Stevens Theory of Measurements A Manual For Physics Students

THE TEXT IS FLY
WITHIN THE BOOK
ONLY
THEOETOF MEASUEEMEOTS
A MANUAL FOE
PHYSICS STUDENTS
II W*
Professor of Pmffics in ihe Unfa
flfSfflffiK
ILLUSTRATED
SECOND EDITION, REVISED
NEW YORK
D.
VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY

25
PAKK PLACE
1917
COPYBIGHT 1915, 1917,
BY
D.
VAN NOSTEAND COMPANY
PREFACE
THIS book
1.
As a
is
two semester hours

discussions
two ways:
outlined would require
designed to be used in either of
Text-book.
The work
for its completion.
and problems,
it
may
be
By
made
extending the
to cover three
semester hours;
or
the student
gain a working knowledge of the subject
in
may
a shorter time.
by omitting
" rule of
thumb " knowledge of
adjusting observations, however,

2.
As a
three years
the
first
is
not to be
recoTtt.Tn.e-nd.edr
The work would
cover a
course in the physical laboratory.
During
Laboratory Guide.
7
portions of the theory,
year, the student would
make
use of those portions
which are devoted to methods of estimating precision,
and the propagation of

methods of adjustment
and
errors;
of
in the second year the
observations would be used;
in the third year the student should
discuss his results
curves.
The work
by the use
be prepared to
of empirical formulae
and
of the second year is well adapted to
students in junior courses in engineering, the adjustment

of data obtained from surveys being especially appropriate*
iii
PEEFACE
IT
The use
of the graphic
method would be
illustrated through-
out the entire course.

Considerable space
is
This subject
is
ability.
presumably on account
devoted to the theory of proba fascinating one to students,
of its
human
interest.
J. S. S.
OF MAINE, OKONO, ME.,

January, 1915.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE
NOTATION
iii
,
CHAPTER
...vii
INTRODUCTION
MEASUREMENTS
ERRORS
2
3
CHAPTER
II
4
9
PROBABILITY
THE CURVE
THE INTEGRAL
THE ARITHMETICAL MEAN
CONSTANT INTERVAL
WEIGHTS
CHAPTER
III
22
32
32
THE ADJUSTMENT OF OBSERVATIONS

SHORT METHODS
,
ILLUSTRATIONS
CHAPTER
IV
THE PRECISION OF MEASUREMENTS

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION.
14
17
17
18
36
36
.....,.,
CONTENTS
vi
PAGE
PRECISION MEASURES AND THEIK DERIVATION
AVERAGE DEVIATION
PROBABLE ERROR
37
38
38
CHAPTER V
44
THE PROPAGATION OF ERRORS

THE DIRECT PROBLEM
THE CONVERSE PROBLEM
FRACTIONAL METHOD
BEST MAGNITUDES AND EATIOS
CHAPTER
VI
PLOTTING
METHOD ILLUSTRATED
CONSTRUCTION AND INTERPRETATION OF CURVES

APPLICATION TO LABORATORY PROBLEMS
CHAPTER
....
57
62
63
66
69
VIII
EMPIRICAL FORMULAE AND CONSTANTS

METHOD OF PROCEDURE
TYPES OF CURVES
ILLUSTRATIONS
.
54
55
57
VII
NEGLIGIBILITY
APPLICATIONS
CRITERIA
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
CHAPTER
45
49
50
51
72
72
75
76
NOTATION
The following
notation will be used ia this books
y =* Simple probability;
P=Compound probability;
Q = Negative probability;
m= Single observation;
.34"
= Mean of observations;
s=Tnie value
of
a component observation;
Z~The resultant true value;

&= Error;
t;=Kesidual;
h = Measure
of precision;
&= Probability of error zero;

= Probable error of a single observation;
r = Probable error of the mean;
7-
5= Error in a component measurement;

A = Error in a result;
Average deviation of a single observation;
Average deviation of the mean;
Weight (Latin ponckts)',
error.
THEORY OF MEASUREMENTS
CHAPTER
DsrmoDucnoN
LOED KELVIN has told us that one's knowledge of
when he can measure what he is speaking
about and express it in numbers. Every year a vast number of measurements are made in physical, chemical, and
science begins
engineering laboratories,
as well as in
laboratories
for
We
are unable, however, to state

concerning any one of these measurements that the result
One of the most precise measureis absolutely correct.
advanced research.
ments in physical science

light.
The wave-length
is
of
a Michelson interferometer
found to be
that of the wave-length of
cadmium light, measured by

and a Rowland grating, was
\.= 0.000064384722 cm. (Michelson)

Xc= 0.00006438680 cm. (Rowland).
Or we may put
it
in another way,
1 meter contains 1553163.6 wave-lengths (Michelson),
1 meter contains 1553164.1 wave-lengths (Fabry and

Perot).
observers
These measurements were made by different
for their
remarkable
are
using different methods. They
with
of
the
light
us
wave-length
agreement and they give
not
are
But
they
for all
sufficient
correct,
accuracy
it is not at
and
purposes.
all
likely that
we
shall ever
know
the true length of a wave of cadmium light.

that we should be
It is of great importance, however,
of measurements
able to pass judgment upon the accuracy
from the domain
illustration
another
To borrow
like these.
we may assume the value for the

be 29986030 km. per second. Here
of optics,
to
velocity of light
the
number 30
omitted, would make
a measure of precision, which, if

of light has
the statement ridiculous, since the velocity
is
to be regarded
not been measured with sufficient accuracy
kilometer.
as correct to a single
A student who brings in a value for g, resulting from
centimeasurements with a simple pendulum, of 982.436
look
to
upon the
second per second, is likely
meters
per
result with
complacency
until
he
is
made
to see that all
8 are useless because erroneous.

figures after the
MEASUREMENTS
Measurements are usually classified as follows:
1. Direct
when, for example, a distance is measured
line.
a
with
tape
when, for example, the density of a cylindetermined by measurements of its length, diameter,
2. Indirect
der
is
and mass.
3.
when, for example, the third angle of

restricted by the values of the other two angles.
Conditioned
triangle
is
Measurements not so conditioned are
called independent.
INTRODUCTION
ERRORS
Errors in measurement
may
be divided into two general
classes:
1.
Those which may be eliminated, in part at
by improving adjustments and taking

method employed.
least,
greater care in the
These include errors in instruments, such, for example,

caused by faulty measuring sticks, imperfectly
graduated circles, and poorly adjusted balance beams.
as are
The obvious method

stitute
of correcting these errors is to sub-
good instruments for poor ones;
to eliminate the errors
Personal
or,
when
possible,
by compensation.
These are errors characteristic of
If we swing a pendulum before
Errors.
the individual observer.
class of students
and ask them
to indicate the times
of greatest displacement by tapping with their pencils,

the result will well illustrate the personal equation. In
the experiment in wireless telegraphy by which time

messages were sent from Paris to Arlington, each observer
was carefully rated in order that this error should be
guarded against.
Mistakes are, unfortunately, too
laboratory work to
common
in students'
an extended explanation,
Errors in reading scales, in computation, and in tabulation
may be classed as mistakes, and these should become
less and less frequent as the student gains experience.
2. The second class consists of errors which are indeterminate in their nature, and may not be entirely eliminated, however much care we may take in our measurements, or by
tjie
call
for
use of the highest grade of apparatus.

winch we are concerned in the dis-
It is these errors with
cussions in this book.
CHAPTER
II
PROBABILITY
PROFESSOR JEVONS
in his Principles of Science states

an
has
a truism which
important bearing upon the theory
"
Perfect knowledge alone can give cerof probability.
Nature perfect knowledge would be infinite

knowledge, which is clearly beyond our capacities. We
have, therefore, to content ourselves with partial knowl77
edge knowledge mingled with ignorance producing doubt.
We may interpret this to mean that from the point
of view of Omniscience everything exists as certainty.
The path of a leaf falling from a tree, as well as that of a
mote dancing in a sunbeam is known with as great a certainty as that of a heavy body dropped to the earth. For
finite minds, however, where certainty is impossible, the
ability to pass upon the probability that an event will
tainty,
and
happen in a
What
in
certain
way
is
the best substitute attainable.
highly probable in minds of a certain order

of intelligence, may be improbable to others.
To a trained
is
meteorological observer, it may appear extremely probable that it will rain to-morrow; to one who bases his
weather predictions upon popular superstition, it may

be improbable. Again it may seem probable to certain
people that spirit hands produced music at a stance,
while to others the probability becomes negative.
4
PROBABILITY
We may
look at the subject in another way. When a

championship game of baseball has been finished, the result
becomes a certainty in the minds of the spectators; while

in various parts of the country, where the result has not
as yet been reported, bets continue to be made expressing
the probability of what to other minds is a certainty.
If a coin is tossed up under normal conditions, the
"
"
heads
is one out of two,
probability that it will fall
or one-half. This is also the probability that it will fall
"
tails."
have, then, from our notation, y=i, or, since
we shall deal with more than one event,
and Q = f.
We
P=|
Since the coin must
fall
in one
l (the
If
coins are thrown,
The
first
we
way
symbol
have,
or the other,
we have
for certainty).
by
the binomial theorem
term expresses the probability that all will

all but one will come
come down heads, the second that
down
If
heads, etc,
we take n=6,
the chances that
may
be expressed by the fraction

be heads by ^-.
-fa,
all
will
and that
be heads
five will
PROBLEMS
expanding the binomial to the proper number
for four, three, two, one,
and no heads may be expressed by f |f Jf , ^, and fc
1.
By
of terms,
show that the chances
2. By using an additional term prove that it is impossible

to throw seven heads with six coins.
3. Plot a curve with the data obtained, and preserve
it
for future use.

