, such as 3
8, 3
4, 3
2, etc.and all compound duple times,
such as 6
8, 6
16 and so on, are equivalent. A piece in

3
4 equals 3
8 time at a different tempo

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:3-4 equals 3-8 drum

pattern.mid

3
4 can be easily rewritten in 3
8, simply by halving the length of the notes. Other time signature rewritings are possible: most commonly a simple

time signature with triplets translates into a compound meter.

Though formally interchangeable, for a
composer or performing musician,
different time signatures often have
different connotations. First, a smaller
note value in the beat unit implies a
12
more complex notation, which can
8 equals 4
4 time at a different tempo and requires the use of tuplets PlayWikipedia:Media
affect ease of performance. Second,
helpFile:12-8 equals 4-4 drum pattern.mid
beaming affects the choice of actual
beat divisions. It is, for example, more
natural to use the quarter note/crotchet as a beat unit in 6
4 or 2
2 than the eight/quaver in 6
8 or 2
4. Third, time signatures are traditionally associated with different music stylesit might seem strange to notate a
rock tune in 4
8 or 4
2.

Time signature

31

Stress and meter

For all meters, the first beat (the downbeat, ignoring any anacrusis) is usually stressed (though not always, for
example in reggae where the offbeats are stressed); in time signatures with four groups in the bar (such as 4
4 and 12
8), the third beat is often also stressed, though to a lesser degree. This gives a regular pattern of stressed and
unstressed beats, though notes on stressed beats are not necessarily louder or more important.

Most frequent time signatures

Simple time signatures

4
4

Common time: widely used in most forms of Western popular music. Most
[5]
common time signature in rock, blues, country, funk, and pop

(quadruple)

Simple quadruple drum pattern: divides each of four

beats into two PlayWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Characteristic rock drum pattern.mid

2
2 (duple)

Alla breve, cut time: used for marches and fast orchestral music. Frequently
occurs in musical theater. Sometimes called in 2, but may be notated in 4

Simple duple drum pattern (notated as 4

4): divides each of two beats into two

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Half time rock
pattern.mid

4
2

Never found in early music (which did not use numeric time signatures), and
rare since 1600, though Brahms and other composers used it occasionally

(quadruple)

2
4 (duple)

Used for polkas or marches

Simple duple drum pattern: divides each of two beats

into two

Time signature

3
4 (triple)

32
Used for waltzes, minuets, scherzi, country & western ballads, R&B,
sometimes used in pop

Simple triple drum pattern: divides each of three beats

into two PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Simple
triple drum pattern.mid

3
8 (triple)

Also used for the above, but usually suggests higher tempo or shorter
hypermeter
Compound time signatures

6
8 (duple)

Double jigs, polkas, sega, salegy, tarantella, marches, barcarolles, Irish jigs,
loures, and some rock music

Compound duple drum pattern: divides each of two

beats into three PlayWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Compound duple drum pattern.mid

9
8 (triple)

Compound triple time, used in triple ("slip") jigs, otherwise occurring rarely
(The Ride of the Valkyries, Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony, and the final
[6]
movement of the Bach Violin Concerto in A minor (BWV 1041) are
familiar examples. Debussy's Clair de lune and Prlude l'aprs-midi d'un
faune (opening bars) are in 9
8)
Compound triple drum pattern: divides each of three
beats into three PlayWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Compound triple drum pattern.mid

12
8

Also common in slower blues (where it is called a shuffle) and doo-wop; also
used more recently in rock music. Can also be heard in some jigs like The
(quadruple) Irish Washerwoman. This is also the time signature of the Movement II By
the Brook of Beethoven's Symphony No 6 (the Pastoral)

Compound quadruple drum pattern: divides each of

four beats into three PlayWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Compound quadruple drum pattern.mid

Time signature

33

Video samples for the most frequent time signatures

For larger versions of the videos, click play, then go to More than About this file

2/4 at a tempo of 60 bpm

3/4 at a tempo of 60 bpm

4/4 at a tempo of 60 bpm

6/8 at tempo of 90 bpm

9/8 at tempo of 90 bpm

12/8 at tempo of 90 bpm

Complex time signatures

19
16 Time Drum Beat

Problems playing this file? See media help.

See also: List of musical works in unusual time signatures, Quintuple meter and Septuple meter
Signatures that do not fit the usual duple or triple categories are called complex, asymmetric, irregular, unusual, or
oddthough these are broad terms, and usually a more specific description is appropriate.Wikipedia:Citation needed
The term odd meter, however, sometimes describes time signatures in which the upper number is simply odd rather
than even, including 3
4 and 9
[7]
8. These more complex meters are common in some non-Western music, but rarely appeared in formal written
Western music until the 19th century. The first deliberate quintuple meter pieces were apparently published in Spain
between 1516 and 1520, though other authorities reckon that the Delphic Hymns to Apollo (one by Athenaeus is
entirely in quintuple meter, the other by Limenius predominantly so), carved on the exterior walls of the Athenian
Treasury at Delphi in 128 BC, are probably earlier.[8] The third movement (Larghetto) of Chopin's Piano Sonata No.
1 (1828) is an early, but by no means the earliest, example of 5

Time signature

34

4 time in solo piano music. Reicha's Fugue 20 from his Thirty-six Fugues, published in 1803, is also for piano and is

in 5
8. The waltz-like second movement of Tchaikovsky's Pathtique Symphony, often described as a limping waltz, is a
notable example of 5
4 time in orchestral music. Examples from the 20th century include Holst's Mars, the Bringer of War and Neptune,
the Mystic (both in 5
4) from the orchestral suite The Planets, Paul Hindemith's Fugue Secunda in G,(5
8) from Ludus Tonalis, the ending of Stravinsky's Firebird (7
4), the fugue from Heitor Villa-Lobos's Bachianas Brasileiras No. 9 (11
8) and the Mission Impossible theme by Lalo Schifrin (also in 5
4).
In the Western popular music tradition, unusual time signatures occur as well, with progressive rock in particular
making frequent use of them. The use of shifting meters in The Beatles' "Strawberry Fields Forever" (1967) and the
use of quintuple meter in their "Within You, Without You" (1967) are well-known examples,[9] as is Radiohead's
"Paranoid Android" (includes 7
[10]
8).
Paul Desmond's jazz composition Take Five, in 5
4 time, was one of a number of irregular-meter compositions that The Dave Brubeck Quartet played. They played
other compositions in 11
4 (Eleven Four), 7
4 (Unsquare Dance)and 9
8 (Blue Rondo la Turk), expressed as 2+2+2+3
8. This last is an example of a work in a signature that, despite appearing merely compound triple, is actually more
complex.
However, such time signatures are only unusual in most Western music. Traditional music of the Balkans uses such
meters extensively. Bulgarian dances, for example, include forms with 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 22, 25 and other numbers
of beats per measure. These rhythms are notated as additive rhythms based on simple units, usually 2, 3 and 4 beats,
though the notation fails to describe the metric "time bending" taking place, or compound meters. For example, the
Bulgarian Sedi Donka consists of 25 beats divided 7+7+11, where 7 is subdivided 3+2+2 and 11 is subdivided
2+2+3+2+2 or 4+3+4.Wikipedia:Citation needed See Variants below.

Video samples for complex time signatures

5/4 at 60 bpm

7/4 at 60 bpm

11/4 at 60 bpm

Time signature

35

Rhythm of Blue Rondo La Turk - consists of three measures of 2+2+2+3 followed by

one measure of 3 + 3 + 3 and the cycle then repeats. Taking the smallest time unit as
eighth notes, the arrows on the tempo dial show the tempi for , , . and the measure
beat. Starts slow, speeds up to usual tempo

Mixed meters
While time signatures usually express a regular pattern of beat stresses continuing through a piece (or at least a
section), sometimes composers place a different time signature at the beginning of each bar, resulting in music with
an extremely irregular rhythmic feel. In this case the time signatures are an aid to the performers, and not necessarily
an indication of meter. The Promenade from Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition (1874) is a good example:

Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition Promenade PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Mussorgsky Pictures at

an Exhibition, chords.mid

Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (1913) is famous for its "savage" rhythms:

In such cases, a convention that some composers follow (e.g., Olivier Messiaen, in his La Nativit du Seigneur and
Quatuor pour la fin du temps) is to simply omit the time signature. Charles Ives's Concord Sonata has measure bars
for select passages, but the majority of the work is unbarred.

