DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND PERFORMANCE

OF INSITU FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISED PAVEMENTS

Jothi Ramanujam
BSc(Eng)(Hons), MSc, MIEAust, MICE, RPEQ

Jason Jones
BEng(Civil)(Hons), MTech(Pavements)
Abstract

Main Roads has been developing the foamed bitumen

stabilisation technique, in consultation with the
Australian pavement stabilisation industry, to provide a
more flexible and fatigue resistant stabilisation treatment
suitable for Queensland conditions. Several projects
have been constructed using this technique.

Michael Janosevic
Senior Advisor (Seals & Granular)

The foamed bitumen stabilisation technique started as a

trial on the Cunningham Highway (Gladfield) in 1997.
The enthusiasm and initiative shown by Warwick District
staff encouraged the Engineering and Technology Group
of Main Roads to develop this technique further. This
process has become more widely accepted having
stabilised more than 350,000 m2 of road pavement. The
design, construction and maintenance techniques are
continuously being developed as more data becomes
available. Achievements to date include improved mix
design procedures, a detailed Technical Note 44, changes
to standard specifications and transfer of technology
through presentations. Technology transfer not only
includes in-house training sessions but project linked
field training.
Performance of this treatment to date has been
encouraging. Superior long term performance and
lower maintenance is possible using the foamed
bitumen stabilisation method compared to other more
conventional stabilisation treatments, provided proper
investigations, mix designs and quality control in
construction is performed.

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QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

Introduction

While some Main Roads districts and regions have used

this technique, the aim of this article is to increase the
awareness of the foamed bitumen stabilisation technique.
It is intended that further articles will be presented
to cover developments such as the plant mix foamed
bitumen stabilisation and the forth coming Accelerated
Loading Facility (ALF)1 trial.
Main Roads has been trialling foamed bitumen
stabilisation since 1997 as a potential structural
rehabilitation treatment for roads in Queensland.
Foamed bitumen stabilisation is considered to give
pavements more flexibility than other stabilisation
treatments. The aim of this treatment is to achieve a
flexible, strong and impermeable road pavement.
This paper addresses the following topics:

The basic principles and properties of foamed

bitumen stabilisation

The construction process of foamed bitumen

stabilisation

The design process and testing for foamed bitumen

stabilised material

Performance monitoring and research into foamed

bitumen stabilisation

Pavement stabilisation

Traditional pavement stabilisation has typically involved

using a high percentage of cement additive resulting in
the development of a fully bound cement treated base
layer. Shrinkage cracks often develop at regular intervals
in these pavements due to the shrinkage properties
and high stiffness of the stabilised material. Deep lift
stabilisation (depths up to 350mm) using cementitious
binders is a common technique used by most Australian
state road authorities. Although, these state road
authorities have changed from Portland cement to slower
setting cementitious additives (such as slag/lime blends),
the aim is still to obtain relatively high unconfined
compressive strengths. This leads to high stiffness
materials which also suffer from cracking problems.

Granular pavements in Queensland are relatively thin

compared to those constructed by most other Australian
state road authorities. These pavements are also
typically placed over low strength sub-grades and have
relatively high deflections thus making them susceptible
to cracking when stabilised with high percentages of
cementitious binder. As a consequence of this lack
of insitu pavement strength, Main Roads has been
developing several treatments that modify rather than
stabilise the base layer of these pavements. Pavement
modification typically involves using treatments that
modestly improve the material strength and reduce
the permeability of the original granular materials.
By modifying rather than stabilising these granular
materials, fatigue cracking of the treated layer is
minimised. In conjunction with a detailed laboratory
mix design, pavement modification can often be achieved
using stabilisation additives such as lime/fly ash,
emulsion/cement and foamed bitumen. Engineering and
Technology Group is undertaking long term monitoring
of foamed bitumen stabilisation projects to improve mix
design procedures, construction techniques and structural
design methodologies.

Description of the foamed bitumen

treatment

Foamed bitumen is a mixture of air, water and bitumen.