4. If the class is sufficiently large (say 20) it will
an interesting
exercise to take the
mean
results of
prove
64
trials
by each student and compare with the results obtained by

theory,
A
may
better acquaintance with
the laws of probability

be obtained by putting aside the formula and solving
the following problems
by an appeal
to reason.
PROBLEMS
thrown what is the probability that
the sum of the numbers will be five? We first determine
the possible results with two dice, which may be obtained
by considering that each number on one die may appear
with each number on the other. This gives us 6X6 = 36.
Five may be obtained either by a four and a one, or a two
and a three. Now the four may be on the first die and the
one on the second, or the one may be on the first and the
four on the second. The same is true for the two and
Thus we have four possibilities, giving a probthree.
1.
If
two
dice are
ability of ^-.
2. What is the probability of throwing one ace with
a single die in one throw?
3. What is the probability of throwing no ace with a
single die in one throw?
4.
trials?
What
is
the probability of throwing one ace in
two
PROBABILITY
5.
What
is
the probability of throwing two aces in
two
What
is
the probability of throwing no ace in
two
What
is
trials?
6.
trials?
7.
in
two
8.
the probability of throwing only one ace
trials?
bag contains eight
What
balls.
is
red, six black,

the probability of drawing
then a black ball in two

9.
The
class record
and
five green
first
a red and
trials?
shows that each student in a class of
twenty-five usually solves one problem out of three assigned.

What is the probability that an assigned problem will
be solved?
j
In Merriman s Least Squares we have this problem:

Let a hundred coins be thrown up each second by each
of the inhabitants of the earth. How often will a hundred
heads be thrown in a million years? (It will prove interesting for the student to guess the answer to this problem
before solving it. The number of inhabitants may be
taken as one and one-half billion.)
10.
Before leaving the subject of probability a few general
may be suggested. It is a rather prevalent

notion that antecedent happenings have an effect upon
present probability. If a coin has come down heads five
considerations
times in succession, it is pretty difficult to convince the

man that the chances for tails on the sixth throw
average
are not greater than the cîances for heads. Of course,

if the conditions are normal, the probability of throwing
heads is just one-half. (The derivation of the word chance
is
an
interesting one.)
Such expressions as "the turning
THEOEY OF MEASUREMENTS
8
of luck
"
indicate the strong hold this feeling has
upon
the majority of people.

Again, we should not become over-confident from the
results
of the laws of probability.
Interesting applica-
be found in connection with the periodic law

of MendeleSff; the law of Prout, which states that the
tions
may
atomic weights of the other elements are exact multiples

of that of hydrogen; and the kinetic theory of gases as
developed by Clausius and Mayer. A case in which the
probability almost becomes a certainty is illustrated by
the coincidence of the seventy spectral lines in iron vapor
with those in solar
light.
The
possible
arrangement of the
seventy lines would be
70X69X68X
But
as
all
4X3X2X1.
possible arrangements
would not apply, the

been estimated by
probability of a chance coincidence has
Kirchhoff as one in one
trillion.
Do we know
that iron
exists in the sun?
The
following illustration
may
serve to
weaken our
Imagine a fly watching two coincidence pendulums which come together on the eightyfirst swing.
While we are about it, let us imagine that in
feeling of certainty:
mind of a
The
fly, one second represents a year.
watch the vibrations for ten seconds (years) and
report to another fly which has just come up, that quite
an extended series of observations fails to discover the two
the
fly will
pendulums in coincidence. The pendulums are watched

fifty, sixty, and seventy swings and it becomes a
through
PKOBABIUTY
law in flyland that pendulums do not get together. When

the law has become established by observations
extending
over eighty fly-years, the bell rings and the
assumption
based upon a very reasonable law of probability breaks
down.
The
Probability Curve.
6, it will
in Fig.
Referring to problem 3, page

be seen that the curve takes the form indicated
1.
Any similar data from experiments which follow the

laws of probability would yield such a curve as this,
FIG.
familiar illustration
If the target is
marked
is
1.
afforded
by
target practice.
off into divisions,
the distances of
these divisions from the center
may
be taken to represent
the magnitude of the errors. If a series of shots be fired

by expert marksmen under normal conditions, they will
form the basis for a curve which
will
resemble Fig.
1.
Since the errors are plotted along the #-axis and their
corresponding probabilities along the 2/-axis; and since
the curve
is
seen to be symmetrical with respect to the
THEORY OF MEASUEEMENTS
10
and the -axis is an asymtote, it will be seen that

equation must take some such form as
y-axis,
its
-,-. f>-X*
c?
rigid deduction of this probability equation has
been
given by Gauss.
Let x represent an error and y

),
Then
its probability.
y*=f(xn ).
...
(1)
For compound probability

P**yiy2
y=f(*i)f(x2)
/(a*.);
(2)
Let us suppose that n observations are taken on the quantities zi,
and
tities will
22.
make
dP
The most probable values
of these
quan-
P maximum,
dP
We have
....
(5)
PROBABILITY
By
11
differentiating log f(x{) with respect to xi,
Substituting
Or
(5) in (3)
*ta)||+*fe)fe+
The
as results.
(4),
we have
W^=0
(6)
may
Then
Since mi, m%, and m* are constants,
and
be simplified as follows: Consider

been measured n times, giving mi, m% . .
m*
equations
that z has
= 4>(*{)f(xi)tei.
jf(xi)
and
we have
similar results follow for
we have
&.
This greatly simplifies Eqs.
(6)
and
(7)
and produces
12
Errors and Residuals
We
must now make a
brief digression in order to illus-
and
trate the difference between errors
residuals.
Take
the following measurements, of equal weight:
mi =430.6
m 2 =429.9
7714
By
universal
= 430.8
custom the mean
of these results, 430.6,
(Later a mathematical proof of this will be given.)

The differences between the measurements and the
is
taken as the best attainable value.
mean
are called residuals,
and are as
follows:
= 0.0
^=-0.7
01
t>3=-f0.5
V4=
The
algebraic
sum
4-0.2
of the residuals always equals zero,
and this may serve as a check upon the work. Now if we

had some way of knowing that 430.6 was the correct result,
we would transform those residuals into errors and designate them by xi, #2, #3, and x.
residual, then, is the difference
ment and the
ference between a
between a measure-
an error is the
measurement and the true result.
best attainable result;
dif-
FEOBABILITY
13
It is obvious, first, that we cannot determine the values

of the errors; and secondly, that the sum of the errors
will
approach the sum of the residuals as we increase the

of measurements.
number
Going back to Eq.
(9),
we may assume
that
is suf-
we can apply the above law. Then,

sum of the residuals is always zero, one may
sum of the errors to be zero, and write
ficiently large so that
since the
take the
From
this it follows that
<
is
a constant, which
we may
call c.
If
we
substitute the values of $(xi), 4>(xz),
for (5) in (9),
we
and
<t>(xn }
obtain
4K*0 _
Since this holds for any number of observations, the
corresponding terms are equal. Omitting subscripts we
have in general
Substitute values from (1) and integrate.
We have
14
c is negative (why?)
and may be replaced
2A2
convenience by
Then y=ke~~ h^ which

It is
for the sake of

'
also
replace
ek
by
k.
the equation of the probability

similar in form to the equation suggested to
y
curve.
We may
is
express the curve in Fig. 1.

This is the most important equation in the theory of
precision of measurements and its meaning should be
clearly understood.
PROBLEMS
1.
Show from the curve that
positive
and negative
errors are equally likely to occur.

2.
Show
that k represents the probability of the error
zero.
3.
Explain
4.
Show
Show
5.
why h
is called
that the curve
the measure of precision.
horizontal over the origin.

that a point of inflection occurs when
is
-*.
h\/2
THE PROBABILITY INTEGRAL

In order to express the probability that a certain group
of errors will be made we integrate between the limits
concerned.
As
this
involves
compound
probability,
we
have
"If
p=-For certainty P= 1 and the
limits
*+
-a>
become
+ QO
and
oo
PROBABILITY
This
a well-known integral and
is
treatises
on the
calculus.
15
discussed in various
is
It equals -r
and
therefore
hdx
and the probability equation becomes

y = hdx7r~^~
h ~ x2
.
For compound probability
The
is
probability that
an
error
double the probability that
between +x and
between x and 0.
lies
it lies
We
have
This
may take the form
This
is
the usual form of the probability integral.
be determined in a manner to be explained

use of
may
table the probability of
The student
any
be obtained.
on Least Squares for
larger text-books
is
later;
may
then by
desired magnitude
any of the
referred to
illustrations.
THEOEY OF MEASUBEMENTS
16
EXERCISES
In order to become familiar with the terms h and
the following curves should be plotted:
Give k the values
1. Consider h constant.
1,
2,
k,
3, 4.
Plot a curve for each value.
Consider k constant. Give h the values J, |, 1, 2.