Time signature

36

Some pieces have no time signature, as there is no discernible meter. This is commonly known as free time.
Sometimes one is provided (usually 4
4) so that the performer finds the piece easier to read, and simply has 'free time' written as a direction. Sometimes the
word FREE is written downwards on the staff to indicate the piece is in free time. Erik Satie wrote many
compositions that are ostensibly in free time, but actually follow an unstated and unchanging simple time signature.
Later composers used this device effectively, writing music almost devoid of a discernibly regular pulse.
If two time signatures alternate repeatedly, sometimes the two signatures are placed together at the beginning of the
piece or section, as shown below:

Detail of score of Tchaikovsky's string quartet #2 in F major, showing a multiple time signature

Video samples for mixed meters

Flamenco Buleras with emphasis as [12] 1 2 [3] 4 5 [6] 7 [8] 9 [10] 11 - also the rhythm for the song America
in West Side Story

Time signature

Variants
Additive meters
To indicate more complex patterns of stresses, such as additive rhythms, more complex time signatures can be used.
Additive meters have a pattern of beats that subdivide into smaller, irregular groups. Such meters are sometimes
called imperfect, in contradistinction to perfect meters, in which the bar is first divided into equal units.[11]
For example, the signature

which can be written (3+2+3)/8, means that there are 8 quaver beats in the bar, divided as the first of a group of
three eighth notes (quavers) that are stressed, then the first of a group of two, then first of a group of three again. The
stress pattern is usually counted as one-two-three-one-two-one-two-three. This kind of time signature is commonly
used to notate folk and non-Western types of music. In classical music, Bla Bartk and Olivier Messiaen have used
such time signatures in their works. The first movement of Maurice Ravel's Piano Trio in A Minor is written in 8
8, in which the beats are likewise subdivided into 3 + 2 + 3 to reflect Basque dance rhythms.
Romanian musicologist Constantin Briloiu had a special interest in compound time signatures, developed while
studying the traditional music of certain regions in his country. While investigating the origins of such unusual
meters, he learned that they were even more characteristic of the traditional music of neighboring peoples (e.g., the
Bulgarians). He suggested that such timings can be regarded as compounds of simple two-beat and three-beat
meters, where an accent falls on every first beat, even though, for example in Bulgarian music, beat lengths of 1, 2,
3, 4 are used in the metric description. In addition, when focused only on stressed beats, simple time signatures can
count as beats in a slower, compound time. However, there are two different-length beats in this resulting compound
time, a one half-again longer than the short beat (or conversely, the short beat is 2/3 the value of the long). This type
of meter is called aksak (the Turkish word for "limping"), impeded, jolting, or shaking, and is described as an
irregular bichronic rhythm. A certain amount of confusion for Western musicians is inevitable, since a measure they
would likely regard as 7
16, for example, is a three-beat measure in aksak, with one long and two short beats (with subdivisions of 2+2+3,
2+3+2, or 3+2+2).[12]
Folk music may make use of metric time bends, so that the proportions of the performed metric beat time lengths
differ from the exact proportions indicated by the metric. Depending on playing style of the same meter, the time
bend can vary from non-existent to considerable; in the latter case, some musicologists may want to assign a
different meter. For example, the Bulgarian tune Eleno Mome is written as 7=2+2+1+2, 13=4+4+2+3, 12=3+4+2+3,
but an actual performance (e.g., Smithsonian Eleno Mome [13]) may be closer to 4+4+2+3.5. The Macedonian
3+2+2+3+2 meter is even more complicated, with heavier time bends, and use of quadruples on the threes. The
metric beat time proportions may vary with the speed that the tune is played. The Swedish Boda Polska (Polska from
the parish Boda) has a typical elongated second beat.
In Western classical music, metric time bend is used in the performance of the Viennese Waltz. Most Western music
uses metric ratios of 2:1, 3:1, or 4:1 (two-, three- or four-beat time signatures)in other words, integer ratios that
make all beats equal in time length. So, relative to that, 3:2 and 4:3 ratios correspond to very distinctive metric
rhythm profiles. Complex accentuation occurs in Western music, but as syncopation rather than as part of the metric
accentuation.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Briloiu borrowed a term from Turkish medieval music theory: aksak (Turkish for crippled). Such compound time
signatures fall under the "aksak rhythm" category that he introduced along with a couple more that should describe
the rhythm figures in traditional music.[14] The term Briloiu revived had moderate success worldwide, but in
Eastern Europe it is still frequently used. However, aksak rhythm figures occur not only in a few European countries,
but on all continents, featuring various combinations of the two and three sequences. The longest are in Bulgaria.

37

Time signature

38

The shortest aksak rhythm figures follow the five-beat timing, comprising a two and a three (or three and two).
Video samples for additive meters

Time Signature 3 + 2 + 3 at 120 bpm

Other variants
Some composers have used fractional beats: for example, the time signature 2
4 appears in Carlos Chvez's Piano Sonata No. 3 (1928) IV, m. 1.
Music educator Carl Orff proposed replacing the lower number of the time signature
with an actual note image, as shown at right. This system eliminates the need for
compound time signatures (described above), which are confusing to beginners. While
this notation has not been adopted by music publishers generally (except in Orff's own
compositions), it is used extensively in music education textbooks. Similarly, American
composers George Crumb and Joseph Schwantner, among others, have used this
system in many of their works.

Example of Orff's time

signatures

Another possibility is to extend the barline where a time change is to take place above the top instrument's line in a
score and to write the time signature there, and there only, saving the ink and effort that would have been spent
writing it in each instrument's staff. Henryk Grecki's Beatus Vir is an example of this. Alternatively, music in a
large score sometimes has time signatures written as very long, thin numbers covering the whole height of the score
rather than replicating it on each staff; this is an aid to the conductor, who can see signature changes more easily.

Irrational meters
These are time signatures, used for so-called irrational bar lengths,[15] that have a denominator that is not a power of
two (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.) (or, mathematically speaking, is not a dyadic rational). These are based on beats
expressed in terms of fractions of full beats in the prevailing tempofor example 3
10 or 5
24. For example, where 4
4 implies a bar construction of four quarter-parts of a whole note (i.e., four quarter notes), 4
3 implies a bar construction of four third-parts of it. These signatures are only of utility when juxtaposed with other
signatures with varying denominators; a piece written entirely in 4
3, say, could be more legibly written out in 4
4.

Time signature
Metric modulation is "a somewhat distant analogy". It is arguable whether the use of these signatures makes metric
relationships clearer or more obscure to the musician; it is always possible to write a passage using non-irrational
signatures by specifying a relationship between some note length in the previous bar and some other in the
succeeding one. Sometimes, successive metric relationships between bars are so convoluted that the pure use of
irrational signatures would quickly render the notation extremely hard to penetrate. Good examples, written entirely
in conventional signatures with the aid of between-bar specified metric relationships, occur a number of times in
John Adams' opera Nixon in China (1987), where the sole use of irrational signatures would quickly produce
massive numerators and denominators.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Historically, this device has been prefigured wherever composers wrote tuplets. For example, a 2
4 bar of 3 triplet crotchets could arguably be written as a bar of 3
6.Wikipedia:Citation needed Henry Cowell's piano piece Fabric (1920) employs separate divisions of the bar
(anything from 1 to 9) for the three contrapuntal parts, using a scheme of shaped note heads to visually clarify the
differences, but the pioneering of these signatures is largely due to Brian Ferneyhough, who says that he "find[s] that
such 'irrational' measures serve as a useful buffer between local changes of event density and actual changes of base
tempo. Thomas Ads has also used them extensivelyfor example in Traced Overhead (1996), the second
movement of which contains, among more conventional meters, bars in such signatures as 2
6, 9
14 and 5
24.
A gradual process of diffusion into less rarefied musical circles seems underway. For example, John Pickard's Eden,
commissioned for the 2005 finals of the National Brass Band Championships of Great Britain contains bars of 3
10.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Notationally, rather than using Cowell's elaborate series of notehead shapes, the same convention has been invoked
as when normal tuplets are written; for example, one beat in 4
4
5 is written as a normal quarter note, four quarter notes complete the bar, but the whole bar lasts only / of a
5
reference whole note, and a beat 1/5 of one (or 4/5 of a normal quarter note). This is notated in exactly the same way
that one would write if one were writing the first four quarter notes of five quintuplet quarter notes.
This article uses irrational in the music theory sense, not the mathematical sense, where an irrational number is one
that cannot be written as a ratio of whole numbers. However, at least one compositionConlon Nancarrow's Studies
for Player Pianouses a time signature that is irrational in the mathematical sense. The piece contains a canon with
a part augmented in the ratio 42:1 (approximately 6.48:1).

39

Time signature

40

Video samples for irrational meters

These video samples show two time signatures combined to make a polymeter, since 4
3, say, in isolation, is identical to 4
4.

Polymeter 44 and 43 played together Has three

beats of 43 to four beats of 44

Polymeter 2
6 and 3
4 played together
Has six beats of 2
6 to four beats of 3

Polymeter 2
5 and 2
3 played together
Has five beats of 2
5 to three beats of 2
3. The displayed numbers count the underlying
polyrhythm, which is 5:3

Early music usage

Mensural time signatures
In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period in which mensural notation was used, four basic mensuration signs
determined the proportion between the two main units of rhythm. There were no measure or bar lines in music of this
period; these signs, the ancestors of modern time signatures, indicate the ratio of duration between different note
values. The relation between the breve and the semibreve was called tempus, and the relation between the semibreve
and the minim was called prolatio. Unlike modern notation, the duration ratios between these different values was
not always 2:1; it could be either 2:1 or 3:1, and that is what, amongst other things, these mensuration signs
indicated. A ratio of 3:1 was called complete, perhaps a reference to the Trinity, and a ratio of 2:1 was called
incomplete.
A circle used as a mensuration sign indicated tempus perfectum (a circle being a symbol of completeness), while an
incomplete circle, resembling a letter C, indicated tempus imperfectum. Assuming the breve is a beat, this
corresponds to the modern concepts of triple meter and duple meter, respectively. In either case, a dot in the center
indicated prolatio perfecta while the absence of such a dot indicated prolatio imperfecta, corresponding to simple
meter and compound meter.
A rough equivalence of these signs to modern meters would be:

corresponds to 9
8 meter;

corresponds to 3
4 meter;

corresponds to 6
8 meter;

Time signature

corresponds to 2
4 meter.