It is created by injecting hot bitumen and a small
quantity of cold water into a mixing chamber (Figure
1). This produces an instantaneous expansion of the
bitumen to about 15 times its original volume, forming
a fine mist or foam. This expansion is due to the water
being converted into steam by the hot bitumen. In
this foamed state, the bitumen is ideal for mixing with
fine aggregates. The foam collapses very quickly and
therefore vigorous mixing is required to adequately
disperse the foamed bitumen throughout the material.
During the mixing process foamed bitumen coats the
finer particles forming a mortar that binds the mixture
together. Typically the foamed bitumen contains 97%
bitumen, 2.5% water and 0.5% foaming additive.

1 An article on ALF was featured in edition No 6 of Queensland Roads

QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

57

Figure 1. Bitumen foaming concept

Foamed bitumen stabilisation can be undertaken using

one of two methods:

Insitu mixing the existing pavement material is

milled and the foamed bitumen and additives are
mixed directly into the material without removal
from site.

Pugmill/paver the existing material is milled

and hauled to a central batch plant where foamed
bitumen and additives are added followed by
thoroughly mixing. The modified product is then
hauled back to site for laying.

The insitu stabilisation process is generally less costly

and faster than the pugmill/paver operation because
the material does not need to be hauled between the
construction site and pugmill. Insitu stabilisation reduces
exposure of the subgrade to the weather as occurs with
the pugmill/paver operation, hence presents a lower risk
with respect to rainfall. However with the pugmill/paver
method, removal of the base material allows inspection
of the subgrade material and any defects/weaknesses can
be rectified prior to relaying of the stabilised material.
The pugmill/paver operation also allows the rejection

58

of any unsuitable material and allows the addition of

external materials into the stabilised layer. Therefore
it is considered that a more consistent product can be
achieved using the pugmill/paver operation. As the
efficiencies of mobile pugmills improve, the pugmill/
paver operation will become more feasible and cost
competitive in the future. A technical paper on future
major trials with the plant mix process will be similarly
published.

Construction process

As Main Roads has had more experience with the insitu

stabilisation process, it is discussed in more detail below:
Pre-milling and pulverising prior to stabilisation - a
road recycler is used to break up the wearing course
and any patches prior to stabilisation (Figure 2). The
pulverised layer depth should be less than the final
stabilisation depth. This ensures that "lenses" of
unstabilised and uncompacted material are not present
below the stabilised layer.
Shape correction - a grader is used to correct any
irregularities in the surface before stabilisation and
compaction (Figure 3).

QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

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Figure 2. Pre-milling existing pavement

Figure 3. Shape correction

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Figure 4. Spreading (left) and slaking (right) of quicklime

Spread and slake lime quicklime is spread over the

road (generally 1.0 1.5% by weight) prior to slaking2
with water. The quicklime must be fully slaked prior
to stabilisation with bitumen. This slaking process is
shown in Figure 4.

In urban areas hydrated lime is generally used in place

of quicklime. Hydrated lime can be directly incorporated
into the pavement material using a direct injection
system (Figure 5). Quicklime is not suitable for use in
the direct injection system.

2 Quicklime is calcium oxide. When quicklime is mixed with water (slaked) a chemical reaction occurs which creates calcium hydroxide traditionally
called slaked lime, hydrated lime, or pickling lime. Slaked lime is highly alkaline.

QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

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Figure 5. Spreading and mixing of hydrated lime using the direct injection system

Foamed bitumen injection and mixing for the

projects undertaken so far, a Wirtgen WR2500 recycler
(Figure 5) has been used with a purpose built foaming
chamber with sixteen nozzles arranged along the length
of the spray bar inside the mixing chamber. The foaming
chamber is connected to two pipes, one of which carries
cold water from an on board water tank and the other hot
bitumen from an external bitumen tanker. As cold water
is sprayed into the hot bitumen through the foaming

chamber, bitumen expands to form foamed bitumen.