In each case select a series of rather small numbers
for x and use the formula
2.
time permits, a set of curves should be constructed in which both h and k are variables, x and y
3. If
having constant values.
The Term
we take the product

we obtain
If
ties,
An
"
Least Squares
of a
number
"
of single probabili-
inspection of this equation shows us that the probabil-
when the expression in the parenthesis is least.

these numbers are the squares of the errors (residuals,
ity is greatest
But
see page 12).
It follows that the
most probable values
of observed quantities are those which
the squares of the residuals the least.

derived the term Least Squares.
make
From
the
this
sum
of
law
is
PROBABILITY
17
THE ARITHMETICAL MEAN
We
are
now
prepared to prove that in a set of observamean has the greatest probability.
tions, the arithmetical
Let
be the mean of observations mi, mz
ma.
Then
Mmij
Mmz
We may make the sum
Mwin are residuals.
of their squares
mn
a minimum.
...
tne anthmeticai mean.
A CONSTANT INTERVAL. FORMULA
For a constant interval the arithmetical mean should not

be employed. This formula comes from formulae used in
See Mellor's Higher Mathdeveloping normal equations.
ematics,
If
page 327.
is
odd, the middle term does not appear.
even number of measurements.
Use an
18
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1.
Kundt's experiment:
92.3, 104.6,
12.3 cm.
2.
Time
116.9,
129.2,
of vibration of
43.1,
30.7,
141.7,
154.0,
magnet bar:
55.6,
67.9,
80.1,
cm.
Ans.
166.1
3.25, 9.90, 16.65,
23.35, 30.00, 36.65, 43.30, 50.00, 56.70, 63.30, 69.80, 76.55,
83.30, 89.90, 96.65, 103.15, 109.80, 116.65, 123.25, 129.95,

136.70, 143.35. Ans. 6.67.
problem illustrating this method may easily be

suggested from measurements with a planimeter; also
3.
from the acceleration curve with a dropped
fork.
WEIGHTS
we have
considered all our measurements

Suppose the length of a small object
was measured with a micrometer gauge, a vernier reading
to hundredths of a millimeter, a vernier reading to tenths
Heretofore
to be of equal value.
of
a millimeter, and a meter
The
stick.
following results might be recorded:
1.
Micrometer
2.
Vernier
3.
4.
A
Vernier B
3.542 cm.
,
Meter Stick
3.544
"
"
3.54
"
3.55
The mean of these measurements, 3.544, is obviously

not the best value, since some represent greater precision
than others.
If one attaches to these results a number
indicating their relative values, such
a number
is
called the
PROBABILITY
weight and
19
by p. (Latin, pondus,
pound.) Further on, rules will be
given for finding the weight of observations, but for the
present we may use our judgment. No. 4 is evidently
weight.
is
usually designated
Compare
the least accurate and
3 comes next and we
we may
may
1.
No.
and No. 2 are
give it the weight
call it 3.
No.
about alike in weight, with perhaps a little advantage in

favor of No. 1. We may, therefore, assign 8 to No. 2 and
10 to No. 1. Putting our results in tabular form, we have:
Spm= 77.942
Sp=22
2pm Sp
weighted mean
-5-
The weighted mean may be proved

probability in a
manner
3.543
to have the greatest
similar to that
employed
for the
unweighted mean.
PROBLEMS
7^
In establishing a north and south

readings were taken:
1.
N.
AH
6' E.,
N.
4'
line,
W., N. 60" W., N.
the following
00'.
readings were taken with equal care, but the first was
taken twice and the third three times. Find the best
value.
THEORY OF MEASUKEMENTS
20
2.
Joule's values of the mechanical equivalent of heat

follows:
have been weighted by Rowland as
He
concludes that 426.9 best represents the result of Joule's
work.
3. The sum of the angles of an equilateral triangle is
found to measure 180 9'. If the first angle has been measured six times, the second three times, and the third once,
how should the error be distributed among the angles?
Additional problems in weighting will be given after

the subject of precision of measurement has been discussed.
Subjects for Discussion
The
following topics are suggested for those
who may
wish to pursue the subject further:

1'.
work
The
part played
of the U. S.
by
the theory of probability in the
Weather Bureau.
The
bearing of the laws of probability upon popular

Read the Vice-Presidential address of Prosuperstitions.
2.
fessor A.
G. Webster,
(Science, Jan.
3.
9,
at Atlanta,
30,
1913.
1914.)
Exceptional phenomena. Read Chapter 29 in Jevons's
Principles of Science.
4.
Ga., Dec.
Relation to gambling.
PROBABILITY
Dr. H. G.
Bumham,
21
of Chicago, thinks that the best
way to wipe, $$ gambling in America is to teach the

children in the schools the laws of chance. He fensure
1
that the result of this
woul^Â^
ftfjsl^flibod they
4
would ste^^kw"f4Be
thai when they
I *
Vm
the
other
bookjjmfer tapfêiy
grow up, ^fti^^^shtin
^
H
t f
*^ W^T
r
r ^ J**^
-^
gambling magnate.
*
'
'
'
''
""
'i~
,"'
if
'jf
i,/7
'*"
'
?B
To quote
stop to count
"
The
Ms pMane^,
further:
c^"dinary
does not
he sees that by betting

a dollar he may win one hundred dollars. If he had been
taught in school to see that in reality the chances were
200 to one against him, and that he was betting a dollar

against fifty cents, he would keep his money in his pocket."
5.
The
tables.
use of the theory of probability in mortality
CHAPTER
III

IT is a frequent experience in making measurements
that our results do not check. The measurements may be
The sum of the angles

example, may not come out just 180.
conditioned (see
triangle, for
they
may
page
2).
be measurements which have a
interdependence.
as
If we take
less
of
Or
degree of
starting-point and measure a disabove

0, then m2=4.3 above mi;
tance,
then m2= 10.6 above 0; we observe that there is a discrepancy somewhere. In this case, an obvious method of
adjustment would be to add 0.03 to the first and second
observations and subtract it from the third. Since the
discrepancy is 0.1, this adjustment would correct it
mi = 6.2
Tihe
feet
to 0.01.
Theory.
While
this
method would answer very well

would break down when
for the simple case in question, it
to more extended measurements. The theory

method of adjustment is as follows:
* m^f
Suppose we have unknown quantities mi, mz
and suppose n measurements are made upon these quan-
applied
of the
22

titles.
Then
if
a,
6,
c,
...
are
known
M the resulting measured quantity, we have
constants
23
and
Since there are more equations than there are

it
unknowns
no system of values will exactly
them. Each equation has a most probable value
unknown terms, but in each case there will be left
follows that in general
satisfy
for its
a small residual
v.
We may
For simplicity we
pendent of mi by K.
may
write the equation:
designate
all
the terms inde-
=vi, and by symmetry
Square both
sides of these equations
and add:
24
The
member
greatest probability occurs
to zero,
we have
is
a minimum.
when the right-hand
Placing the
ai(aimi+Ki)+a 2 (a 2 mi+K2)+
first
derivative equal
on (owi+X'n ) =0.
mn
may be written for m 2
"
normal
their
solution
and
These are called
equations
gives the most probable values of the observations under
Similar
equations
"
consideration.
We may now summarize the methods of adjustas follows:

observations
ing
1. Write an observation equation for each observation.
2. Form a normal equation for each unknown by multiRules.
plying each observation equation by the coefficient of the

unknown in that equation and adding the results.
Solve the normal equations
by any method. These

most probable values.
"
"
After these best values have been found, the residuals
3.
results are the
should be computed, and the sum of their squares (Zz; 2 )

found. This value is less than that for any other possible
values of the residuals.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
1.
Given the following observation equations,
3m i
4ra2
+ ws =
25
Find the best values and the sum of the squares of the
residuals.
We first find the normal equations by
the rule.
=-
25
16
32
For m2,
4ms = 12
For
Grouping the normal equations,
=
=
=
3
50
10
73
For mi,
26
Solving,
mi = 6.00
mo = 6. 13
7723
To
= 3.26
obtain the residuals,
we
substitute these values in
the observation equations,
18-24.52+3.26=- 3
6+12.26+6.52= 25
=10
6.13+ 3.26
6+ 6.13+3.26=
16
0.26
vi=
2 =-0.22
z;
0.61
4=
0.61
v3
i>
2^ = 0.860
~/3~
would be an interesting exercise to try other values

2
for mi, ms, and ms and compare the value of St; resulting,
with the above values. If, for example, we choose mi = 6,
It
m2 = 6, ms = 3,
which alone
The
is
obvious that the second residual

2
greater than the value of Sv
it is
is
unity,
following observations were
made on a
triangle:
Angle A =45; angle J5 = 80; angle 0=54. A+B

= 126; A+C=100; A++C = 180. Find best results.
The
observation equations are
mi =45
m2 =80
ms=54
= 126
The student should

and
construct
find the best values for mi,
m2
the normal
and ms.
equations
27
MEASUREMENTS OF A LINE
D E
FIG. 2.
AB=4.Q
BC=5.1
FG=
4C=
units
7.8 units
9.0
CD = 6.9
BZ> = 11.9
DE=2.Q
JEF6.1
DF=
8.2
Find the best values of the above measurements made

along a line.
Here we have 10 observation equations which will

reduce to six normal equations containing six unknown
The
quantities, which may be solved in the usual way.
is
problem
solution
is
inserted for the
purpose of illustration;
its
hardly worth while.
FORMULAE
When
the
number
of equations is large
stants are not whole numbers,
it
and the con-
saves time and affords a
check upon the work to use the following formulae:
28
The normal
equations become
The
Urn*
=IM
following example will illustrate the use of these
formulae:
Observation Equations
6wi
3^2 = 15,1
2wi+2m2 =13.9
mi
2w2=2.1
oa= +36+4+1 = +41
= +9+4+4= +17
= +90.6+27.8+2.1 = +120.5
Uf= -45.3+27.8 -4.2 =-21.7
Let the student compare these

without the use of the formula.
results with those
found
29
PROBLEMS
1.
Adjust the following values and find
mi- +3.06
m2 =-L30
2mi+m 2 =+4.81
*
*>
i,r
2.
Heretofore
has been assumed that
it
have equal weights.
all
observations
If the weights are

unequal
each ob-
servation equation should be multiplied by the square root

of its weight and the normal equation then formed.
IB
the preceding example
the first and the second measurements have weights of one each, the third a weight of four,
and the fourth a weight of nine, and find the adjusted
let
values.
3.
field
The
following observations are taken
from a student's
book:
Jf = 147
N=
0=
P=
93
04.5"
51 26.7
29 56 16.6
+#+0+P=359
M+N+0 =
14'
88 58 06.1
59 55.0
3 39.2
N+0+P=212
45 53.0
0+P+M =271
1 57.8
8 30,0
30
FIG. 3
Find the best values

4.
of the angle-
A=
22 13' 59"
5 = 100
C-
18 40
57 27 33
32 41
46 10
79 41 29
A+B+C=180
00
Fra. 4.
Find the best values of the angles.