N.B.: in modern compound meters the beat is a dotted note value, such as a dotted quarter, because the ratios of the
modern note value hierarchy are always 2:1. Dotted notes were never used in this way in the mensural period; the
main beat unit was always a simple (undotted) note value.

Proportions
Another set of signs in mensural notation specified the metric proportions of one section to another, similar to a
metric modulation. A few common signs are shown:[16]

tempus imperfectum diminutum, 1:2 proportion (twice as fast);

tempus perfectum diminutum, 1:2 proportion (twice as fast);
or just
proportio tripla, 1:3 proportion (three times as fast, similar to triplets).

Often the ratio was expressed as two numbers, one above the other,[17] looking similar to a modern time signature,
though it could have values such as 4
3, which a conventional time signature could not.
Some proportional signs were not used consistently from one place or century to another. In addition, certain
composers delighted in creating "puzzle" compositions that were intentionally difficult to decipher.
In particular, when the sign
was encountered, the tactus (beat) changed from the usual semibreve to the breve, a
circumstance called alla breve. This term has been sustained to the present day, and though now it means the beat is
a minim (half note), in contradiction to the literal meaning of the phrase, it still indicates that the beat has changed to
a longer note value.

References
[1] Alexander R. Brinkman, Pascal Programming for Music Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990): 443, 45063, 757, 759,
767. ISBN 0226075079; Mary Elizabeth Clark and David Carr Glover, Piano Theory: Primer Level (Miami: Belwin Mills, 1967): 12; Steven
M. Demorest, Building Choral Excellence: Teaching Sight-Singing in the Choral Rehearsal (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,
2003): 66. ISBN 0195165500; William Duckworth, A Creative Approach to Music Fundamentals, eleventh edition (Boston, MA: Schirmer
Cengage Learning, 2013): 54, 59, 379. ISBN 0840029993; Edwin Gordon, Tonal and Rhythm Patterns: An Objective Analysis: A Taxonomy
of Tonal Patterns and Rhythm Patterns and Seminal Experimental Evidence of Their Difficulty and Growth Rate (Albany: SUNY Press,
1976): 36, 37, 54, 55, 57. ISBN 0873953541; Demar Irvine, Reinhard G. Pauly, Mark A. Radice, Irvines Writing about Music, third edition
(Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1999): 209210. ISBN 1574670492.
[2] Henry Cowell and David Nicholls, New Musical Resources, third edition (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996): 63.
ISBN 0521496519 (cloth); ISBN 0521499747 (pbk); Cynthia M. Gessele, "Thime, Frdric [Thieme, Friedrich]", The New Grove Dictionary
of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, 2001); James L.
Zychowicz, Mahler's Fourth Symphony (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005): 8283, 107. ISBN 0195181654.
[3] Edwin Gordon, Rhythm: Contrasting the Implications of Audiation and Notation (Chicago: GIA Publications, 2000): 111. ISBN 1579990983.
[4] Willi Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 9001600, fifth edition, revised and with commentary; The Medieval Academy of America
Publication no. 38 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Medieval Academy of America, 1953): 14748.
[5] Scott Schroedl, Play Drums Today! A Complete Guide to the Basics: Level One (Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2001), p. 42. ISBN
0-634-02185-0.
[6] See File:Bach BVW 1041 Allegro Assai.png for an excerpt from the violin part of the final movement.
[7] Tim Emmons, Odd Meter Bass: Playing Odd Time Signatures Made Easy (Van Nuys: Alfred Publishing, 2008): 4. ISBN 978-0-7390-4081-2.
"What is an 'odd meter'?...A complete definition would begin with the idea of music organized in repeating rhythmic groups of three, five,
seven, nine, eleven, thirteen, fifteen, etc."
[8] Egert Phlmann and Martin L. West, Documents of Ancient Greek Music: The Extant Melodies and Fragments, edited and transcribed with
commentary by Egert Phlmann and Martin L. West (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001): 7071 and 85. ISBN 0-19-815223-X.
[9] Edward Macan, Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997): 48.
ISBN 978-0-19-509888-4.
[10] Radiohead (musical group). OK Computer, vocal score with guitar accompaniment and tablature (Essex, England: IMP International Music
Publications; Miami, FL: Warner Bros. Publications; Van Nuys, Calif.: Alfred Music Co., Inc., 1997): . ISBN 0-7579-9166-1.
[11] Gardner Read, Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1964): .

41

Time signature
[12] Constantin Briloiu, Le rythme Aksak, Revue de Musicologie 33, nos. 99 and 100 (December 1951): 71108. Citation on pp. 7576.
[13] http:/ / www. smithsonianglobalsound. org/ searchresults. aspx?sPhrase=Eleno%20Mome& sType='phrase'
[14] Gheorghe Oprea, Folclorul muzical romnesc (Bucharest: Ed. Muzicala, 2002), . ISBN 973-42-0304-5.
[15] "Brian Ferneyhough" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110721014850/ http:/ / www. sospeso. com/ contents/ articles/ ferneyhough_p1.
html), The Ensemble Sospeso
[16] Willi Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 9001600, fifth edition, revised with commentary; The Medieval Academy of America
Publication no. 38 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1953), p. 148.
[17] Willi Apel, The Notation of Polyphonic Music 9001600, fifth edition, revised with commentary; The Medieval Academy of America
Publication no. 38 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Academy of America, 1953), p. 147.

External links
Grateful Dead songs with unusual time signatures (http://www3.clearlight.com/~acsa/rhythm.htm) (Grateful
Dead)
"Funky Vergina" (https://myspace.com/modeplagal/music/song/funky-vergina-7783143-7584327) - a tune in
15/16 by Mode Plagal
Odd Time Obsessed Internet Radio (http://www.oddtimeobsessed.com) - dedicated to "odd" meters
More video samples of many time signatures (http://bouncemetronome.com/video-resources) - made with
Bounce Metronome Pro (http://bouncemetronome.com) a program that can play all the time signatures
mentioned in this article, even the ones that are irrational in the mathematical sense, like
4

Key signature
For use in cryptography, see Key signature (cryptography).
In musical notation, a key signature is a set of sharp or flat symbols placed
together on the staff. Key signatures are generally written immediately after
the clef at the beginning of a line of musical notation, although they can
appear in other parts of a score, notably after a double barline.
A key signature designates notes that are to be played higher or lower than the
corresponding natural notes and applies through to the end of the piece or up
to the next key signature. A sharp symbol on a line or space in the key
signature raises the notes on that line or space one semitone above the natural,
and a flat lowers such notes one semitone. Further, a symbol in the key
signature affects all the notes of one letter: for instance, a sharp on the top line
Key signature A major / F minor with
of the treble staff applies to Fs not only on that line, but also to Fs in the
three sharps placed after the clef.
bottom space of the staff, and to any other Fs. This convention was not
universal until the late Baroque/early Classical period, however; music published in the 1720s and 30s, for example,
uses key signatures showing sharps or flats on both octaves for notes which fall within the staff.Wikipedia:Citation
needed
An accidental is an exception to the key signature, applying only in the measure in which it appears. (In early
music,Wikipedia:Vagueness accidentals do not apply for the entire measure in which they appear; they affect only
the note before which they are written.)Wikipedia:Citation needed
Although a key signature may be written using any combination of sharp and flat symbols, about a dozen diatonic
key signatures are by far the most common, and their use is assumed in much of this article. A piece scored using a
single diatonic key signature and no accidentals contains notes of at most seven of the twelve pitch classes, which
seven being determined by the particular key signature.