This foamed bitumen is then injected through the nozzles
onto the recycled pavement material. During the mixing
process, foam bitumen coats the finer particles forming a
mastic that will effectively disperse and bind the mixture
together. The loose material is churned up and the
foamed bitumen and hydrated-lime is thoroughly mixed
through the material.

Figure 6. Bitumen tanker and road recycler applying foamed bitumen

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QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

Compaction and trimming the material is

compacted using different types of compaction machines.
Initial compaction is generally completed using a pad
foot vibrating roller to ensure the full depth of material is
adequately compacted. Compaction is completed using
a smooth drum vibrating roller followed by a multityred roller. Initial compaction should be completed
within four hours after the lime has been spread onto the
pavement material to ensure the lime does not begin to
stiffen the material. Grading and trimming is carried out
to level the surface and achieve the desired cross-falls.
Sealing once sufficient time is allowed for the
stabilised material to cure, a primer seal should
preferably be applied without further delay. After
construction, the maximum time delay before primer
sealing is dependent on trafficking arrangements, but
should not exceed two weeks. If primer sealing is
delayed, the stabilised layer may begin to deteriorate or
develop a slick surface during wet weather. A full seal
(preferably with a polymer modified binder) or asphalt
should follow the primer seal to provide a waterproof,
long-life surfacing.

The pulverising pass should be less than the final

stabilisation depth to ensure that lenses of
unstabilised and uncompacted material are not
present below the stabilised layer

Although the control of moisture content is of

a prime importance for optimum compaction
conditions, there is currently no automated process
available that can ensure the provision of moisture
at a uniform and optimum level during the recycling
process. It is therefore vital that an experienced
operator controls the stabilisation process and
acceptable moisture conditions are maintained.

Appropriate usage of insitu foamed bitumen

stabilisation
Based on the findings of previous insitu foamed bitumen
stabilisation projects, foamed bitumen stabilisation
has be found to be an appropriate treatment for many
pavement types requiring rehabilitation. However, it
has also been found to be an inappropriate rehabilitation
treatment for some pavements.
Appropriate uses for foamed bitumen are:

Construction considerations
Experience has shown that successful outcomes will
occur if the following practical considerations are
implemented:

Field construction must be completed in the order

outlined above

The introduction of foamed bitumen must not be

delayed more than thirty minutes after the lime is
mixed into the pavement as the lime will work on
the fines and change the particle surface area

The time delay between the spreading of quicklime

to when the material is compacted should be limited
to two hours to ensure adequate compaction is
achieved
A uniform distribution of bitumen and lime of
correct proportions across the pavement needs to be
achieved

Stabilisation of pavement layers where the existing

pavement has sufficient thickness of pavement
material of the required quality

The subgrade strength is relatively strong or there is

a buffer between the low strength subgrade and the
stabilised pavement

Pavements where the base layer requires

strengthening

Foamed bitumen stabilisation can be adversely

affected by the following:

Highly plastic clays or materials with an

unsuitable grading being incorporated into the
stabilised layer

Inadequate pavement depth or weak subgrade

support

Locations where Class 170 bitumen is not

available

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61

Material properties

Several factors affect the foaming properties of bitumen:

Expansion ratio (%)

The foaming properties are characterised by the terms

expansion ratio and half-life. Expansion ratio is the
ratio of the maximum volume of the foamed bitumen
compared to the volume of the unfoamed bitumen.
Half-life is the time taken for the volume of the foamed
bitumen to settle to half of the maximum volume
achieved. It is important that sufficient expansion
ratio and half-life characteristics are present to ensure
adequate coating of the fine particles by bitumen.
Without these foaming properties being achieved, an
inferior stabilised product will result due to the lack of
bitumen dispersion within the material.