5.
31
Adjust the following angles:

B
BOC=2
COD =3
DOE = 4
mi =5
BOB = 6
FIG.
Xo
5.
Observed Angles.
51"
70
20'
2.
52
35
10
50
41
25
95
10
41
91
11
57
198
27
14
5..
Observe that angle 6 = angle 2+angle 3+angle 4.

6. Clairaut's empirical formula for the relation between
the length of a seconds pendulum and the latitude is
sin2
!/.
Suppose the following observations to be made:

L
27
0.990564
991150
48 24
0.993867
58 15
0.994589
0.995325
0'
18
67
32
THJtUUJK.1
<JJ
Substitute the values in the given equation for observa-
then form normal equations for LQ and A.

Mellor gives these normal equations:
tion equations;
0.993099 =L +0.44765A,
0.994548 =L +0.70306A.
Systematic Errors
The above method
of treatment applies only to acci-
should happen to be a systematic

error running through the problem it is difficult or impossiThere
ble to detect it from the observations themselves.
dental errors.
If there
may be a mistake on the part of the observer or the error

may be due to inexact graduation of the instruments, or it
may be due to personal peculiarities. (See page 3.) It is
of this book to present the theory of
systematic errors, but the following problem may be read
over with profit:
beyond the scope
86
45' 25.2" +
A=
85
48 36.4
(7= 81
16 40.9
D = 106
11
A+B+C+D = 36Q
1Q1
The
gives
solution according to the
(/|
*^
17.5
2 00
A+J5=172 34
+C = 168 2
C+D-187
**
10.6
15.1
28 13.8
59
11.3
method above outlined

mi = 85
48' 26.2"
m2 =
m3 =
45 32.2
16 50.1
86
81
7714=106
11
33
9.5
These are the best values, but it will be noted that the
of these values is V 58" greater than 360. Presumably, a systematic error of about 30' runs through the
observations. These values, then, may be further adjusted
sum
finding the weight of each observation and distributing

the discrepancy inversely as the weights. The probable
error of each observation is given by the formula
by
fi=0.6745A/
* n
Where n is the number of observations and q the number

of unknown quantities.
In this case
would be 5.
nq
Sv2
obtained in the usual manner and found to be 1303.

Next we may proceed to find the weights of the various
is
measurements. If we wish to find the weight of ms, for example, we should represent the absolute term in the normal
equation of ms by some constant and place the other absolute terms equal to zero. We solve for ms and the weight
is found to be the reciprocal of the coefficient of the conThe probable error of m,% is found by dividing the
stant.
probable error of each observation by the square root of the
weight just found. The discrepancy in the final result may
now be adjusted according to the weights found, and should
give
34
mi = 85
47' 56.7"
m2 =
m3 =
86
45
2.7
81
16
20.6
10
40.0
The sum of the angles is now found to be exactly 360. By

the principle of least squares the sum of the squares of the
greater than for the "best values" previously
This seems to confirm the suggestion that a
constant error ran through the observations. A full dis-
residuals
is
obtained.
cussion of this subject
is
given in Palmer's "Theory of Meas-
urements/ page 117.
SHORTER METHODS
The
following
abbreviated
methods
are
sometimes
employed:
HAYEK'S METHOD
Make
results to
m2
The
all
the coefficients of
mi
positive
and add the
form a normal equation for mi. Similarly for

Solve the normal equations as before.
ma-
not so accurate as those obtained by the

longer method, but are satisfactory for most purposes.
results are
PROBLEMS
Observation equations.
x-y+2z=
-5z=
THE ADJUSTMENT OF OBSERVATION^
35
Solve by the regular method and by

Mayer's method.
idea of their relative accuracies
be obtained
may
by computing Sr2 in each case.
Some
METHOD BY DIMINISHING THE CONSTANT
TERM:
Suppose we have given
24+35 = 25
An
inspection of these equations shows that
^4=6 and
=4
approximately.
Let a and b equal the difference between the true
and B. Then
approximate values of
and
2(6+a)+3(4+6)-25 =0
Forming normals and
solving,
we have
a= -0.153
6==
+0.406
A =6-0.153 =5.847
5=4+0.406=4.406
The student should compare these results with those

obtained by the regular method.
This method is especially well adapted to the adjustment of angles observed at a station. Considerable
36
computation is avoided. The following

problem from the United States Lake Survey is solved
in Merriman's Least Squares.
mathematical
No,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Observation.
Between.Stations.
Bunday and Wheatland ............

Bunday and Pittsford ...... .......
44 25' 4CT.613
80 47 32 .819
Wheatland and Pittsford ..... ....'..

36
Pittsford and Reading .............
91
and
Pittsford
Bunday ....... ....... 279
62
Reading and Quincy ............ ...
Quincy and Bunday ................ 125
We may set up the observation equations:
ii
mi+mz=
m3 =
m=
360- Osi+
3)
34 24 .758
12 27 .619
37 43 .405
00 18 .808
44 25' 40".613
80 47 32 .819
36 21 51 .996
91
34 24 .758
=279 12 27
me=
21 51 .996
.619
62 37 43 .405
00 18 .808
FIG. 6.
37
On
account of the nature of the constant terms the

solution would be extremely tedious.
We may let v ly
vz,
>4,
and
v$
be the most probable corrections to be applied.
Then
7?ii=44
m 3 =36
7724=91
w6 =62
This gives
rise to
25' 40".613+tFi
21 51 .996+z>3
34 24 .758+t?4
37 43 .405+y 6
simpler observation equations:
= +0.210
-- 0.228
= +0.42
The right-hand members denote
The normal equations are
seconds.
= +0.402
= +0.402
- +0.420
= +0.420
From which
.022
.126
.126
38
The adjusted
No.
values
now become,
44 25' 40".635
80 47 32 .653
3,
V.
5
6...
7.
...../.
36
91
279
62
125
21 52 .018
34 24 .884
12 27 ,347
37 43 .531
(X) 18 .932
CHAPTER
IV
THE PRECISION OF OBSERVATIONS

As stated in the introductory chapter, there are no
measurements made with such a degree of accuracy that
we may regard them as absolutely correct. The wavelength of cadmium light has been measured with an accuracy which is marvelous, but its exact value will probably
never be known. Since measurements differ among themselves in accuracy, it is desirable to
have some method

and the term " Precision of Observations" or "Precision of Measurements" is applied to
the method of procedure employed in determining the
of indicating this fact,
relative
the term
accuracy
"
of
because the latter
"
measurements.
Strictly
speaking,
a better one than " accuracy "

term seems to presuppose a knowledge
deviation
is
of exact results.
The percentage of error is obtained by dividing the difference between the result obtained and the true result by the
true result,
and multiplying by
may mean
the best obtainable result.
The
percentage of deviation is obtained
difference between
two
results, neither
regarded as necessarily correct,

tiplying
Here the "true result"
100.
by
by
by
dividing the
one of which
either result,
may
be
and mul-
100.
39
THEORY OP MEASUREMENTS
40
PROBLEMS
per sec.
a student brings a value for g of 981.7 cm. per sec.

at a place where the best determinations give 980 .6 3
what
his percentage of error?
1.
If
is
Would
the term "devia-
tion" apply here?

2. Find the percentage of deviation, between two determinations of the density of mercury: 13.47 and 13.6L
Cksses. There are three classes of precision measures:
1.
2.
3.
Mean
error;
Average deviation;
Probable error.
Graphic Method. These may be illustrated graphically by use of the probability curve (Fig. 7).
Since YOX may be regarded as a probability area,
and
since,
as will
the true result
be shown
lies
later,
the probability that
within the limits indicated
by the
POM
FIG. 7.
precision measure is one-rhalf ;
our precision
in
it
follows that
one of three ways:
we may express
THE PEECISION OF OBSERVATIONS
1. By taking the distance from

along the x-axis to
the point of inflection of the curve. This is represented
and expresses the mean error or mean square error.
by
OM
2. By taking the abscissa of the ordinate passing

through
the center of gravity. This is OD and expresses the aver-
age deviation.
By
3.
YOX
taking the abscissa of the ordinate which divides

equal parts. This is OP and expresses the
into
probable error.
By
the
reference to
mean
Problem
error, /*=
5,
page
14, it will
the distance
The average deviation, OD,

formula in mechanics
may
OM
be seen that
in the figure.
be found by use of the
1/2P
The probable
error,
OP=~.
This will be deduced
later.
Of these
it may be said that the

the square root of the arithmetical mean of
the squares of the errors/ is seldom used; the
probable
error is the most accurate; and the
average deviation is
the easiest to determine.
mean
precision measures,
"
error,
42
THE AVERAGE DEVIATION

If TO is
the
mean
of a
measurements and
vi, v%,
1-3,
B the residuals (neglecting signs), the average deviation
t?
would be a.c.=
?i
1
.
Taking the numbers
10,
8,
9,
the
10,
mean
= 0.75.
and 11 = 0.75, 2 = 1.25, 3 = 0.25, and
=
and a.d. 0.75. We may neglect the signs of the
i?
i'
This
is
1*4
is
9.25,
Sz;
= 3,00
residuals.
the average deviation of a single observation.
The average deviation of the mean, A.D. = -^.
Vn
In
75
the problem just solved,
J.JX=-^-=0.38.
PROBLEMS
It will prove of interest
if
the instructor will assign
problems taken from the student's laboratory note-book

in illustration of this topic.
THE PROBABLE EBROK

The term probable error is rather misleading, but its
meaning may be made clear by the following definition:
The probable error is a number placed after a result with
a plus and minus sign between them; and it indicates
that
it is
an even wager that the true result lies between

limits, and that it does not so lie.
the indicated
At
thought, this definition seems vague and not

indicative of a very high order of precision.
Let us take
first
the value of the velocity of light as 29986030 km. per

second. This means that it is just as likely that the true
value lies between 299830 and 299890 as that it lies between

zero
the
43
and 299830, plus 299890 to infinity. This narrows

and indicates an order of precision that is suf-
field
ficiently high.
The probable error is sometimes defined as a quantity,

which, when added to and subtracted from the mean, gives
limiting values such that
similar manner,
limits as to
lie
its
if
value
another
is
mean
as likely to
is
determined in a
lie
outside these
between them.
FORMULAE FOE PROBABLE ERROR

Going back to the probability
the value of x when P=|.
integral,
we must take
This gives f = 2/ Vr
Z
(
From integration tables we find hx 0.4769.