42

Key signature

43

Each major and minor key has an associated key signature that sharpens or flattens the notes which are used in its
scale. However, it is not uncommon for a piece to be written with a key signature that does not match its key, for
example, in some Baroque pieces,[1] or in transcriptions of traditional modal folk tunes.[2]

Conventions
In principle, any piece can be written with any key signature, using
accidentals to correct the pattern of whole and half steps. The
purpose of the key signature is to minimize the number of such
accidentals required to notate the music. The sequence of sharps or
flats in key signatures is generally rigid in modern music notation.
For example, if a key signature has only one sharp, it must be an F
sharp.[3]

B major scale: no key signature; accidentals required

throughout

The effect of a key signature continues throughout a piece or

movement, unless explicitly cancelled by another key signature.
For example, if a five-sharp key signature is placed at the
beginning of a piece, every A in the piece in any octave will be
B major scale: key signature; accidentals not needed
played as A sharp, unless preceded by an accidental (for instance,
the A in the above scale the next-to-last note is played as an A even though the A in the key signature is
written an octave lower).
In a score containing more than one instrument, all the instruments are usually written with the same key signature.
Exceptions include:
If an instrument is a transposing instrument
If an instrument is a percussion instrument with indeterminate pitch
Composers usually omit the key signature for timpani parts. Besides not using a key signature, timpani parts were
early on also treated often as transposing instrument parts, the pitch of the high drum being written as C and, as
timpani were almost always tuned a 4th apart, dominant on the low drum and tonic on the high drum, the pitch of
the low drum being written as G, with the actual pitch indicated at the beginning of the part, e.g. timpani in D-A,
if they were tuned A (low drum) and D (high drum)
Composers may omit the key signature for horn and occasionally trumpet parts. This is perhaps reminiscent of the
early days of brass instruments, when crooks would be added to them, in order to change the length of the tubing
and allow playing in different keys. Wikipedia:Citation needed

Key signature

Notational conventions
The convention for the notation of key
signatures follows the circle of fifths.
Starting from C major (or equivalently
A minor) which has no sharps or flats,
successively raising the key by a fifth
adds a sharp, going clockwise round
the circle of fifths. The new sharp is
placed on the new key's leading note
(seventh degree) for major keys or
supertonic (second degree) for minor
keys. Thus G major (E minor) has one
sharp which is on the F; then D major
(B minor) has two sharps (on F and C)
and so on.
Similarly successively lowering the
key by a fifth adds a flat, going
counter-clockwise round the circle of
fifths. The new flat is placed on the
Circle of fifths showing major and minor keys and their signatures
subdominant (fourth degree) for major
keys or submediant (sixth degree) for
minor keys. Thus F major (D minor) has one flat which is on the B; then B major (G minor) has two flats (on B and
E) and so on.
Put another way: for key signatures with sharps, the first sharp is placed on F line with subsequent sharps on C, G,
D, A, E and B; for key signatures with flats, the first flat is placed on B with subsequent flats on E, A, D, G, C and F.
There are thus 15 conventional key signatures, with up to seven sharps or flats and including the empty signature of
C major (A minor).
Corollaries:
Starting from a key with flats in its key signature: raising by fifths successively reduces the flats to zero at C
major (A minor). Further such raising adds sharps as described above.
Starting from a key with sharps: lowering by fifths successively reduces those sharps to zero. Further such
lowering adds flats as described above.
When the process of raising by a fifth (adding a sharp) produces more than five or six sharps, successive such
raising generally involves changing to the enharmonic equivalent key using a flat-based signature. Typically this
is at F=G, but may also be at C=D or B=C. The same principle applies to the process of successive
lowering by a fifth.
The relative minor is a minor third down from the major, regardless of whether it is a flat or a sharp key signature.
The key signatures with seven flats and seven sharps are rarely used because they have simpler enharmonic
equivalents. For example, the key of C major (seven sharps) is more simply represented as D major (five flats). For
modern practical purposes these keys are (in twelve tone equal temperament) the same, because C and D are
enharmonically the same note. Pieces are written in these extreme sharp or flat keys, however: for example, Bach's
Prelude and Fugue No. 3 from Book 1 of The Well-Tempered Clavier BWV 848 is in C major. The modern musical
Seussical by Flaherty and Ahrens also has several songs written in these extreme keys.

44

Key signature

45

The key signature may be changed at any time in a piece (usually at the
beginning of a measure) simply by notating the new signature,
although if the new signature has no sharps or flats, a signature of
accidentals, as shown, cancels the preceding signature.
'Natural key signature': a key signature with
seven naturals used to cancel out the seven sharps
of the previous signature.

Major scale structure

Except for C major, key signatures appear in two varieties, "sharp key
signatures" ("sharp keys") and "flat key signatures" ("flat keys"), so called because they contain only one or other.[4]

Scales with sharp key signatures

Sharp key signatures consist of a number of sharps between one and seven, applied in this order: F C G D A E
B.[5][6] A mnemonic device often used to remember this is "Father Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle." The key
note or tonic of a piece in a major key is immediately above the last sharp in the signature.[7] For example, one sharp
(F) in the key signature of a piece in a major key indicates the key of G major, the next note above F. (Six sharps,
the last one being E (an enharmonic spelling of F) indicate the key of F major, since F has already been sharped in
the key signature.)
Major key Number
of sharps
C major

G major

D major

Sharp notes

minor key

Enharmonic
Equivalent

A minor

None

E minor

None

F, C

B minor

None

A major

F, C, G

F minor

None

E major

F, C, G, D

C minor

None

B major

F, C, G, D, A

G minor

C major/A minor

F major

F, C, G, D, A, E

D minor

G major/E minor

C major

F, C, G, D, A, E, B A minor

D major/B minor

This table shows that each scale starting on the fifth scale degree of the previous scale has one new sharp, added in
the order given above.

Scales with flat key signatures

"Flat key signatures" consist of one to seven flats, applied as: B E A D G C F (same as the order of sharps, but
reversed.) The mnemonic device is then reversed for use in the flat keys: "Battle Ends And Down Goes Charles'
Father". The major scale with one flat is F major. In all other "flat major scales", the tonic or key note of a piece in a
major key is four notes below the last flat, which is the same as the second-to-last flat in the signature. In the major
key with four flats (B E A D), for example, the penultimate flat is A, indicating a key of A major.

Key signature

46

Major key Number

of flats
C major

F major

B major

Flat notes

minor key

Enharmonic
Equivalent

A minor

None

D minor

None

B, E

G minor

None

E major

B, E, A

C minor

None

A major

B, E, A, D

F minor

None

D major

B, E, A, D, G

B minor

C major/A minor

G major

B, E, A, D, G, C

E minor

F major/D minor

C major

B, E, A, D, G, C, F A minor

B major/G minor

In this case each new scale starts a fifth below (or a fourth above) the previous one.

Relationship between key signature and key

A key signature is not the same as a key; key signatures are merely notational devices. They are convenient
principally for diatonic or tonal music.
The key signature defines the diatonic scale that a piece of music uses without the need for accidentals. Most scales
require that some notes be consistently sharped or flatted. For example, the only sharp in the G major scale is F
sharp, so the key signature associated with the G major key is the one-sharp key signature. However, it is only a
notational convenience; a piece with a one-sharp key signature is not necessarily in the key of G major, and likewise,
a piece in G major may not always be written with a one-sharp key signature; this is particularly true in pre-Baroque
music, when the concept of key had not yet evolved to its present state.
In any case, more extensive pieces often change key (modulate) during contrasting sections, and only sometimes is
this change indicated with a change of key signature; if not, the passage in the second key will not have a matching
key signature.
The Toccata and Fugue in D minor,
BWV 538 by Bach has no key
signature, leading it to be called the
Dorian, but it is still in D minor; the
Bs that occur in the piece are written
with accidentals.

Additional terminology

Bach Cantata 106 is almost entirely in E-flat major, but has only two flats, not three, in
the key signature PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:GottesZeit.mid

Keys which are associated with the

same key signature are called relative keys.
When musical modes, such as Lydian or Dorian, are written using key signatures, they are called transposed modes.

Key signature

47

Exceptions
Exceptions to common-practice-period use may be found in Klezmer
scales, such as Freygish (Phrygian). In the 20th century, composers
such as Bartk and Rzewski (see below) began experimenting with
unusual key signatures that departed from the standard order.
Because of the limitations of the traditional highland bagpipe scale,
key signatures are often omitted from written pipe music, which
otherwise would be written with two sharps, the usual F and C.

D Freygish scale rendered by NoteWorthy

Composer. PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:D
Freygish.mid

Unusual signatures
Further information: Anhemitonic scale#Modes of the Ancohemitonic Heptatonic scales and
the Key signature System
The above key signatures only express diatonic scales and are therefore sometimes called
standard key signatures. Other scales are written either with a standard key signature and use
accidentals as required, or with a non-standard key signature. Examples of the latter include
the E (right hand) and F & G (left hand) used for the E diminished (E octatonic) scale in
Bartk's Crossed Hands (no. 99, vol. 4, Mikrokosmos), or the B, E & F used for the D
Phrygian dominant scale in Frederic Rzewski's God to a Hungry Child.
The absence of a key signature does not always mean that the music is in the key of C major /
A minor as each accidental may be notated explicitly as required, or the piece may be modal
or atonal.
The common-practice-period conventions are so firmly established that some musical
notation programs have been unable to show non-standard key signatures until recently.[8]

History
The use of a one-flat signature developed in the Medieval period, but signatures with more
than one flat did not appear until the 16th century, and signatures with sharps not until the
mid-17th century.[9]
When signatures with multiple flats first came in, the order of the flats was not standardized,
and often a flat appeared in two different octaves, as shown at right. In the late 15th and early
16th centuries, it was common for different voice parts in the same composition to have
different signatures, a situation called a partial signature or conflicting signature. This was
actually more common than complete signatures in the 15th century.[10] The 16th-century
motet Absolon fili mi attributed to Josquin des Prez features two voice parts with two flats,
one part with three flats, and one part with four flats.