Bitumen class/ type

Foaming temperature of bitumen (typically 1750C)

Refining process used to extract the bitumen from

the crude oil

Duration of high temperature storage of the bitumen

Type and content of foaming agent

Foaming water content

Bitumen chemical composition

Only the type and content of foaming agent and the

foaming water content can be changed readily to
improve the foaming characteristics. The influence
of the foaming water content on the bitumen foaming
properties is shown in Figure 7. Tests indicate the
desirable foaming properties are usually achieved with
a water content of 2.5%. The minimum foaming limits
recommended are 10 times expansion and a 20 second
half-life.

25
20
15
10
5
0
0

0.5 1.0 1.5

2.0 2.5

60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
3.0 3.5 4.0

Half life (seconds)

Bitumen
Typically both bitumen and lime are used in foamed
bitumen stabilisation. Usually 3% to 4% bitumen and
1.0 to 1.5% quicklime is adopted for most projects.
Class 170 bitumen is the preferred bitumen for foamed
bitumen stabilisation. A foaming agent must be added to
the bitumen to enhance the bitumen foaming properties.
Typically 0.5% foaming agent is required to achieve the
desired foaming properties.

Moisture content (%)

Expansion ratio

Half life

Figure 7. Moisture content vs. expansion ratio and half-life for foamed bitumen (1)

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QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

Lime

Sieve size (mm)

Lime (quicklime or hydrated lime) is used in the

stabilisation process for the following purposes:

Stiffens the bitumen binder

Acts as an anti-stripping agent

Helps disperse the foamed bitumen throughout the

material

Improves the initial stiffness of the material and

increase the early rut resistance of the stabilised
material

It is essential that adequate fines are available for the

bitumen to coat. Without sufficient fines, the bitumen
may not be effectively dispersed throughout the material,
possibly resulting in a lower standard of performance
being achieved. Excessively coarse graded materials
are generally considered unsuitable for foamed bitumen
stabilisation. The material must also have some
plasticity as non-plastic fines are not suitable for foamed
bitumen stabilisation.

Cost

The initial cost of foamed bitumen stabilisation is

considered to be higher (Figure 8) than other stabilisation
treatments (5). While these initial costs may be higher,
the more important considerations are whole of life costs
and performance.
Treatment

Cost $/m2

2% GB cement (300 mm)

Bitumen (2%), emulsion/cement (2%) (250 mm)
Foamed bitumen (250 mm)
Note : Costs are indicative only

15
18
22

Figure 8. Relative costs of stabilisation

Material grading

Materials that comply with the MRS11.05 C grading

envelope are generally suitable for foamed bitumen
stabilisation (2). In more broad terms, materials that
fall outside the grading envelope provided in Figure 9
have generally been found to be unsuitable for foamed
bitumen stabilisation.

26.5
2.36
0.075
Plasticity index

Percentage passing by mass

minimum
maximum
80
25
5

100
85
20
Maximum 10%

Figure 9. Grading limits for foamed bitumen

stabilisation (3)
(Modified from the South African design guidelines)

Design

Design of pavements incorporating foamed bitumen

stabilised pavement layers consists of trench
investigation, material testing and mechanistic pavement
design. The trench investigation and materials testing
should be completed in accordance with standard
materials sampling procedures.
This should include the following components:

Material classification

Assessment of moisture conditions

Assessment of the existing pavement failure

mechanism (subgrade strength, ingress of water,
pavement material properties, and drainage)

Pavement profile and layer thicknesses

Dynamic cone penetrometer subgrade strength

profile

Material sampling for foamed bitumen testing

Provided the initial testing from the trench investigation

indicates foamed bitumen stabilisation may be a suitable
option, preliminary assessment testing for foamed
bitumen stabilisation may be undertaken. Preliminary
assessment testing of the material to be stabilised usually
includes particle size distribution, Atterberg limits and
moisture density relationship. If preliminary assessment
test results are satisfactory, a full design assessment
should then be undertaken.