The particular value of x which fulfills this
Then hr= 0.4769.
will be denoted by r.
Take the equation
for
compound
e" h^dhx.
condition
probability (page 15).
Since h is the measure of precision, we wish to give

such a value as will render P a maximum.
ah
n
(Divide by h
- l e~*
it
44
0.4769
But
Therefore
r = 0.4769
= 0.6745
J^\
7i
This
is
the probable error for a single observation
when
errors are considered.
In order to change errors to residuals (x to v), we make

use of the following procedure: Let the sum of the squares
of the errors differ from the sum of the squares of the
residuals
by some
constant, say
u2
u2 =
Now
Then
ss*=2& 2 +
Substituting in the formula for
This
is
1"
r,
the formula for single observations for residuals.
Since probable errors are inversely proportional to the

squares of the number of observations taken (see any text-
book on Least Squares), we have

n:
Izrl/Vo
1/r
2
,
= r/Vn.
TO
TQ
thus represents the probable error of the
may be written r<>= 0.6745*
mean and
2?
rr,
Vn(n
We may
45
now summarize
1)
the relation between the
probable error the measure of precision, and the weight as

7
follows:
The measure
1.
of precision varies inversely as
probable error (since hr
the
constant).
Weights are proportional to the squares of the pre-
2.
cision measures.
Weights are inversely proportional to the squares
3.
of the probable errors.
PROBLEMS
Given the following measurements of the length of
1.
line:
70.6 cm.
70.5
70.7
"
"
70.6
70.8
Find the mean square

and the probable error.
2.
Assume
70.4 cm.
70.5 cm.
that the lines
"
"
error, the
70.5
70.6
"
"
average deviation^
OP, OD, and
OM
are
drawn
to scale in Fig. 7, and compare their relative lengths with

the results of No. 1.
3.
Given the measurements âd probable
ertors:
46
427.320.04
427.300.16.
Find the
4.
error
relative weight
and the
relative precision.
Twenty measurements of a line give a probable

How many additional measureof the mean of 0.06.
ments are required to reduce the probable error to 0.03?

5. An angle is measured & times with each of two tranThe first gives a value of
sits.
The second
41
32' 14"=fc8".2.
41
32' 12"db7".l.
gives
Find the best value for the angle.

6. When the best value is found from No.
able error may be found by use of the formula
r/
2 ::
ra
pa
5, its
prob-
Pf
where r/= probable error in the best value;
= probable error in the first value;

p = weight of first value;
pf = weight of first value+weight of
fa
a
The
precision
measure
is
second value.
sometimes expressed as a
a decimal with reference to the magnitude of

the measurement concerned. Thus in Problem 3, we may
fraction or
say that 0.04 is the precision measure, or we may say that

the measurement is reliable to about 0.01 %, or to one part
in 10,000.
1.

PROBLEMS
Show from the data on page 37 that r = 0.85
= 0.67^.
It follows that for
The
47
a.d.
a constant value of n, ro = 0,85 A.D.

have been obtained from, nine
2.
following results
measurements in each case:
94.31 cm. A.D. = 0.031

a.d. = 0.090
"
r =0.025
94.35
9436 "
94.33
94.34
94.35
"
"
"
= 0.007
reliable to
0.03%
precise to 2 parts in 10,000
Reduce these different precision measures to A.D.'&

and write them in order of the reliability of the results.
The fact that the size of the probable error must be considered in relation to the magnitude of the number with
r
which it is written may be illustrated by Fletcher s result
for the
number
of molecules in
N = 60.3 XHFzfc 1.2 X1022
a gram-molecule of
(Phys. Rev.,
air:
November, 1914.)
CHAPTER V
THE PROPAGATION OF ERRORS
IN the study of the propagation of errors we have two
the direct and the converse. In the
classes of problems
class
we determine how the
errors
in
component
and in
the converse problem we determine with what accuracy
we should make our component measurements in order
to secure a required accuracy in the result.
In solving problems under the first case, we proceed
as follows: If Z represents the true result, and
its
gg are true values of component
error; and #1, 32,
# are their corresponding
measurements, and xi, #2,
first
measurements
affect the reliability of the results;
errors, then,
By Taylor's
theorem
dZ
dZ
dZ
Consider that we have a series of such terms, designated

by 2X} 2xi, ^xz, etc., and square both sides:
THE PROPAGATION OF ERROES
49
We have neglected terms containing the products of

the errors, such as 2xiZ2, since positive and negative errors
are equally likely to occur. If we divide both sides by n,
2
substitute r
we may
result) for
and
ri
(the
2
,
xi
components for
etc.
probable error in the
final
r 2 , the probable errors of the
The reason
for this
is
evident
ti
Thus
from an inspection of the probable error formula.

we have
2
v.2
r
we shall replace r by A and ri, rg
... 5a These refer to any precision measure
the probable error. A means the deviation in
Hereafter
by
5i,
$2,
as well as
the result due to deviations in the components,
BI,
62,
...*..
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. The two
500.4. Find
sides of
rectangle
measure
the deviation in the area.
450.6 and
The formula
=900+324=1224
A =35 approximately,
We may
feet), is
say, then, that the a*rea (expressed in

3^50 with a deviation measure of 35.
50
2. It may be readily seen from the formula that if

2
the equation has the form A =a+6, the value of A becomes
This may be applied to the measurement of
5 a2+s d2.
a line which has to be made in sections.
a constant multiplier,
3. If the equation contains
A=ca, we have A = cS.

a circle is 10 cm. with a deviation of
of the resulting length of the circumferdeviation
the
0.1,
ence is 27rX0.1 =0.63,
If the radius of
PROBLEMS
1.
The formula
a spherometer
for the radius of a sphere as given
by
is
Z=7.23-b(X04cm.,
If
a=0.53d:0.008cm.
and
find the length of the radius and its deviation measure.

2. If the length of a pendulum is IGGiO.l cm. ? and the
period of one vibration l.OliO.003 seconds,

deviation in gl
3.
what
is
the
of a body in air is 300.1 g; in water

Find the deviation in the value of its specific
The mass
200.2
g.
gravity.
4.
What
is
the deviation in the value of the velocity
501
cm.? V*=*2gh.
of liquid flow from a height of
mass of 100 g. is revolved with a speed of 80 cm.
5.
per second on the end of a cord 50 cm, long. The mass

measurements are 101, 100, 99; the speed measurements
THE PROPAGATION OF EBRGRS
51
Find
82, 80, 78; the length measurements 51, 49, 50.
the centrifugal force and its deviation.
6. Find the deviation in the mean of two quantities
which
differ
7. If
by C.
the deviation in log a,
is
what
is
the deviation
in a?
8.
In No.
2,
assume that the deviation found
is
an
average deviation, A.D. Express the result fractionally,

decimally, and as a probable error.
is
9. In determining a refractive index, the value of i

40db8', and of r 32db6'. Find the value of the index
and
its deviation.
In solving these problems, the student should observe

the relative effects of the deviations in the components
upon the result. In No. 2, for example, it will be seen

that a deviation in t is a much more serious matter than
an equal deviation in I. A laige number of problems
illustrating this process
may
be found in Goodwin's Pre-
cision of Measurements.
PROBLEMS
The
following
problems are
of
especial
interest
to
engineering students:
In the triangle ABC, A5=5GO'0.04' LA =32zblO',

/
Find EG and its deviation. The formula
for the area of a triangle with the given conditions should
be written down and the usual method employed. We
have the deviations given for the angles and need them for
the sines of the angles. For a deviation of 10 minutes
in 32 degrees, we find the deviation in the sine of 32 degrees
1.
ZC=604
THEOBY OF MEASUREMENTS
52
from that of 32 10'. Or

with respect to the angle.
2. In a triangle ABC, we have 4=240.40.04,
^0=290,6^0.003, /.4=442Q'dbr. Find the area and
Use both methods referred to above in dealits deviation.
by subtracting the
we may
sine of 32
differentiate
ing with the angle A.

3. The formula for the elastic modulus of a rectangular
bar supported at
its
ends
is
E= PP
where
is
the mass
applied at the center, I the length, d the deflection produced,

& and h the breadth and thickness. We have given the
following measurements:
6
0".331
0".333
0".329
0".33Q
0" 490
0" 492
0".491
0".490
0".206
0" 205
0".206
0".207
length two feet and P-40 Ibs.