Variant key
signatures in a
Victoria motet. In the
Superius part the
E-flat appears first,
and in two other parts
a flat occurs in two
octaves.

Baroque music written in minor keys often was written with a key signature with fewer flats
than we now associate with their keys; for example, movements in C minor often had only two flats (because the A
would frequently have to be sharpened to A in the ascending melodic minor scale, as would the B).

Key signature

48

Table
Key Signature

Major Key Minor Key

C major

A minor

no sharps or flats

Key Signature Added Major Key Minor Key Key Signature Added Major Key Minor Key
F

G major

E minor

1 sharp

F major

D minor

B major

G minor

E major

C minor

A major

F minor

D major

B minor

G major

E minor

C major

A minor

1 flat
C

D major

B minor

2 sharps

2 flats
G

A major

F minor

3 sharps

3 flats
D

E major

C minor

4 sharps

4 flats
A

B major

G minor

F major

D minor

C major

A minor

5 sharps

5 flats

6 sharps

7 sharps

6 flats

7 flats

References
[1] Schulenberg, David. Music of the Baroque. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. p. 72. (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=P4x3aKvOQWAC& pg=PA72& vq="the+ key+ of+ a+ baroque+ work"& source=gbs_search_r& cad=1_1&
sig=ACfU3U3x7lhOyyIiT-O_HsTZlZxw8FrkSA). "() to determine the key of a Baroque work one must always analyze its tonal structure
rather than rely on the key signature."
[2] Cooper, David. The Petrie Collection of the Ancient Music of Ireland. Cork: Cork University Press, 2005. p. 22 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=PzrfncNnr4cC& pg=PA25-IA13& vq="In+ a+ few+ cases+ Petrie+ has+ given+ what+ is+ clearly+ a+ modal+ melody+ a+ key+
signature+ which+ suggests+ that+ it+ is+ actally+ in+ a+ minor+ key"& source=gbs_search_r& cad=1_1&
sig=ACfU3U0BqVPTuQnnaH32iLpCvrYnyT143Q). "In a few cases Petrie has given what is clearly a modal melody a key signature which
suggests that it is actally in a minor key. For example, Banish Misfortune is presented in D minor, although it is clearly in the Dorian mode."
[3] |url=http:/ / www. dummies. com/ how-to/ content/ how-to-read-key-signatures. html |title=How to Read Key Signatures|accessdate=29
January 2014

Key signature

49

[4] Schonbrun, Marc (2005). The Everything Music Theory Book, p.68. ISBN 1-59337-652-9.
[5] Bower, Michael. 2007. " All about Key Signatures (http:/ / www. empire. k12. ca. us/ capistrano/ Mike/ capmusic/ Key Signatures/
key_signatures. htm)". Modesto, CA: Capistrano School (K12) website. (Accessed 17 March 2010).
[6] Jones, George Thaddeus. 1974. Music Theory: The Fundamental Concepts of Tonal Music Including Notation, Terminology, and Harmony,
p.35. Barnes & Noble Outline Series 137. New York, Hagerstown, San Francisco, London: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 9780064601375.
[7] Kennedy, Michael. 1994. "Key-Signature". Oxford Dictionary of Music, second edition, associate editor, Joyce Bourne. Oxford and New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-869162-9.
[8] One of the most popular musical notation programs, Finale, has only included the option to create a non-standard key signature since their
2009 version: Finale 2009 User Manual for Windows. "Non-Standard Key Signature." http:/ / www. finalemusic. com/ UserManuals/
Finale2009Win/ Finale. htm (accessed February 17, 2011).
[9] "Key Signature", Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed.
[10] "Partial Signature", Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed.

Metric modulation
In music, metric modulation is a change in pulse rate (tempo) and/or
pulse grouping (subdivision) which is derived from a note value or
grouping heard before the change. Examples of metric modulation may
include changes in time signature across an unchanging tempo, but the
concept applies more specifically to shifts from one time
signature/tempo (meter) to another, wherein a note value from the first
is made equivalent to a note value in the second, like a pivot or bridge.
The term "modulation" invokes the analogous and more familiar term
in analyses of tonal harmony, wherein a pitch or pitch interval serves
as a bridge between two keys. In both terms, the pivoting value
functions differently before and after the change, but sounds the same,
and acts as an audible common element between them. Metric
modulation was first described by Richard Franko Goldman (1951)
while reviewing the Cello Sonata of Elliott Carter, who prefers to call
it tempo modulation (Schiff 1998, 23). Another synonymous term is
proportional tempi (Mead 2007, 65).

Simplest form of metric modulation, unmarked (

= ), in a piece by J.S. Bach. Slow
introduction followed by an allegro traditionally
taken at double the speed. Sixteenth notes in the
old tempo prepare for eighth notes in the new
tempo (Weisberg 1996, 51-2). Play w/out
repeatWikipedia:Media helpFile:Metric
modulation Bach.mid

A technique in which a rhythmic pattern is superposed on another, heterometrically, and then supersedes
it and becomes the basic meter. Usually, such time signatures are mutually prime, e.g., 4/4 and 3/8, and
so have no common divisors. Thus the change of the basic meter decisively alters the numerical content
of the beat, but the minimal denominator (1/8 when 4/4 changes to 3/8; 1/16 when, e.g., 5/8 changes to
7/16, etc.) remains constant in duration. (Slonimsky 2000)
The following formula illustrates how to determine the tempo before or after a metric modulation, or, alternatively,
how many of the associated note values will be in each measure before or after the modulation:

(Winold 1975, 230-31)

Metric modulation

50

Thus if the two half notes in 4/4 time at a

tempo of quarter note = 84 are made
equivalent with three half notes at a new
tempo, that tempo will be:

Metric modulation: 2 half notes = 3 half notes. PlayWikipedia:Media

helpFile:Metric modulation 2=3.mid or Play with eighth noteWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Metric modulation 2=3 with eighth notes.mid subdivision for tempo/meter
comparison.

(Winold 1975, p.230, example taken from Carter's Eight Etudes and a Fantasy for woodwind quartet (1950),
Fantasy, mm. 16-17.)
Note that this tempo, quarter note = 126, is equal to dotted-quarter note = 84 (( = .) = ( = .)).
A tempo (or metric) modulation causes a change in the hierarchical relationship between the perceived beat
subdivision and all potential subdivisions belonging to the new tempo. Benadon (2004) has explored some
compositional uses of tempo modulations, such as tempo networks and beat subdivision spaces.
Three challenges arise when performing metric modulations:
1. Grouping notes of the same speed differently on each side of the barline, ex: (quintuplet =sextuplet ) with
sixteenth notes before and after the barline
2. Subdivision used on one side of the barline and not the other, ex: (triplet = ) with triplets before and quarter
notes after the barline
3. Subdivision used on neither side of the barline but used to establish the modulation, ex: (quintuplet = ) with
quarter notes before and after the barline
(Weisberg 1996, 54)
Examples of the use of metric modulation include Carter's Cello Sonata (1948) (Cunningham 2007, 113), A
Symphony of Three Orchestras (1976) (Farberman 1997, 158), and Bjrk's "Desired Constellation" ( .= )
(Malawey 2007, 142-44).

Score notation
Metric modulations are generally notated as
'note value' = 'note value'.
For example,

This notation is also

normally followed by the new tempo in

Metric modulation marking used to indicate a change to swing rhythm.

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Metric modulation swing.mid

Metric modulation

51

parentheses.
This is analogous with the assignment in imperative computer languages:
{x = f(x);} {xnew = f(xold);}WP:TOPIC
Before the modern concept and notation of metric modulations composers used the terms doppio piu mosso and
doppio piu lento for double and half-speed, and later markings such as:
(Adagio)

(Allegro)
|
indicating double speed, which would now be marked (

= ) (Weisberg 1996, 52).

The phrase l'istesso tempo was used for what may now be notated with metric modulation markings. For example:
2/4 to 6/8 ( = .), will be marked l'istesso tempo, indicating the beat is the same speed.
A marking visually similar to that of metric modulation is used to indicate swing rhythm.Wikipedia:Vagueness

References
Benadon, Fernando (2004). "Towards a Theory of Tempo Modulation [1]", Proceedings of the 8th International
Conference on Music Perception and Cognition, August 3rd7th, 2004, Evanston, Illinois, edited by S. D.
Lipscomb, 56366. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, School of Music; Sydney, Australia: Causal
productions. ISBN 1-876346-50-7 (CD-ROM).
Goldman, Richard Franko (1951). "Current Chronicle". Musical Quarterly 37, no. 1 (January): 8389.
Mead, Andrew (2007). "On Tempo Relations". Perspectives of New Music 45, no. 1 (Winter): 64-108.
Schiff, David (1998). The Music of Elliott Carter, p.23. ISBN 9780801436123.
Slonimsky, Nicolas (2000). "Metric Modulation". In A Dictionary of the Avant-Gardes, second edition, edited by
Richard Kostelanetz; senior editor, Douglas Puchowski; assistant editor, Gregory Brender, 407. New York:
Schirmer Books. ISBN 9780028653792 (cloth). Paperback reprint, New York and London: Routledge, 2001.
ISBN 9780415937641.
Malawey, Victoria (2007). Temporal Process, Repetition, and Voice in Bjrk's 'Medlla'. ISBN 9780549466277.
Weisberg, Arthur (1996). Performing Twentieth-Century Music: A Handbook for Conductors and
Instrumentalists. ISBN 9780300066555.
Winold, Allen (1975). "Rhythm in Twentieth-Century Music". In Aspects of Twentieth-Century Music, edited by
Gary Wittlich, 20869. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-049346-5.