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Figure 10. Laboratory bitumen foaming machine

Figure 11. MATTA apparatus

Average daily ESAs in

the design lane in the
year of opening

Initial
modulus1
(MPa)

Minimum cured
modulus3
(MPa)

Minimum soaked
modulus4
(MPa)

Minimum
retained
modulus ratio5

< 100
100 1000
> 1000

500
700
7002

2500
3000
4000

1500
1800
2000

40%
45%
50%

Samples initially cured at 25oC for 3 hours prior to initial modulus testing
Recommend wheel tracker testing be completed to confirm curing time required
3
Samples cured at 40oC for 3 days prior to cured modulus testing
4
Cured modulus test samples conditioned in a water bath under vacuum for 10 minutes prior to testing
5
Retained modulus ratio = soaked modulus / cured modulus
2

Figure 12. Minimum values of MATTA test for foamed bitumen

Specialist test equipment is required for foamed bitumen

stabilisation mix design testing. This testing equipment
includes the laboratory bitumen foaming apparatus
(Figure 10) and the indirect tensile resilient modulus
(MATTA) test equipment (Figure 11). Samples are
tested in three conditions using the MATTA laboratory
apparatus systems for indirect tensile resilient modulus:

Initially after compaction to simulate early strength

After 3 days oven curing at 40oC

After soaking the cured samples in water under

vacuum

The optimum bitumen content determined through

testing is usually recommended as the minimum
specified bitumen content for field construction.

64

Figure 12 details some minimum guidelines developed

using the MATTA apparatus. These are appropriate for
Queensland roads with typical road pavement moisture
and traffic conditions with 100mm of asphalt cover.
A pavement thickness design procedure for foamed
bitumen stabilisation has not yet been included in
Part 2 of the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology
(4). Current performance monitoring of properly
designed and constructed foamed bitumen stabilised
pavements throughout Australia indicate that failure
of the pavements may be either through fatigue
or permanent deformation of the stabilised layer.
Permanent deformation of the stabilised layer can
generally be minimised by ensuring the stabilised
materials comply with the minimum stiffness
characteristics provided in Figure 12.

QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

As an interim measure, it is recommended that foamed

bitumen stabilised layers be designed as asphalt
pavement layers using the design criteria provided in
Part 2 of the Austroads Guide to Pavement Technology
(4). The modulus used for the pavement design is
selected through experience and material test results.
Typically the laboratory measured soaked modulus,
following correction for pavement temperature, is used
for pavement design purposes. Where high soaked
modulus values are recorded during laboratory testing,
the modulus is usually limited to 2,500 MPa. The
temperature correction factors for foamed bitumen
stabilised material, based on limited laboratory test data,
are shown in Figure 13.

WAMPT (oC)1

Temperature
correction
factor

25
30
35
40
1
WAMPT = Weighted annual mean pavement temperature

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7

Figure 13. Foamed bitumen resilient modulus

temperature correction factor

While this model may not strictly represent the stabilised

material's performance, it is the best estimate currently
available. Further performance monitoring of field trials,
back analysis of deflection data and fatigue beam tests
are required to refine the model.

Observed Performance

Since 1997, more than 150 km of pavement throughout

the state of Queensland has been stabilised using foamed
bitumen. Regular monitoring of the condition of several
of these pavements has been undertaken as a means of
validating the pavement design method developed. The
location of some of the major foamed bitumen stabilised
sites is shown in Figure 14. Details of the traffic loading
and treatment applied to each section are provided in
Figure 21.

Pavement sections being monitored include:

Site 1 1.2 km section of the Cunningham

Highway, Gladfield

Site 2 1.6km section of the Cunningham

Highway, Inglewood

Site 3 0.6km section of Rainbow Beach Road,

Rainbow Beach

Site 4 17km section of the Cunningham

Highway, Allora

Site 1: Gladfield Cunningham Highway

The first foamed bitumen stabilisation trial was
undertaken in May 1997 on the Cunningham Highway
between Brisbane and Warwick. This section of
pavement was overlaid in 2000 with 160mm of
unbound granular pavement material as part of an
overarching rehabilitation strategy for the Cunningham
Highway between Cunninghams Gap and Freestone
Creek. Shortly before the granular overlay was
constructed, approximately 10% of the pavement was
exhibiting sights of minor fatigue distress (5). These
fatigued areas correlated relatively consistently with
pavement failures that were stabilised with cement
during previous maintenance treatments.
Site 2: Inglewood Cunningham Highway
As part of the maintenance strategy for the
Cunningham Highway, a 1.6km section of unbound
granular pavement near Inglewood, which has
historically performed poorly, was stabilised with
foamed bitumen as a repair treatment for this underperforming pavement section. This under-performance
was primarily related to poor drainage conditions
and irrigation methods used on adjacent farmland.
Pavement stabilisation was undertaken in June 1998
and performed satisfactorily for approximately three
years before deterioration of the pavement began to
occur in isolated areas. An investigation to determine
the failure mechanism was subsequently undertaken
in November 2001. This investigation revealed
that inadequate subgrade support was the primary
contributor to the observed distress. Fatigue cracking
was not observed in situations where reasonable
subgrade support was present. This highlights the
influence subgrade support plays in performance of
stabilised pavements. The distress in the stabilised
layer is illustrated in Figure 15. The results of indirect
tensile resilient modulus testing of six cores extracted
from the pavement are provided in Figure 16.

QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

65

Site 3

Site 4

Site 1
Site 2

Figure 14. Location of foamed bitumen stabilisation sites

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Figure 15. Fatigue cracking of the Inglewood foamed bitumen stabilised pavement

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QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

Dry modulus (MPa)

Soaked modulus (MPa)

Retained modulus ratio

Top

4,871

2,241

0.46

Middle

2,530

423

0.17

Bottom

2,329

321

0.14

Figure 16. Average indirect testing resilient modulus

The reasons for relatively poor performance of this

project include:

wet and inadequate subgrade conditions

possibly a lack of compaction in the lower part of

the stabilised layer

Figure 18. Rainbow Beach Road March 2003

poor drainage conditions as described earlier

the stabilisation thickness being inadequate to

cope with the traffic loading applied.

Site 4: Allora New England Highway

During April May 1999 a 17km section of the New
England Highway was stabilised with foamed bitumen.
This remains the largest foamed bitumen stabilisation
project carried out in Queensland so far. Due to the
length of the project, the condition of the pavement has
been monitored on a regular basis which includes visual
assessment, deflection testing and coring of the pavement
After nine years of trafficking, the pavement appears
to be performing to a satisfactory standard with only
isolated load associated failures covering less than 1% of
the project length. An example of these isolated fatigue
cracks is shown in Figure 19.

Site 3: Rainbow Beach Road, Rainbow Beach

A trial aimed at comparing the performance foamed
bitumen and bitumen emulsion stabilisation was
completed in June 1998 on Rainbow Beach Road.
The trial indicated that the early performance of the
foamed bitumen sections were significantly better than
the bitumen emulsion sections. However, the longer
term performance of both sections has been similar.
Indirect tensile resilient modulus test results of cores
extracted from the three foamed bitumen sections
approximately six months after construction are
provided in Figure 17. The condition of the pavement
in 2003 is shown in Figure 18.

3% Bitumen & 1.75%

Quicklime
4% Bitumen & 1.75%
Quicklime
5% Bitumen & 1.75%
Quicklime

Dry modulus
MPa top
4,400

Dry modulus
MPa - middle
3,761

Dry modulus
MPa bottom
3,336

5,850

5,114

3,448

5,612

4,855

1,246

Figure 17. Rainbow Beach Road - average indirect

tensile resilient modulus of extracted cores

Figure 19. Allora - isolated fatigue cracking in

foamed bitumen stabilised pavement

QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

67

Four cores were also extracted from this pavement

approximately one year after construction. The average
indirect tensile resilient modulus results obtained from
these cores are provided in Figure 20. These results
confirm the increase in pavement stiffness resulting from
foamed bitumen stabilisation.