Find E and its deviation.
4. Find the number of calories and its deviation, from
Take the
current of 6.20.06 amperes, through a resistance of

20it0.1 ohms, for 30 minutes (correct to a single second).
5. Observations on a resistance of about 10 ohms give
values as follows: Correct to 0.09%, correct to one part

in one hundred; a probable error of 0,001. Write these
down in the order of their relative reliabilities.
An interesting case of the effect of errors in observed
values upon derived values is found when the derived value

is the difference of two observed values, both of which are
large in comparison with their difference.
For example, the area of the datum circle of
a given plan-
THE PROPAGATION OF ERRORS.
53
is 2075 sq. cm,

A student by measurement obtains
the value of 2070 sq. cm., which is correct to less than
one-fourth of one per cent. The student then traces a given
figure with the fixed point at the "center of the figure and
imeter
the movable point moving in a counter-clockwise direction,

giving the reading 2010 sq. cm. The area of the figure is,
then, either
2075-2010=65
which
sq. cm., results
differ
sq.
cm., or
2070-2010=60
from each other by about eight
per cent.
THE CONVERSE PROBLEM

In the cases already considered, we have discussed the
effects of deviations in component measurements upon the
deviation in the result.
We
are
commonly
called
upon to
determine in advance to what degree of precision we shall

make our measurements in order to reach a given precision
For example, we are required to measure

the volume of a cylinder whose length is about 10 cm. and
whose radius is about 3 cm. with such a degree of accuracy
3
that the deviation in the volume (about 283 cm. ) shall
in our result.
not exceed 3 cm.3
It
is
customary to so adjust the devia-
tions pertaining to each variable that each will have

This is called the
effect upon the fma.1 result.
of equal
Representing the effects of the various
effects.
deviations upon the results
A2 =A 2 +A*2 +
we may write
an equal
method
A 2 =nAa2
by
.
4,,
A$,__.
A=AVn.
A*,
we have
In our probten
54
The
deviations in the length
separately produce a
2,1
cm.3
From our
and radius should not

area of more than
deviation in the
general equation, page 45,
we have
at
Therefore
51
= 0.074
"
'
or
We
cm.
**H
Likewise
VVT
J-V-XJ.\/
Î.JL.
Of
Of
UUiJL CHI.
we must measure the length of the

an
with
accuracy of 0.074 cm., and the radius
cylinder
with an accuracy of 0.011 cm.
conclude that
THE FRACTIONAL METHOD

These problems
may be
solved in another way. It

(not quite directly) from the method of equal
effects that the deviation in a final result due to a devia-
follows
tion in a component bears the

result as the deviation in the
ponent,
if
the exponent
is
same
relation to the final
component bears to the com-
unity.
In other words "T = T-
*ê component
has any
other exponent than unity, the fraction must be

multiplied
by the exponent, following the method of differentiation.
A
Of
have in the last problem
since the radius
-/=
We
A.
appears in the second power.

Since
Aj=Ar =p: we may
write
THE PROPAGATION OF ERROES
j=0.0074;
5Z
=0.074
0.0037;
-=JxO.OG74=
r
This
is
55
,=0.011.
seen to check with the former method.
PROBLEMS
With what accuracy must we measure the radius
a circle to obtain an accuracy of 0.1^ in the area?
1.
of
(First method.)
2.
With what accuracy should
a simple pendulum
unit?
3.
and
be measured in
to obtain a value of g correct to one
(Second method.)
With what accuracy should h and a be measured
with a spherometer to give a value in the radius correct

to
03%? This problem may be solved in a literal form
or values
computed,
These
be assigned to a and b and the result

(First or second method,)
may
are
illustrative
problems.
They
should
be
extended, so far as time permits, to include various problems
from
the student's laboratory note-book.
tance of this part of the subject
is
obvious.
The impor-
56
BEST MAGNITUDES AND BEST RATIOS
No
one can work very long in a physical laboratory

without observing that the results come out much bette
by using
and
certain magnitudes
ratios
than they do wit!
In measuring current with a tangent galvanom

eter very poor results would be obtained for angles betweei
others.
0-20
and
70~90.
Around
45, however, they
ar<
In using a slide-wire Wheatstone bridge

the two segments of the wire must be about equal foi
satisfactory.
satisfactory results.
In the
first case,
our formula
d(c tan 0)
is
I=c
tan
<j>.
cd&
Dividing
I
This
is
cos2 $
^
9
tan
<j>
sin
2<j>
a minimum when $=45 and shows that the deviadue to a deviation in

is least at 45.
tion in the result
<
For the Wheatstone bridge we may let #=the unknown

resistance, R the known, a and & the segments of the wire,
and c its total length.
Then
x~
aB
ca
THE PROPAGATION OF EliROHS
57
It should be easy for the student to prove that the best

result occurs
These
when a =6.
illustrations
might
be
indefinitely
The student is referred to Holman's Precision

ments, for a number of interesting problems.
extended.
of Measure-
EXERCISES
1.
Show
that the relative error in measuring the area
of a circle decreases with increasing radius.
In drawing a simple harmonic motion curve, discuss

the effect of an error in the phase upon the displacement
2.
on the curve.
down an inclined plane for a definite
Discuss the effect of an error in measur-
for various points

3.
body
rolls
period of time.
ing the angle of the plane upon the error in velocity.
Neglect
4.
friction.
How
would an error of one minute in measuring the
angle of incidence compare with a similar error in measuring the angle of refraction in their effect upon the refrac-
Take i=45
tive index?
5.
What
is
the
"
and r=3Q.
best value
"
of the limiting angle in
ABC
measuring the coefficient of friction?

6.
In LamFs theorem
sin
take
-4=59.8, 5=69.8,
=146,
sin$
C =102.8,
=139, T =75.
Discuss the effect upon each term of an error of
measuring
a, ft
and
7.
0.5
in
CHAPTER
VI
PLOTTING
It may be assumed that students for
book was prepared have a knowledge of the
fundamental principles of curve tracing. A few familiar
definitions and illustrations will, however, be given.
Definitions.
whom
this
a graphic representation of the relation of

quantities of which one is a function of the other.
The origin is the point of departure from which all distances
plot is
two
are reckoned.
The
and
coordinates are horizontal
distances from the origin.
The
vertical
axis of abscissas is the
horizontal line through the origin. The axis of ordinates

The slope of the
is the vertical line through the origin.
the angle it makes with the #-axis.

When the points for a curve have been established,
curve
is
there are two methods of procedure: If the curve appears

to be regular or to correspond with well-known types,
we should draw an average line through the points in such
a manner that about

the other.
If the
as
many will
curve does not
the adjacent points
should
be
lie
on one
fulfill
side as
on
these conditions,
connected
by
straight
lines.
58
PLOTTING
59
EXERCISES
In these
as to the
1.
exercises, the
method
student should use his judgment
be followed.
Plot a simple interest curve for $100 for ten years
at 5 per cent.
2. Plot a
same
to
compound
interest curve starting
from the
origin.
The maximum temperature

month was as follows:
3.
for
each day of a certain
Plot the curve.
Compute the mean temperature for the month in

No. 3, and plot a curve showing the departure from the mean
4.
for each day.

5.
The
following plot will afford
as instruction:
amusement as
well
60
6.
when
thermometer
calibrated
is
found to have the following errors
by means
of a standard:
10+0.03
12 -0.60
18 -0.45
22 -0.38
30 +0.71
Draw
a.
curve of errors for the thermometer.
Determination of Constants.
of a straight
Let us take the equation
line,
<
By
definition
is
the tangent of the angle which the
PLOTTING
line
makes with the
mines
the constant
..
^^
This
When 2=0,
b.
fr\*
to Mierpret;
is
equal to a and deter-
#==&.
T^B (determines
ri'Tt
c*
Rearrangement;
^3 y\
T?
ficult
it
s-axis.
this 'o&stant.
61
Â
IttCfp
i/vi%#
*
^Y* * **
^dkfetMies happens that
&****L^
whileia ^^SfeS^&nent
perfectly intelligible.
of-
'%fi
data makes
iMor example, a|$3^ of readings
have been taken
wpt^^^^feliaw apparatus, the rûlting curve should be ô. equilateral hyperbola (p#=a). It
will be found, however, that the readings one is ordinarily
able to obtain are not sufficient to identify the curve. If
we change the data and plot v and 1/p we get a straight line.
In a tangent galvanometer the formula is I=k tan <.
In order to get a series of variations in the current we

introduce varying resistances. Since I=E/R, it follows
that the reciprocals of the resistances will plot a straight
line
with tan
<
EXERCISES
1. The following data come from an experiment with
the Boyle s law apparatus:
j
62
Discus the aceurac3 of the observations from the plot.

2. The following table is made up from resistances
and corresponding deflections with a tangent galvanometer:
r
Assume that we have a constant electromotive force

and make a plot which will show the relation between
a.
the current and the defection.
I=k
tan
6,
I=E/B.
Plot the resistances with the cotangents of the angles

and project until it cuts the #-axis. Interpret the curve.
b.
Find the value of E by Ohm's law.

Known volumes of a liquid were placed in a flask
and weighed, giving data as follows:
c.
3.
PLOTTING
Plot the volume on the
-axis
gg
and the masses on the
Find the mass of the flask from the plot.