Metric modulation

Further reading
Arlin, Mary I. (2000). "Metric Mutation and Modulation: The Nineteenth-Century Speculations of F.-J. Ftis".
Journal of Music Theory 44, no. 2 (Fall): 261322.
Bernard, Jonathan W. (1988). "The Evolution of Elliott Carter's Rhythmic Practice". Perspectives of New Music
26, no. 2: (Summer): 164203.
Braus, Ira Lincoln (1994). "An Unwritten Metrical Modulation in Brahms's Intermezzo in E minor, op. 119, no.
2". Brahms Studies 1:16169.
Cunningham, Michael G. (2007). Technique for Composers. ISBN 9781425996185.
Everett, Walter (2009). "Any Time at All: The Beatles' Free Phrase Rhythms". In The Cambridge Companion to
the Beatles, edited by Kenneth Womack, 18399. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-86965-X (cloth); ISBN 0-521-68976-7 (pbk).
Farberman, Harold (1997). The Art of Conducting Technique: A New Perspective. ISBN 9781576237304.
Reese, Kirsten (1999). "Ruhelos: Annherung an Johanna Magdalena Beyer". MusikTexte: Zeitschrift fr Neue
Musik, nos. 8182 (December) 615.

External links
Metric Modulation 4 over 3 (Conor Guilfoyle). [2]
Metric modulation 3 over 2 (Conor Guilfoyle). [3]

References
[1] http:/ / www. bobpaolinelli. com/ files/ Benadon. pdf
[2] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=UGFQFzk4rXg& feature=share
[3] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=RFVdZ9YV15U& list=UU8W1Z7Iurx8aQdS-NZEHjjA& index=4& feature=plcp

52

Cross-beat

53

Cross-beat
This article is about music. For horology, see Escapement#Cross-beat escapement. For cross-beat tonguing, see
tonguing. For the Christian media organization, see Cross Rhythms.
In music, a cross-beat or cross-rhythm is a specific form of polyrhythm. The term cross rhythm was introduced in
1934 by the musicologist Arthur Morris Jones (18891980).
Cross-rhythm. A rhythm in which the regular pattern of accents of the prevailing meter is contradicted
by a conflicting pattern and not merely a momentary displacement that leaves the prevailing meter
fundamentally unchallengedNew Harvard Dictionary of Music (1986: 216).[1]

African music
One main system
African cross-rhythm is most prevalent within the greater Niger-Congo
linguistic group, which dominates the continent south of the Sahara
Desert.[2] Cross-rhythm was first identified as the basis of sub-Saharan
rhythm by A.M. Jones. Later, the concept was more fully explained in
the lectures of Ewe master drummer and scholar C.K. Ladzekpo, and
in the writings of David Locke.[3] Jones observes that the shared
rhythmic principles of Sub-Saharan African music traditions constitute
one main system.[4] Similarly, Ladzekpo affirms the profound
homogeneity of sub-Saharan African rhythmic principles.[5] In
Sub-Saharan African music traditions (and many Diaspora musics)
cross-rhythm is the generating principle; the meter is in a permanent
state of contradiction.
Niger-Congo linguistic group (yellow and
yellow-green).

An embodiment of the people

At the center of a core of rhythmic traditions within which the composer conveys his ideas is the
technique of cross-rhythm. The technique of cross-rhythm is a simultaneous use of contrasting rhythmic
patterns within the same scheme of accents or meter. . . By the very nature of the desired resultant
rhythm, the main beat scheme cannot be separated from the secondary beat scheme. It is the interplay of
the two elements that produces the cross-rhythmic textureLadzekpo (1995).[6]
From the philosophical perspective of the African musician, cross-beats can symbolize the challenging
moments or emotional stress we all encounter. Playing cross-beats while fully grounded in the main
beats, prepares one for maintaining a life-purpose while dealing with lifes challenges. Many
sub-Saharan languages do not have a word for rhythm, or even music. From the African viewpoint, the
rhythms represent the very fabric of life itself; they are an embodiment of the people, symbolizing
interdependence in human relationshipsPealosa (2009: 21).[7]

Cross-beat

54

Cross-rhythmic ratios
3:2
The cross-rhythmic ratio three-over-two (3:2) or vertical hemiola, is the most significant rhythmic cell found in
sub-Saharan rhythms. The following measure is evenly divided by three beats and two beats. The two cycles do not
share equal status though. The two bottom notes are the primary beats, the ground, the main temporal referent. The
three notes above are the secondary beats. Typically, the dancer's feet mark the primary beats, while the secondary
beats are accented musically.

Polyrhythm 3:2

Three-over-two cross-rhythm.
PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:3 over 2.mid

[Watch: Stepping to the main beats within 3:2 cross-rhythm. Afro-Cuban Obatal dance (Marta Ruiz).]
example below shows the African 3:2 cross-rhythm within its proper metric structure.

[8]

The

Three-over-two cross-rhythm.

We have to grasp the fact that if from childhood you are brought up to regard beating 3 against 2 as
being just as normal as beating in synchrony, then you develop a two dimensional attitude to rhythm
This bi-podal conception is part of the African's natureJones (1959: 102)[9]
Novotney observes: "The 3:2 relationship (and [its] permutations) is the foundation of most typical polyrhythmic
textures found in West African musics."[10] 3:2 is the generative or theoretic form of sub-Saharan rhythmic
principles. Agawu succinctly states: "[The] resultant [3:2] rhythm holds the key to understanding . . . there is no
independence here, because 2 and 3 belong to a single Gestalt."[11]
African Xylophones such as the balafon and gyil play cross-rhythms, which are often the basis of ostinato melodies.
In the following example, a Ghanaian gyil sounds the three-against-two cross-rhythm. The left hand (lower notes)

Cross-beat

55

sounds the two main beats, while the right hand (upper notes) sounds the three cross-beats.[12]

Ghanaian gyil

Ghanaian gyil sounds 3:2 cross-rhythm. PlayWikipedia:Media

helpFile:Ghanaian gyil.mid

6:4
The primary cycle of four beats
A great deal of African music is built upon a cycle of four main beats.
This basic musical period has a bipartite structure; it is made up of two
cells, consisting of two beats each. Ladzekpo states: "The first most
useful measure scheme consists of four main beats with each main beat
measuring off three equal pulsations [12/8] as its distinctive feature . . .
The next most useful measure scheme consists of four main beats with
each main beat flavored by measuring off four equal pulsations [4/4]"
(1996: Web).[13] The four-beat cycle is a shorter period than what is
normally heard in European music. This accounts for the stereotype of
Polyrhythm 6:4
African music as "repetitive."[14] A cycle of only two main beats, as in
[15]
the case of 3:2, does not constitute a complete primary cycle.
Within the primary cycle there are two cells of 3:2, or, a single cycle of six-against-four (6:4). The six cross-beats are
represented below as quarter-notes for visual emphasis.

Six-against-four cross-rhythm (note that this is identical to the three-over-two

cross-rhythm above, played twice).

Interacting the four recurrent triple structure main beat schemes (four beat scheme) simultaneously with
the six recurrent two pulse beat schemes (six beat scheme) produces the first most useful cross rhythmic
texture in the development of Anlo-Ewe dance-drummingLadzekpo (1995: web).[16]

Cross-beat

56

The following notated example is from the kushuara part of the traditional mbira piece "Nhema Mussasa." The left
hand plays the ostinato "bass line," built upon the four main beats, while the right hand plays the upper melody,
consisting of six cross-beats. The composite melody is an embellishment of the 6:4 cross-rhythm.[17]

Holding an mbira dzavadzimu.

Kushuara mbira part for "Nhema Mussasa."

3:4
If every other cross-beat is sounded, the three-against-four (3:4)
cross-rhythm is generated. The "slow" cycle of three beats is more
metrically destabilizing and dynamic than the six beats. The
Afro-Cuban rhythm abaku (Havana-style) is based on the 3:4
cross-rhythm.[18] The three-beat cycle is represented as half-notes in
the following example for visual emphasis.

Polyrhythm 3:4

Cross-beat

57

Three-against-four cross-rhythm.