Dry Modulus

Top
Middle
Bottom

Retained
Modulus Ratio

MPa

Soaked
Modulus
MPa

7,708
6,628
3,759

6,263
6,570
2,764

0.81
0.99
0.74

Figure 20. New England Highway - average indirect

testing resilient modulus

Date stabilised
Depth stabilised
(mm)
Additive content

Correlation between pavement design and

field performance
The development of an appropriate design procedure for
foamed bitumen stabilised pavements is dependent on
the gathering of substantial accurate field performance
data. Although only limited data is currently available
from Queensland projects, an analysis of the field
performance in combination with the original mix
designs and pavement investigations was undertaken
to determine the appropriateness of the proposed
design model. The results of this analysis are provided
in Figure 21. Although the performance of these
pavements varies significantly, it can be seen that the
model proposed provides a reasonable (but conservative)
estimate of the expected life.

Gladfield
May 1997
250

Inglewood
June 1998
200

Rainbow Beach
June 1998
200

4% bitumen &
2% cement
1,250

4% bitumen &
1.5% quicklime
1,500

3 - 5% bit &
1.75% quicklime
2,000

Allora
March May 1999
250 OWP &
200 IWP
3.5% bitumen &
1.5% quicklime
2,500MPa

Design modulus
(MPa)
Subgrade support
7
5 20
10
4 10 (4 represents
(CBR)
fatigued areas)
Expected traffic to
1 x 106
3 x 105 1.3 x 106
6 x 105
1 x 106 3 x 106
failure (ESAL)
Actual traffic to failure
2 x 106
8 x 105
N/A
1 x 106
*
(ESAL)
(CBR5 only)
(CBR4 only)
Ratio actual life to
2
2.7
N/A
1
expected life
* Failure means appearance of fatigue cracking in some sections but not failure of the entire job.

Figure 21. Correlation between design and field performance

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QUEENSLAND ROADS Edition No 7 March 2009

Further research
Main Roads is still researching the performance
properties and the types of material suitable for use with
foamed bitumen stabilisation. Areas where research
could be directed are:

The fatigue performance and rut resistance of

foamed bitumen stabilised material

Refinement of the existing selection tools for the use

of foamed bitumen based on grading, plasticity and
linear shrinkage

A standard specification for insitu foamed bitumen

stabilisation was developed and released in December
2006 (6). The foamed bitumen stabilisation treatment
appears to be suitable for materials whose grading
resembles the unbound granular C graded pavement
materials. Generally the material is treated with 3.0%
to 4% bitumen and 1.0 1.5% quicklime or 1.5 to 2%
hydrated lime. The use of standard Class 170 bitumen
is conditional upon obtaining the desired expansion and
half-life properties.

References

Improvements to the current test methods

Ability of the foam bitumen stabilised material to

resist moisture infiltration using capillary rise, and/or
permeability testing.

Summary
The Queensland Department of Main Roads has
used foamed bitumen stabilisation successfully as a
rehabilitation technique for existing unbound granular
pavements. Deflection testing and testing of extracted
cores from these pavements indicates that significant
improvement to the stiffness and load bearing capacity
of the pavement can be achieved using the insitu foamed
bitumen stabilisation technique.
Observed performance of several projects has indicated
that pavement stabilisation using foamed bitumen has
superior fatigue resistance than material stabilised with
cement. However, as with all stabilisation treatments,
determination of the correct stabilisation thickness is
critical in achieving acceptable performance from these
pavements. A provisional pavement design system has
been developed, based on limited performance data, to
determine the appropriate stabilisation thickness required
to achieve acceptable pavement performance in the
longer term.

1. Kendall M, Baker B, Evans P, Ramanujam J.

Foamed Bitumen Stabilisation. Washington, DC:
Transportation Research Board Conference. 2000

2. Standard Specifications Roads Unbound

Pavements MRS11.05. Department of Main Roads.
December 1999

3. Jenkins K, Collings D, Theyse H, Long F. Interim

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