Find the specific gravity of the liquid.
4. Two rulers were placed together at random and the
reading on the centimeter scale was taken opposite each
inch division on the English scale, giving data:
a.
5.
Plot the inch readings on the z-axis and the centimeter

readings on the y-axis.
a. Determine from the plot how the rulers were placed
with reference to each other,

b. Find the ratio of the centimeter and inch by using
the intercepts of the curve on the axes; also by using the
ratio of the difference of
5.
The candle-power
measured
follows:
for
two points 2/2^1 and xz x^

of a 16-c.p v 110-v. lamp was
different voltages- across
the terminals as
64
Plot volts on x and candle-powers on

a. Find candle-power at 110 v.
t/-axis.
6.
Find candle-power at 220 v.
c.
Is it possible to estimate the voltage at
filament
first
which the
begins to glow?
6. The elongation of a spring was measured for different loads, and the energy stored in the spring computed,
giving data:
PLOTTING
Plot loads (x) with elongations (?0 and energy
Compute the constant of the spring (g/cm).
(t/).
a.
b.
We
have
TF=
Interpret this equation and compare with the curve.

the area between the load-elongation
c. Compute
What does this represent?

resistance
of lead at various temperatures
electrical
curve and the z-axis.
The
indicated
zero at
by means
273
C.
of
a plot that the resistance would be
The
Eamerlingh Onnes have

7
recent experiments of
Professor
justified this conclusion,
Plot the above, taking inches on the x-axis and centf-
66
Draw an average straight line

y-axis.
the
test
and
its accuracy by reference to
points
through
the equation 2r = 0, when the various perpendicular distances
meters on the
from the points to the line are expressed by ri, r^ etc.

Repeat the exercise, using the weights assigned above. Correct the line bv use of the results obtained.
CHAPTER
VII
NEGLIGIBILITY
It is of the utmost importance that stuImportance.
dents in laboratory courses should come to know under
what conditions they are
at liberty to neglect small

student who
quantities which appear in their work.
comes into physics from courses in mathematics is con-
just
scious of
a decided shock when he is told to throw away

an equation. It is hoped that a few illus-
certain terms in
trations, will convince
him that such a
process
is
not at
all
unscientific or inaccurate.
We learn in trigonometry that the sine, tangent, and

radian value of an angle may be used interchangeably if
the angle is small. The following table will make this
clear:
67
68
most purposes very little error

from substituting the radian measure or the
It will be seen that for
would
result
tangent for the
sine.
EXERCISES
Construct a circle with radius unity. Take an
and draw an arc and a chord.
angle of 60 at the center
Call the arc dx and the chord dy (equal to the radius).
1.
Find the value of the arc by radians
(-*-),
and the chord
In this case <&/ = ! and dx = 1.0472.

Find relation between dx and dy for 30, 10, 5, and 1.
2, What is the largest angle for which dx=dy to four
by the law
of sines.
places of decimals?
The Pendulum Formula. In deducing the formula

we make use of an approximation,
for the simple pendulum,
so that the equation
T=2irVl/g
is
not quite correct.
The
equation
tends to diminish the error as more and
more terms are
used.
HereK = 2'.
EXERCISE
Give
6 values of
60, 10
and
and assume that the
longer formula gives the correct value of g. Find the

error in each case due to using the shorter formula. Remember that g appears as a square root.
NEGLIGIBILITY
69
The Mirror Formula. In developing the formula for

the circular mirror a similar approximation is noted. By
using a parabolic mirror no approximation appears.
EXERCISES
that light starting from the focus of a paraboloid of revolution will go in parallel lines upon reflection
Show
1.
from any part
of the mirror.
2
Construct a parabola whose equation is j/ =4j>x.
a
circle
this
whose
Construct
internally tangent to
equa2
2rx=0. Let r=2p. Select points along
tion is a^+y
the axis distant r/4, r/2 3r/4 and r from the origin.
Find the value of y on the circle and the corresponding
value of y on the parabola in each case. The relation of
2.
these values
may be
used to measure the error due to the
approximate on.
3-
Find the angular aperture at the center of the
circle
for each point taken.
Approximate Squares and Square Roots.
There
is
short method of squaring numbers and extracting their

square roots which involves an approximation, Let us
take the number 1.01 and consider

If
we
it
made up
of 1.0+0.01.
square this by use of the binomial theorem,
we have
1+0.02+0.0001 = 1.0201.
1.02, If, therefore, we square
twice the second term, we have
a rale for squaring such numbers as these. The square
of 1.0019 is 1.0038036, to which 1.0038 is a cbse approxl-
This
our
is
first
nearly equal
to
term and add
70
matioa.
If the
whole number
is
any other than unity,
its
value must be multiplied into the smaller term.

By a similar process we may find the square root of
1.04 to be 1.02, and that of 4.04 to be 2.01.
The
The
Slide Rule
an instrument that gives approximate
slide rule is
values and well illustrates the principle of negligibility.
The
following table shows its accuracy for certain processes:
The
student should note the differences in the
The Value
places.
Follies
Much
of *.
obtaining values of
TT
energy has been expended in
correct to a large
It has been carried out to
of Science
by
% of deviation,
Phin.)
If
number
707 places.
TT
is
carried
of decimal
(See Seven
out to
six
or seven places, it is sufficient for all purposes.

The
value Z\ will answer for the majority of cases. It will
prove convenient to remember that

approximation.
?r
= 9.87
to a very close
NEGLIGIBILITY
71
PROBLEMS
1. Find the error due to
using the value 31 carried out
to four decimal places, for TC,
2. Find the error due to using the value 9.87 for T2
,
when
carried out to four places.

3.
are accustomed to assume in physics that the
coefficient of cubical expansion of a solid is three times
TT is
We
that of the linear expansion. What error does this involve

when a bar of brass, 100 cm. long at
C. is heated to
100 C.?
7
The error involved in using a mirror and scale (Poggendorffs method) is discussed in Stewart and Gee's Practical
PhysicSj Vol. I, p. 55.
CRITERIA FOR NEGLIBILITY
It often happens that in
series of
measurements of
the same quantity, there are one or more values which do

not compare well with the others. The question arises,
what shall be done with these observations? They seem
to have been taken with equal care with the others, and
there seems to be no particular reason for rejecting them.
Several criteria have been proposed for testing such observations.
The Htige
Error.
We
find
the
mean and
average
deviation (aA) omitting the doubtful observation; then
find the difference between the doubtful observation and
the mean, and if this equals or

should be rejected.
is
greater than 4 a.d,,
Suppose we have a set of measurements:

The last measurement is questionable.
9, 12.
10,
9,
it
10,
The meaa
THEOBY OF MEASUREMENTS
72
is 9.5.
4X0.5=2.0.
12-9.5=2,5.
a.ct=0.5.
urement should be
The meas-
rejected.
PROBLEM
The
following length measurements (centimeters) have

Apply the
60.1, 60.2 7 60.3, 59.9, 58.3, 63.1.
been taken:
method to the last two results.

Chauvenefs Criterion. This
method.
We may
let
is
more
limiting error (x) and the probable error of

If there are n errors, we may
tion (r).
will
be the number
less
elaborate
stand for the ratio between the
than
x,
single observa-
assume that
nP
and n-~nP the number
greater than x.
Then, by definition
'
2ra
We have
~*dt.
If
we equate
these
a value
of
common
values of
two values
of
corresponding to
n are given:
P and
(See page 15.)
solve,
we may
find
few
any value of n.
NEGLIGIBILITY
xtr
Since the limiting error,

two values and compare,
73
we have
only to find
these
Let us take the following data:
The mean
is
13
12 7 13, 12 13 ; 13, 15.

;
and
nl
For
The
n=6, t=2.57
z=fr=1.9.
deviation of the term in question
is
2.0 and it should
be rejected.
PROBLEM
The
following observations were taken with a transit,
43
52' 26".4
28
27
28
31
30
27
Test such observations as
.5
.8
.0
.3
.2
.9
may
be necessary by Chan-
venet's Criterion.
Criterion far Negligibility for Deviation in
When
but
little
the deviation
in
Components
any component contributes

it is sometimes
to the deviation in the result,
proper to neglect
it
altogether.
We know
in the final result,

.
A,
that the error
74
Suppose A 2
is
Let
the quantity under investigation.
where A 22 has been omitted.

in the result
A0 = the reduction in the deviation
to be anyvalue
this
assume
We
may
due to omitting A2.
we
the
require.
accuracy
thing we please, depending upon
as some authors suggest, that it be equal to
If we
insist,
or less than TVA,
But
we have
A 2 2 =A2 "-A
=A2 (1-0.92)=0.19A2
We may thus neglect
a deviation
0.43 of the total deviation of

criterion could, of course,
if it
contributes less than
the result.
more
rigid
be determined by substituting
a smaller value for the TVSignificant Figures. This
is
a subject that
may be
head of negligibility. At each

properly treated under the
the student should look
stage in a series of measurements
over bis work and eliminate such figures as lend nothing
to its precision. A rather full treatment of this subject
to which
given in Holman's Precision of Measurements,
the student is referred.
The following rules of precision are given:
is
1.
When
a rejected figure
is
five or over, increase
previous figure by one.

If we decide to drop the 7 in 14.637,
it
14.64.
we should
the
write
NEGLIGIBILITY
2.
In the deviation measure,
Thus
significant figures.
a.d.
75
we should
= 0.062;
retain
two
r=1.6.
In our measured quantity^ we should retain places

corresponding to the second significant figure in the devia3.
tion measure.
TO =368.731:4:0.21
becomes 368.73,
m= 406.67^2.6 becomes 406.7.