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:3 over 4.mid

In contrast to the four main beat scheme, the rhythmic motion of the three beat scheme is slower. A
simultaneous interaction of these two beat schemes with contrasting rhythmic motions produces the next
most useful cross rhythmic texture in the development of sub-Saharan dance-drumming. The composite
texture of the three-against-four cross rhythm produces a motif covering a length of the musical period.
The motif begins with the component beat schemes coinciding and continues with the beat schemes in
alternate motions thus showing a progression from a "static" beginning to a "dynamic"
continuationLadzekpo (1995: web).[19]
The following pattern is an embellishment of the three-beat cycle, commonly heard in African music. It consists of
three sets of three strokes each.

Embellishment of 3:4 cross-rhythm

1.5:4 (or 3:8)

Even more metrically destabilizing and dynamic than 3:4, is the one
and a half beat-against-four (1.5:4) cross-rhythm. Another way to
think of it is as three "very slow" cross-beats spanning two main beat
cycles (of four beats each), or three beats over two periods (measures),
a type of macro "hemiola." In terms of the beat scheme comprising the
complete 24-pulse cross-rhythm, the ratio is 3:8. The three cross-beats
are shown as whole notes below for visual emphasis.

Polyrhythm 4:1.5

1.5:4 or 3:8.

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:3 over 8.mid

Cross-beat

58

The 1.5:4 cross-rhythm is the basis for the open tone pattern of the en (large bat drum head) for the Afro-Cuban
rhythm chang (Shango).[20] It is the same pattern as the previous figure, but the strokes occur at half the rate.

Drum pattern based on 1.5:4 cross-rhythm.

The following bell pattern is used in the Ewe rhythm kadodo.[21] The pattern consists of
three modulestwo pairs of strokes, and a single stroke. The three single stroke are
muted. The pattern is another embellishment of the 1.5:4 cross-rhythm.

Ewe gankoqui bell

kadodo bell pattern

4:3
When duple pulses (4/4) are grouped in sets of three, the four-against-three (4:3) cross-rhythm is generated. The four
cross-beats cycle every three main beats. In terms of cross-rhythm only, this is the same as having duple cross-beats
in a triple beat scheme, such as 3/4 or 6/4. The pulses on the top line are grouped in threes for visual emphasis.

4:3 cross-rhythm in modular form.

However, this 4:3 is within a duple beat scheme, with duple (quadruple) subdivisions of the beats. Since the musical
period is a cycle of four main beats, the 4:3 cross-rhythm significantly contradicts the period by cycling every three
main beats. The complete cross-beat cycle is shown below in relation to the key pattern known in Afro-Cuban music
as clave.[22] The subdivisions are grouped (beamed) in sets of four to reflect the proper metric structure. The
complete cross-beat cycle is three claves in length. Within the context of the complete cross-rhythm, there is a macro
4:3four 4:3 modules-against-three claves. Continuous duple-pulse cross-beats are often sounded by the quinto, the
lead drum in the Cuban rhythms rumba and conga de comparsa.[23][24][25]

Cross-beat

59

Quinto drum

Complete cycle of 4:3 cross-rhythm shown in relation to clave.

While 3:2 pervades ternary music, quaternary music seldom uses tuplets; instead, a set of dotted notes
may temporarily make 2:3 and 4:3 temporal structuresLocke (2011: 56).[26]

Cross-beat

60

Duple-pulse correlative of 3:2

In sub-Saharan rhythm the four main beats are typically divided into three or four pulses, creating a 12-pulse (12/8),
or 16-pulse ( 4/4) cycle.[27] Every triple-pulse pattern has its duple-pulse correlative; the two pulse structures are two
sides of the same coin. Cross-beats are generated by grouping pulses contrary to their given structure, for example:
groups of two or four in 12/8 or groups of three or six in 4/4.[28] The duple-pulse correlative of the three cross-beats
of the hemiola, is a figure known in Afro-Cuban music as tresillo. Tresillo is a Spanish word meaning tripletthree
equal notes within the same time span normally occupied by two notes. As used in Cuban popular music, tresillo
refers to the most basic duple-pulse rhythmic cell.[29] The pulse names of tresillo and the three cross-beats of the
hemiola are identical: one, one-ah, two-and.

Top: "tresillo" over two; bottom: three-over-two (3:2).

The composite pattern of tresillo and the main beats is commonly known as the habanera,[30] congo,[31]
tango-congo,[32] or tango.[33] The habanera rhythm is the duple-pulse correlative of the vertical hemiola (above).
The three cross-beats of the hemiola are generated by grouping triple pulses in twos: 6 pulses 2 = 3 cross-beats.
Tresillo is generated by grouping duple pulses in threes: 8 pulses 3 = 2 cross-beats (consisting of three pulses
each), with a remainder of a partial cross-beat (spanning two pulses). In other words, 8 3 = 2, r2. Tresillo is a
cross-rhythmic fragment. It contains the first three cross-beats of 4:3.[34]

Tresillo over two Video

Cross-beat

61

Tresillo consists of the first three cross-beats of 4:3.

Cross-rhythm, not polymeter

Early ethnomusicological analysis often perceived African music as polymetric. Pioneers such as A.M. Jones and
Anthony King identified the prevailing rhythmic emphasis as metrical accents (main beats), instead of the
contrametrical accents (cross-beats) they in fact are. Some of their music examples are polymetric, with multiple and
conflicting main beat cycles, each requiring its own separate time signature. King shows two Yoruba dundun
pressure drum ("talking drum") phrases in relation to the five-stroke standard pattern, or "clave," played on the
kagano dundun (top line).[35] The standard pattern is written in a polymetric 7/8 + 5/8 time signature. One dundun
phrase is based on a grouping of three pulses written in 3/8, and the other, a grouping of four pulses written in 4/8.
Complicating the transcription further, one polymetric measure is offset from the other two.

Dundun drum ensemble represented as polymeter.

African music is often characterized as polymetric, because, in contrast to most Western music, African
music cannot be notated without assigning different meters to the different instruments of an
ensembleChernoff (1979: 45).[36]
More recent writings represent African music as cross-rhythmic, within a single meter.

Cross-beat

62
Of the many reasons why the notion of polymeter must be rejected, I will mention three. First, if
polymeter were a genuine feature of African music, we would expect to find some indication of its
pertinence in the discourses and pedagogical schemes of African musicians, carriers of the tradition. As
far as I know, no such data is avail-ableSecond, because practically all the ensemble music in which
polymeter is said to be operative in dance music, and given the grounding demanded by choreography, it
is more likely that these musics unfold within polyrhythmic matrices in single meters rather than
inmixed metersThird, decisions about how to represent drum ensemble music founder on the
assumption, made most dramatically by Jones, that accents are metrical rather than
phenomenalphenomenal accents play a more important role in African music than metrical accents.
Because meter and grouping are distinct, postulating a single meter in accordance with the dance allows
phenomenal or contrametric accents to emerge against a steady background. Polymeter fails to convey
the true accentual structure of African music insofar as it creates the essential tension between a firm
and stable background and a fluid foregroundAgawu (2003: 84, 85).[37]
[The] term polymetric is only applicable to a very special kind of phenomenon. If we take metre in its
primary sense of metrum (the metre being the temporal reference unit), polymetric would describe the
simultaneous un-folding of several parts in a single work at different tempos so as not to be reducible to
a single metrum. This happens in some modern music, such as some of Charles Ives' works, Elliott
Carters Symphony, B.A. Zimmermanns opera "Die Soldaten," and Pierre Boulezs "Rituel." Being
polymetric in the strict sense, these works can only be performed with several simultaneous
conductorsArom (1991: 205).[38]

When written within a single meter, we see that the dundun in the second line sounds the main beats, and the
subdivision immediately preceding it. The first cell (half measure) of the top line is a hemiola. The two dunduns
shown in the second and third lines sound an embellishment of the three-over-four (3:4) cross-rhythmexpressed as
three pairs of strokes against four pairs of strokes.[39]

Dundun drum ensemble represented as cross-rhythm within a single meter.

Cross-beat

63

Adaptive instruments
Sub-Saharan instruments are constructed in a variety of ways to generate cross-rhythmic melodies. Some instruments
organize the pitches in a uniquely divided alternate array not in the straight linear bass to treble structure that is so
common to many western instruments such as the piano, harp, marimba, etc...
Lamellophones including mbira, mbila, mbira huru, mbira njari, mbira nyunga, marimba, karimba, kalimba, likembe,
and okeme. These instruments are found in several forms indigenous to different regions of Africa and most often
have equal tonal ranges for right and left hands. The kalimba is a modern version of these instruments originated by
the pioneer ethnomusicologist Hugh Tracey in the early 20th century which has over the years gained world-wide
popularity.
Chordophones, such as the West African kora, and Doussn'gouni, part
of the harp-lute family of instruments, also have this African separated
double tonal array structure. Another instrument, the Marovany from
Madagascar is a double sided box zither which also employs this
divided tonal structure. The Gravikord is a new American instrument
closely related to both the African kora and the kalimba. It was created
to exploit this adaptive principle in a modern electro-acoustic
instrument.[40]

Hugh Tracey Treble Kalimba

On these instruments one hand of the musician is not primarily in the

bass nor the other primarily in the treble, but both hands can play
freely across the entire tonal range of the instrument. Also the fingers
of each hand can play separate independent rhythmic patterns and
these can easily cross over each other from treble to bass and back,
either smoothly or with varying amounts of syncopation. This can all
be done within the same tight tonal range, without the left and right
hand fingers ever physically encountering each other. These simple
rhythms will interact musically to produce complex cross rhythms
including repeating on beat/off beat pattern shifts that would be very
difficult to create by any other means. This characteristically African
structure allows often simple playing techniques to combine with each
other and produce cross-rhythmic music of great beauty and
complexity.