4. In adding quantities, retain such places as correspond to the number having the largest deviation measure.
6126.49
5o
In multiplication and division, find the quantity
whose
is
precision
if
figures;
if
From
this find the percentage
per cent or more, use four significant

between 1 and 0.1 per cent use five significant
between 0.1 and 0.01 per cent, use six significant
and
figures;
the greatest.
if this is 1
figures.
If
we have
we note
As
that
to multiply
is
41.60.4 by 590.250.06,
greater for the first than for the second.
this is less than 1 per
cent,
we
should retain five
nificant figures, giving 24566 as a result.
sig-
76
PROBLEMS
We
have given the number 504.628 with the foldeviation measures: A.ZX = 0.21; r= 0.031; correct to one part in one hundred; correct to two per cent.
What is the proper expression for the number in each case?
1.
lowing
2.
Add
21.42 zfcO.61
aS8.161iO.042
543.1
3.
d=1.5
Multiply
630.450.62 by
25.635dbO.024.
CHAPTER YUI
Definitions. A mathematical formula is one that is deduced by a process of reasoning along mathematical lines.
The formula for the distance passed over ;by a falling body is
an
illustration.
S=vot+%af* is derived from certain definitions of

velocity and acceleration, to which mathematical processes
have been applied.
An empirical formula cannot be derived in this manwhich
ner, but depends upon the results of experiments
The
to
be
described.
manner
a
in
following
are treated
is
a typical empiricalJformula:
0=980.6056-2.5028 cos 2Z-0.000003fc.

This has been made up from a large number of measmrelatitude (Z) and
g under various conditions of
ments of
altitude (K).
In order to explain the method employed in constructing

empirical formulae, let us take an experiment illustrating
the relation of the space passed over
to the time of
by a
falling
body,
fall.
77
78
The
following
may
be assumed to be the results of the
experiment:
*
The obvious
disregarded,
16
and s will be
endeavor to find an empirical
relation existing
and we
will
between
FIG. 8
formula which
fits
Our
the conditions.
first
step
is
to
plot a curve.
This is seen to have the characteristics of a parabola
and we write the general equation,

y==
x has been
S+Tx+Ux2 +
substituted for
t,
found observation equations:
etc.
and y for
s.
From
this are
EMPIKICAL FORMULAE AND CONSTANT?
16=5+47+1617
The normal
equations are:
30=45+107+30
100 = 105 +30
r+ 100 U
354=30S+100!T+354C7
When
these equations are solved,
we have
U=l
T=0
and our equation becomes y=x2
If the experimenter had used only three seconds and
had recorded an 8 instead of a 9, the values would have
.
been
17=0.5
7=1.5
S=-1.0
Giving
Upon
y=-l+1.5ar+0.5A
repeating the experiment as the space measurement
approaches closer to 9 this formula approaches the value
80
While no one would think of actually applying this

it affords a good illustration
method to so simple a case,

of the manner in which all
empirical formulae are con-
structed.
Classes of Curves.
common
The
following
are
curves from which these formulae
some
of the
may be
con-
structed, together with their formulae and illustrations:

1.
Straight
x=y.
line.
mm
2. Parabolic.
y=S+Tx+Ux
3. Cyclic.
J
y=S
4.
Logarithmic.
2/
5.
Hyperbolic.
The formula
trate the
+,
etc.
+ T sin ^x+ T' cos x+
= &eox
etc.
xy=a.
for velocity
first class.
due to gravity, v=gt,
The space passed over by a
illus-
falling
body, the change in velocity of a river below its surface,

and the growth of the United States in population, illustrate
the second class. Cyclic curves may be used to represent
the rise and
fall
of temperature, pressure,
and humidity
through a given interval. The logarithmic curve represents

plots made from Newton's law of cooling, the absorption
of light for varying thicknesses, and the gain due to compound interest. A familiar example of a hyperbolic curve
is
afforded
by Boyle's law, pv=ct.
tangular hyperbola.
Rules. The method of procedure
in the following rules:
1. Write the observation equation.
2, Plot the curve.
This
will plot
may
be summarized
rec-
81
the curve and write its equation.

the normal equations.
5. Solve for the unknowns, and these give the values
of the constants sought.
3. Identify
4.
Form
It will be observed that every additional observation

taken alters the values of the constants.
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

For the
straight
line
and rectangular hyperbola an
inspection of the data is generally sufficient to determine

the value of the constant.
For the parabola the following examples should be

studied:
1.
on the
Vertical velocity curve

Depth.
.
Velocity
depth
3 1950 feet per second

.
0.1
3.2299
0.2
3.2532
0.3
3.2611
0.4
3.2516
0.5
3.2282
0.6
3.1807
0.7
3.1266
0.8
3.0594
0.9
2.9759
The curve is
Mississippi river.
obviously a parabola*
82
The
first
two observation equations are

3.1950
3.2299 =S+0.1ZH-0.01*7.
Write down the remaining eight observation equations,

form the normalsj and solve. The results are
5=3.19513
r= 0.44253
7 =-0,7653,
giving the formula
7 = 3.19513 +0.44253Z- 0.7653Z2
FIG
9.
It will prove of interest to determine the velocity for

each depth and compare with that obtained by experiment.
(Why should they fail to check?)
2. The growth in the population of the United States
is a good illustration of this curve, although from the nature
In Popular
of the case the results are not very reliable.
Science Monthly for April, 1910, page 382, a set of curves

are drawn for various countries. It will be seen that Sweden
and Norway, Turkey, Spain, and Italy may be

resented by straight
lines.
The United
fairly repStates shows an
63
In the article referred

easily recognised parabola.
complete solution of the census problem is given.
to the
3.
The
following illustrates
for
Substitute
Use the
first
cyclic curve:
m x in the equation
and
plot the curve,
and form an observation equation

We have for the first four observa-
three terms
for each value of
6.
tion equations:
38=S+T sin 20+T cos 20

51=S+T sin 40+T' cos 40
64=S+T sin GQ+T' cos 60
7
7'
Normal equations for S, T and I are formed from these

and their solution supplies the values of the constants in
,
the formula.
4.
We may
use Winkeknann's data showing the rela-
84
tion between the temperature of a cooling
body
at differ-
ent times, as an illustration of a logarithmic curve.
18 9
3 45
L6 9
14,9
10 85
19 30
28 80
40.10
53.75
^0.95
12 9
10 9
8 9
6.9
The logarithmic relations of these quantities is not

obvious by direct inspection. It is reached by the following process: We assume that the ratio at which a body
dQ) is proportional to the difference between
(
temperature and that of its surroundings. This is ex-
loses heat
its
pressed
By
by
definition of specific heat
Substitute this in the equation above
d9
^7=a0, where
at
From
this
we
get
a=
k
s
by integrating
logZ>
Iog0=a,
and
EMPIBICAL FORMULAE AND CONSTANTS
Now
if 0i
represents temperature at time
perature at time
2,
t\ 9
and
02
85
tem-
we have
log 6
log 0! = aii ;
log b
log 02 = afe;
a= -
From which
C2--&1
/j
log
~*
01
for 0i
Take 2 = 19.9 and substitute the values of
and show that a is a constant, approximately equal to
0.0065.
Such an equation
quantity
is
as "~"ji
==<z
where the change in a
proportional to the quantity
a " compound interest equation."
itself,
is called
INDEX
PAGE
Adjustment of Observations
Approximate Squares and Square Roots
22
69
17
42
56
72
...
Arithmetical Mean
Average Deviation
Best Magnitudes and Best Ratios
Chauvenet's Criterion
Constant Interval ....
Constants in an Equation
Empirical Formulae and Constants
Errors Classes of
Fractional
.17
60
77
....
3
54
Method
Huge Error
...
Least Squares
Mean Square Error
Measurements
Classes of
2
67
24
58
39
42
4
9
14
48
Negligibility
Normal Equations
Plotting
Precision of Observations
...
Probable Error
Probability
Probability Curve
Probability Integral.
Propagation of Errors
.
Propagation of Errors Converse Problem

Residuals
Short Methods of Adjustment
Significant Figures,
Slide Rule
Value
of
71
16
41
..
Weighting
87
53
12
34
74
70
70
18
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Stevens Theory of Measurements A Manual For Physics Students

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THE TEXT IS FLY

WITHIN THE BOOK

Professor of Pmffics in ihe Unfa

SECOND EDITION, REVISED

VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY

COPYBIGHT 1915, 1917,

VAN NOSTEAND COMPANY

two semester hours

designed to be used in either of

for its completion.

gain a working knowledge of the subject

adjusting observations, however,

The work would

course in the physical laboratory.

portions of the theory,

year, the student would

use of those portions

which are devoted to methods of estimating precision,

and the propagation of

in the second year the

observations would be used;

in the third year the student should

discuss his results

of the second year is well adapted to

students in junior courses in engineering, the adjustment

out the entire course.

devoted to the theory of proba fascinating one to students,

OF MAINE, OKONO, ME.,

THE ADJUSTMENT OF OBSERVATIONS

THE PRECISION OF MEASUREMENTS

PRECISION MEASURES AND THEIK DERIVATION

THE PROPAGATION OF ERRORS

CONSTRUCTION AND INTERPRETATION OF CURVES

EMPIRICAL FORMULAE AND CONSTANTS

notation will be used ia this books

Z~The resultant true value;

&= Probability of error zero;

5= Error in a component measurement;

are unable, however, to state

ments in physical science

that of the wave-length of

cadmium light, measured by

\.= 0.000064384722 cm. (Michelson)

1 meter contains 1553163.6 wave-lengths (Michelson),

1 meter contains 1553164.1 wave-lengths (Fabry and

the true length of a wave of cadmium light.

we may assume the value for the

omitted, would make

a measure of precision, which, if

to see that all

8 are useless because erroneous.

when, for example, the third angle of

Measurements not so conditioned are

be divided into two general

Those which may be eliminated, in part at

by improving adjustments and taking

greater care in the

These include errors in instruments, such, for example,

The obvious method

of correcting these errors is to sub-

good instruments for poor ones;

to eliminate the errors

the individual observer.