Jazz
The New Harvard Dictionary of Music calls swing "an intangible
rhythmic momentum in jazz," adding that "swing defies analysis;
claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The only specific
Signature Series Gravikord
description offered is the statement that "triplet subdivisions contrast
with duple subdivisions."[41] The argument could be made that by
nature of its simultaneous triple and duple subdivisions, swing is fundamentally a form of polyrhythm. However, the
use of true systematic cross-rhythm in jazz did not occur until the second half of the twentieth century.

Cross-beat

64

3:2 (or 6:4)

In 1959 Mongo Santamaria recorded "Afro Blue," the first jazz standard built upon a typical African 3:2
cross-rhythm.[42] The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 3 cross-beats per each measure of 6/8 (3:2), or 6
cross-beats per 12/8 measure (6:4). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line. The
slashed noteheads are not bass notes, but are shown to indicate the main beats, where you would normally tap your
foot to "keep time."

"Afro Blue" bass line, with main beats indicated by slashed noteheads.

3:4
On the original "Afro Blue," drummer Willie Bobo played an abaku bell pattern on a snare drum, using brushes.
This cross-rhythmic figure divides the twelve-pulse cycle into three sets of four pulses. Since the main beats (four
sets of three pulses) are present whether sounded or not, this bell pattern can be considered an embellishment of the
three-against-four (3:4) cross-rhythm. Bobo used this same pattern and instrumentation on the Herbie Hancock
jazz-descarga "Succotash."[43]

Abaku bell pattern.

2:3
In 1963 John Coltrane recorded "Afro Blue" with the great jazz drummer Elvin Jones.[44][45] Jones inverted the
metric hierarchy of Santamaria's composition, performing it instead as duple cross-beats over a 3/4 "jazz waltz"
(2:3). This 2:3 in a swung 3/4 is perhaps the most common example of overt cross-rhythm in jazz.[46]

Two-over-three (2:3).

Duple-pulse correlative of 3:2

The Wayne Shorter composition "Footprints" may have been the first overt expression of the 6:4 cross-rhythm (two
cycles of 3:2) used by a straight ahead jazz group.[47] On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the
bass switches to 4/4 at 2:20. The 4/4 figure is known as tresillo in Latin music and is the duple-pulse correlative of
the cross-beats in triple-pulse. Throughout the piece, the four main beats are maintained. In the example below the
main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads. They are shown here for reference, and do not indicate bass notes.

Cross-beat

65

"Footprints" bass lines, with main beats indicated by slashed noteheads.

In recent decades, jazz has incorporated many different types of complex cross-rhythms, as well as other types of
polyrhythms.

Sources
[1] New Harvard Dictionary of Music (1986: 216). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[2] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 58). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.
[3] Locke, David (1982). "Principles of Off-Beat Timing and Cross-Rhythm in Southern Ewe Dance Drumming Society for Ethnomusicology
Journal Nov. 11.
[4] Jones, A.M. (1959). Studies in African Music. London: Oxford University Press. 1978 edition: ISBN 0-19-713512-9.
[5] Ladzekpo, C.K. (1996). Cultural Understanding of Polyrhythm. http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~dzinyaladzekpo/ PrinciplesFr. html.
[6] Ladzekpo, C.K. (1995: webpage). "The Myth of Cross-Rhythm" (https:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~dzinyaladzekpo/ Myth. html), Foundation
Course in African Dance-Drumming.
[7] Pealosa, David (2009: 21). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN
1-886502-80-3.
[8] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=c6LEW9W0HDU
[9] Jones, A.M. 1959. Studies in African Music, v.1 p. 102. London: Oxford University Press.
[10] Novotney, Eugene D. (1998). The Three Against Two Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics Urbana, IL:
University of Illinois. UnlockingClave.com.
[11] Agawu, Kofi (2003: 92). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94390-6.
[12] Pealosa (2010). The Clave Matrix p. 22.
[13] Ladzekpo, C.K. (1996). Web. "Main Beat Schemes," Foundation Course in African Music. Web. http:/ / home. comcast. net/
~dzinyaladzekpo/ PrinciplesFr. html
[14] Kubik (2010: 41).
[15] Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 63). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago Press.
[16] Ladzekpo, C.K. (1995: web). "Six against four cross-rhythm," Foundation Course in African Music. https:/ / home. comcast. net/
~dzinyaladzekpo/ SixFour. html
[17] Pealosa (2010). The Clave Matrix p. 35.
[18] Coburg, Adrian (2004). "6/8 toque de la rama ef," Percusion Afro-Cubana v. 1: Muisca Folklorico p. 1. Bern: Coburg.
[19] Ladzekpo, C.K. (1995: web). "Three against four cross-rhythm," Foundation Course in African Music. https:/ / home. comcast. net/
~dzinyaladzekpo/ ThreeFour. html
[20] "Chang," Sacred Rhythms, (Ilu Aa and Regino Jimnez) Bembe CD 2027-2 (1994).
[21] "Kadodo," Ritual Music of the Yeve, (Ladzekpo brothers). Makossa phonorecord 86011 (1982).
[22] Pealosa, David (2010). Rumba Quinto p. xxxi. Redway, CA: Bembe Books. ISBN 1-4537-1313-1
[23] Pealosa (2010). Rumba Quinto p. 69-86.
[24] "Cantar maravilloso," at 2:24, Guaguanc v.2. Grupo Guaguanc Matancero (Los Muequitos de Matanzas) Antilla CD 595 (1958).
[25] "Los beodos," at 2:11, Guaguanc v.1. Grupo Guaguanc Matancero (Los Muequitos de Matanzas) Antilla CD 565 (1956).
[26] Locke, David (2011). "The Metric Matrix: Simultaneous Multidimensionality in African Music," Analytical Approaches To World Music
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[27] Ladzekpo, C.K. (1996). Web. "Main Beat Schemes," Foundation Course in African Music. Web.
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Hyacinth
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File:3 over 2.-Bmus.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3_over_2.-Bmus.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Dr clave (talk)
File:Gyil.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gyil.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Ghanaian gyil.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ghanaian_gyil.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Polyrhythm6c4.theora.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polyrhythm6c4.theora.ogv License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Robertinventor
File:Six against four cross-rhythm represented as six quarter notes of four dotted quarter notes.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Six_against_four_cross-rhythm_represented_as_six_quarter_notes_of_four_dotted_quarter_notes.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Holding an mbira dzavadzimu.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Holding_an_mbira_dzavadzimu.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Alex Weeks
File:Mbira cross-rhythm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mbira_cross-rhythm.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr
clave
File:Polyrhythm4c3.theora.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polyrhythm4c3.theora.ogv License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Robertinventor
File:3-4 cross rhythm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3-4_cross_rhythm.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Willie bobo afro blue.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Willie_bobo_afro_blue.tif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr
clave
File:Polyrhythm-1.5 with 4 o 4 simultaneously.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polyrhythm-1.5_with_4_o_4_simultaneously.ogv License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Robertinventor
File:3 over 8.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3_over_8.tif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:1.5 cross-beats per four main beats.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1.5_cross-beats_per_four_main_beats.tif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Africanagogo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Africanagogo.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Freddythehat at en.wikipedia
File:Kadodo bell pattern.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kadodo_bell_pattern.tif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Four against three in modular form.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Four_against_three_in_modular_form.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Quinto drum.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quinto_drum.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:4 against 3 cross-rhythm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:4_against_3_cross-rhythm.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Dr clave
File:Comparing tresillo and hemi.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Comparing_tresillo_and_hemi.tif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:Tresillo Rhythm.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tresillo_Rhythm.ogv License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Robertinventor
File:Tresillo from 4-3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tresillo_from_4-3.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:King Polymeter.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_Polymeter.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:King correct cross-rhythm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_correct_cross-rhythm.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:TrebleKalimba.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TrebleKalimba.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Original
uploader was Markholdaway at en.wikipedia
File:Gravikord.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gravikord.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Robert Grawi
File:Afro blue bass.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Afro_blue_bass.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Dr clave
File:3-4 cross-rhythm-2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:3-4_cross-rhythm-2.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Dr clave
(talk)
File:FOOTPRINTS BASS LINES.tif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FOOTPRINTS_BASS_LINES.tif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Dr clave

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License

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

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